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Basic Maintenance Module 1 Mathematics
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
1.1 Arithmetic ............................................................... 3 Square, Cubes and Cube Roots ....................................................... 71
Terms and Signs ................................................................................ 4 Volume of a Cube ............................................................................. 72
Methods of Multiplication .................................................................... 4

Methods of Division ............................................................................ 7
Fraction and Decimals ........................................................................ 9
Factors and Multiples ....................................................................... 11
Highest Common Factor ................................................................... 15
Lowest Common Multiple ................................................................. 16
Decimal System ............................................................................... 27
Conversion of Decimals to Fractions ................................................ 29
Addition and Subtraction of Decimals ............................................... 30
General Multiplication of Decimals.................................................... 31
Ratio and Proportion ........................................................................ 33
Weights, Measures and Conversion Factors .................................... 37
Percentages ..................................................................................... 47
Areas and Volumes .......................................................................... 50
Area of a Triangle ............................................................................. 51
Area of a Parallelogram .................................................................... 53
Area of a Trapezium ......................................................................... 54
Perimeter of a Circle ......................................................................... 59
Volumes ........................................................................................... 62
Cylinders .......................................................................................... 64
Right Prism....................................................................................... 66
Jul19/Technical Training
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat. A B1 B2 1.1 - 1
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
1.1 Arithmetic
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Terms and Signs Example 2
There are various terms and signs in basic mathematics.

Calculate 318 x 509
They are:
Signs Description 3 1 8
÷
5 0 9 (509 = 500+0 +9 )
Divide
2 8 6 2 ( 9 x 318 )
Plus
+ 1 5 9 0 0 0 ( 500 x 318 )
- Minus
1 6 1 8 6 2 Results
X Multiply
Methods of Multiplication
Example 1
Calculate 46 x 15
4 6
x 1 5 ( 15 = 10 + 5 )
2 3 0 ( 5 x 46 )
4 6 0 ( 10 x 46 )
6 9 0 Results
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Multiplication Table
The following table gives you general guidelines on how to multiply

various common numbers.
1 2 3 4 5 6
1x1=1 2x1=2 3x1=3 4x1=4 5x1=5 6x1=6
1x2=2 2x2=4 3x2=6 4x2=8 5 x 2 = 10 6 x 2 = 12
1x3=3 2x3=6 3x3=9 4 x 3 = 12 5 x 3 = 15 6 x 3 = 18
1x4=4 2x4=8 3 x 4 = 12 4 x 4 = 16 5 x 4 = 20 6 x 4 = 24
1x5=5 2 x 5 = 10 3 x 5 = 15 4 x 5 = 20 5 x 5 = 25 6 x 5 = 30
1x6=6 2 x 6 = 12 3 x 6 = 18 4 x 6 = 24 5 x 6 = 30 6 x 6 = 36
1x7=7 2 x 7 = 14 3 x 7 = 21 4 x 7 = 28 5 x 7 = 35 6 x 7 = 42
1x8=8 2 x 8 = 16 3 x 8 = 24 4 x 8 = 32 5 x 8 = 40 6 x 8 = 48
1x9=9 2 x 9 = 18 3 x 9 = 27 4 x 9 = 36 5 x 9 = 45 6 x 9 = 54
1 x 10 = 10 2 x 10 = 20 3 x 10 = 30 4 x 10 = 40 5 x 10 = 50 6 x 10 = 60
1 x 11 = 11 2 x 11 = 22 3 x 11 = 33 4 x 11 = 44 5 x 11 = 55 6 x 11 = 66
1 x 12 = 12 2 x 12 = 24 3 x 12 = 36 4 x 12 = 48 5 x 12 = 60 6 x 12 = 72
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
7 8 9 10 11 12
7x1=7 8x1=8 9x1=9 10 x 1 = 10 11 x 1 = 11 12 x 1 = 12
7 x 2 = 14 8 x 2 = 16 9 x 2 = 18 10 x 2 = 20 11 x 2 = 22 12 x 2 = 24
7 x 3 = 21 8 x 3 = 24 9 x 3 = 27 10 x 3 = 30 11 x 3 = 33 12 x 3 = 36
7 x 4 = 28 8 x 4 = 32 9 x 4 = 36 10 x 4 = 40 11 x 4 = 44 12 x 4 = 48
7 x 5 = 35 8 x 5 = 40 9 x 5 = 45 10 x 5 = 50 11 x 5 = 55 12 x 5 = 60
7 x 6 = 42 8 x 6 = 48 9 x 6 = 54 10 x 6 = 60 11 x 6 = 66 12 x 6 = 72
7 x 7 = 49 8 x 7 = 56 9 x 7 = 63 10 x 7 = 70 11 x 7 = 77 12 x 7 = 84
7 x 8 = 56 8 x 8 = 64 9 x 8 = 72 10 x 8 = 80 11 x 8 = 88 12 x 8 = 96
7 x 9 = 63 8 x 9 = 72 9 x 9 = 81 10 x 9 = 90 11 x 9 = 99 12 x 9 = 108
7 x 10 = 70 8 x 10 = 80 9 x 10 = 90 10 x 10 = 100 11 x 10 = 110 12 x 10 = 120
7 x 11 = 77 8 x 11 = 88 9 x 11 = 99 10 x 11 = 110 11 x 11 = 121 12 x 11 = 132
7 x 12 = 84 8 x 12 = 96 9 x 12 = 108 10 x 12 = 120 11 x 12 = 132 12 x 12 = 144
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Methods of Division
Example 2
Example 1
Divide 6239 by 27
Divide 64 by 4
64 ÷ 4 = 16 6239 ÷ 27 = gives a Quotient of 231 and a Remainder of 2
This division may be done by long division as shown below
2 3 1 Quotient
1 6 Quotient
2 7 6 2 3 9
4 6 4
- 5 4
- 4
8 3
2 4
- 8 1
2 4
2 9
0 Remainder
- 2 7
2 Remainder
* Quotient is the whole number obtained by division.
* Remainder is the number that is “left over” from the result of division.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercise 1.1.1
Do the following multiplications & divisions without using the calculator.
a) 326 x 19
b) 537 x 160
c) 671 x 407
d) 992 ÷ 8
e) 6445 ÷ 8
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Fraction and Decimals Exercise 1.1.2

Fractions and decimals are a means of expressing a number which is
less than 1 in value. Reduce the following fractions to their lowest terms.
In the fraction 7/10, 7 is called the numerator and 10 is called the 29
denominator. a) 58
64
Simplifying Fractions we often simplify a fraction by reducing it to its b) 88
lowest terms. A fraction in its lowest terms has a numerator and
denominator that have no common factor except 1. 66
c) 143
Example
75
120 24𝑥5 24 8 d)
= = = 90
375 75𝑥5 75 25
625
e) 1000
When the answer to a mathematical problem is in the form of a fraction,
the result is usually expressed in its lowest terms for simplicity.
70
Reduce to its lowest terms using prime factorisation. Prime
245
factorisation is the decomposition of a composite number into indivisible
numbers.
70 2𝑥5𝑥7 2
= =
245 5𝑥7𝑥7 7
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Proper Fractions Improper Fractions and Mixed Fractions Exercise 1.1.3

Simplify and solve
3 7 123
In each of the fractions, 4, 9, and 125 the numerator is less than 296
a) 7 + 216
denominator. They are examples of proper fractions. The fractions we
7 165
have looked at so far are all proper fractions.4 is an example of an b) 3
+ 113
improper fraction, in which the numerator is greater than the 144
c) 7
denominator.
7
7
is also an improper fraction because its numerator is the same as the
3
denominator.1 4 is an example of a mixed number , which contains an
integral part and a fractional part.
A mixed number can be expressed in fraction form as an improper
fraction. The process of converting a mixed number into an improper
fraction is illustrated by the following examples:
Multiply integral part and denominator

Add product to numerator of mixed numbers
3 2 x 4 + 3 11
2 = =
4 4 4
5 7 x 9 + 5 68
7 = =
9 9 9
To express an improper fraction as a mixed number, we divide the

numerator by the denominator. The quotient obtained is the integral part
and the remainder is the numerator of the fractional part.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Factors and Multiples

5x1=5 5 x 7 = 35
Every number that can divide a given number without a remainder is called a
factor of the given the number. For instance 24 can be divided by 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 5 x 2 = 10 5 x 8 = 40
8, 12 and 24 without a remainder.
5 x 3 = 15 5 x 9 = 45
Therefore 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 are called the factors of 24. Any number is
divisible by 1 and itself and therefore any number will have 1 and itself as its 5 x 4 = 20 5 x 10 = 50
factors. If the only factors of a number are 1 and itself then that number is called
a prime number. 5 x 5 = 25 5 x 11 = 55
1) List all the factors of 60 5 x 6 = 30 5 x 12 = 60
We have 60 = 1 x 60 = 2 x 30 = 3x 20 = 4 x 15 = 5 x 12 = 6 x 10
Thus, the factors of 60 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and 60.
We call each of these number a factor of 60.
Conversely, we call 60 a multiple of each of the number

1,2,3,4,5,6,10,12,15,20,30,60.
2) List the multiples of 5 by multiplying 5 with 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, we

obtain the multiples of 5. The multiples of 5 are:
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Prime Numbers and Composite Numbers c) 9

d) 12
A natural number which has one and itself as its only factors is a prime
e) 17
number. Which means a prime number may only be divided by 1 and
itself only. 3) Determine whether each of the following is a prime number or a
composite number.
Examples of the prime numbers are:
a) 2
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, ----------- b) 21
c) 15
A natural number which has more than 2 different factors is called a
d) 17
composite number.
e) 27
Examples of composite numbers are: f) 29
4) Name the next five prime numbers after 30.
4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25
5) Find two prime numbers whose sum is an odd number. Must one
Exercise 1.1.4 of the numbers be 2?
1) Write down all the factors of each of the following.

a) 16
b) 28
c) 96
d) 100
e) 120
2) Write down the first six multiples of the following numbers.
a) 4
b) 7
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Index Notation 3) Express 252 in prime factors

2
2x2 = 2
252 = 126 x 2
3
2x2x2 = 2 = 63 x 2 x 2
= 21 x 3 x 2 x 2
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 24 =7x3x3x2x2
= 7 x 32 x 22 (Using index notation)
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 25
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 26
The index notation is used to denote the power of the number or the
number of times the number will multiply itself.
For example 22 shows that the number will multiply itself by 2 times and
23 shows that the number will multiply itself by 3 times.
Prime Factorization
Every natural number (except 1) is either a prime number or a
composite number. A composite number can be expressed as the
product of two or more prime numbers, which are called prime factors.
The process of decomposition of a composite number into prime factors
is known as prime factorisation.
Example
1) 30 = 2 x 15 = 2 x 3 x 5
2, 3, 5 are all prime numbers
2) 60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercises 1.1.5
1) Express the following using index notation. 3) Factorise each of the following numbers into prime factors.
a) 100
b) 225
a) 7x7 c) 125
b) 2x2x5x5 d) 360
c) 3x7x7x7 e) 147
d) 5 x 5 x 11 x 11 x 11 f) 567
e) 2 x 2 x 13 x 13 x 31 x 2 g) 216
f) 5 x 5 x 5 x 19 x 29 x 19 x 23 x 29 h) 648
2) Express each of the following as a product of prime factors using

index notation.
a) 28
b) 108
c) 48
d) 144
e) 54
f) 192
g) 88
h) 256
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Highest Common Factor Exercise 1.1.6
The factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30. 1) Find all the common factors:
And the factors of 36 is 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36. a) 6 and 9
The common factors between these two numbers are 1, 2, 3, and 6. b) 15 and 18
6 is the highest common factor. (HCF) c) 27 and 36
Examples d) 36 and 60
Find the highest common factor of 60, 180 and 210 e) 12 and 16
60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 = 22 x 3 x 5 x 1 2) Find the HCF of the following:
180 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 = 22 x 32 x 5 x 1 a) 24 and 64
210 = 2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 1 b) 28 and 56
The HCF of 60, 180 and 210 is 2 x 3 x 5 x 1 = 30 c) 45 and 42
d) 99 and 165
e) 12 and 42
f) 90 and 108
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Lowest Common Multiple

Example 1
Consider the possible multiples of 9 and 12.
Find the LCM of 18, 24, and 36
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
Solution
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108
Using prime factorisation, we have
The first 3 common multiples common to 9 and 12 are 36, 72 and 108. 18 = 2 x 32
The smallest of all common multiple of 9 and 12 is 36. We call 36 the 24 = 23 x 3

lowest common multiple (LCM of 9 and 12). We can find LCM using
prime factorisation as shown in the example below. 36 = 22 x 32
Example 1
Choose the biggest power of each prime factor.
Find the LCM of 30 and 36
23 x 32 = 72
Solution
The LCM of 18, 24, and 36 is 72
Using prime factorisation, we have
30 = 2 x 3 x 5
36 = 22 x 32
Choose the biggest power of each prime factor.
22 x 32 x 5 = 180
Therefore the LCM of 30 and 36 is 180
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercise 1.1.7
1) Find the LCM of each of the following pairs of numbers:
a) 24 and 18
b) 30 and 25
c) 81 and 54
d) 100 and 75
e) 120 and 135
2) Find the HCF and LCM of each of the following:
a) 18 and 42
b) 21 and 28
c) 26 and 39
d) 140 and 210
e) 150 and 45
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Comparing Fractions Exercise 1.1.8

Several fractions with the same denominator may be easily compared 7
1) Peter who holds the centre position of the basketball team is 1 10
by comparing their numerator and then arranging them in the ascending 5
m tall. His team member Johnny is 1 8 m tall. Who will more likely
or descending order as required. However to compare fractions with
be selected for the position if the taller one is favoured?
different denominator we need to convert them to fractions with the
same denominator as illustrated in the example below.
2) Mary, Susan and Joan went fishing. Mary caught a sea bass that
Example 1 2 7
3 5 7 weighed 2 3 kg; Susan caught one that weighed 2 8 kg and Joan
Arrange the fractions 4
, 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 12
in ascending order
3
3 5 7 caught one that weighed 2 4 kg. Who caught the heaviest sea
The fractions 4
, 9
𝑎𝑛𝑑 12
have different denominators. To compare the
bass?
fractions, we convert them to equivalent fractions with the same
denominator. The LCM (Lowest Common Multiple) of 4, 9 and 12 is 36.
Change all the denominators to 36, the LCM
3x9 27
=
4x9 36
5x4 20
=
9x4 36
7x3 21
=
12x3 36
Rearranging the fractions in the ascending order give.
5 7 3
, ,
9 12 4
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Addition and subtraction of fractions with the same denominator Example 2
2 3 2+3 5 7 2 7x5 2x8

+ = = − = −
7 7 7 7 8 5 8x5 5x8
7 4 7−4 3 1 35 16
− = = = = −
9 9 9 9 3 40 40
Addition and subtraction of fractions with different denominator 35 − 16

=
40
If two fractions have different denominator we must first change them to
equivalent fractions that have a common denominator using the lowest 19
=
common multiple. 40
Worked Examples In adding or subtracting with different denominators we must first

express the fractions in the same denominator. We always use the
Example 1 Lowest Common Multiple as the common denominator.
4 5 4x2 5x3
+ = +
9 6 9x2 6x3
8 15
= +
18 18
8 + 15
=
18
23 5
= =1
18 18
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Addition and subtraction of mixed numbers and improper fractions Example 2
Worked Examples Evaluate
Example 1 1 3
b) (6 4 − 1 4)
1 3 25 7
Evaluate 6 −1 = −
4 4 4 4
8 5
a) (3 15 + 1 8) 25 − 7
=
8 5 4
= 3+1+( + )
15 8
18
=
(64 + 75) 4
=4+
120
1
=4
139 2
=4+
120
Example 3
19
=4+1 Evaluate
120
7 7 5
c) (4 10 + 15 − 2 6)
𝟏𝟗 7 7 5
=𝟓 =4−2+( + − )
𝟏𝟐𝟎 10 15 6
21 + 14 − 25
=2+( )
30
1
=2
3
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
For improper fractions, convert to mixed numbers before adding or e) The police conduct regular anti-secret society operations among
subtracting. 3 1
youths. On Friday night, the officers spent 4 hours 1 and
2
1
9 21 2 4 hours checking on 3 youth hangouts respectively. Find the
+
4 16 total time the officers spent on their operation.
9 21 1 5
+ =2 +1
4 16 4 16
4+5
=3+
16
𝟗
=𝟑
𝟏𝟔
Exercise 1.1.9
Evaluate the following
4 5 11
a) 7
+ 21 + 42
5 21 17
b) 8
+ 10 − 20
19 1 61 1
c) 2 24 − 18 + 72 − 36
3 1
d) Mary has 6 cups of flour. She used 2 cups of flour in one
4 2
1
receptacle and 2 cups of flour in another.
4
1. How much flour did she use altogether?
2. How much flour has she left?
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Multiplication of Fractions 2 5 8 5
(2 x ) = x
3 14 3 14
The rule of multiplication of fractions is
40
=
a c
x =
ac
Where a, b, c, d are whole numbers and b and d are not 0 42
b d bd
20
Example 1 =
21
5
Mr Lee has two bookstores. In October, his book distributor sent him
6
of an order for a school textbook, which he had expected to distribute Example 3
equally between his two stores. What fraction of his original order will
5 8 14
each store receive? Evaluate (7 x 15 x 3
)
Solution 5 8 14 1x8x2
1 ( x x )=
Each store will get of the books received, but the books received make
2
7 15 3 1x3x3
5 1 5
up of only 6 of the original order. Each store will receive 2 of 6 16
=
𝟏 𝟓 𝟓 9
𝒙 =
𝟐 𝟔 𝟏𝟐 7
=1
9
Example 1
Example 4
3 7
Evaluate ( x ) 1 3 3
8 5 Evaluate (2 x3 x )
3 7 4
3 7 3x7 21
x = = 1 3 3 7 x 24 x 3
8 5 8x5 40 (2 x3 x ) = =6
3 7 4 3x7x4
Example 2
2 5
Evaluate (2 3 x 14)
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Division of a fraction by another fraction Example 2

In dividing a fraction by another fraction we use the same rule that applies to
24 8
division of one integer by another. The rule is dividing a number (dividend) by Evaluate (55 ÷ 11)
another number (divisor) is the same as multiplying the first number (dividend)
by the reciprocal of the second number (divisor).
24 8
For example dividing 10 by 2 is the same as multiplying 10 by the reciprocal of ( ÷ )
2 which is 1/2. 55 11
Similarly dividing 2/3 by 1/2 is the same as multiplying 2/3 by the reciprocal of
24 11
1/2 = x
55 8
The rule of division of fractions is
3
=
a c a d 5
÷ = x
b d b c
Example 3
Where a, b, c, d are whole numbers and b and d are not 0.
4 4 1
Evaluate (1 13 x7 5 ÷ 11 3)
Example 1 4 4 1
(1 x 7 ÷ 11 )
13 5 3
1 3
Evaluate (3 ÷ )
2 4
17 39 3
1 3 7 4 = x x
(3 ÷ ) = x 13 5 34
2 4 2 3
9
28 2 =
= =4 10
6 3
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercise 1.1.10 Arithmetic Operations on Fractions

1) Evaluate the following.
Keep in mind the following rules when doing arithmetic operations on
4
a) 20x 5 fractions.
5
b) 8x 6 1) When an expression contains brackets, simplify the
4 1 expression within the bracket first.
c) 13
x3 4
2) When an expression contains brackets with brackets, simplify
9 6
d) 28
÷7 the expression within the innermost pair of bracket first.
5 4
e) 1 7 ÷ 21 3) When an expression contains only additions and
2) Evaluate the following, expressing your answer in the simplest subtractions, work from left to right.
form. 4) When an expression contains only multiplications and

1 4 5 divisions, work from left to right.
a) 3 2 x4 5 x 14
5) When an expression contains addition, subtraction,
1 3 5 5
b) 2 7 x1 46 x1 18 x 7 multiplication and division, do multiplication and division
1 4 7
c) 5 4 ÷ 2 5 ÷ 1 9 before addition and subtraction.
1 3 1
d) 3 x3 ÷ 2
9 5 10
8 15 24 42
e) x
18 20
÷ 15 x 35
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Example 1 Example 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 8
Evaluate (2 + 3) x 4 Evaluate 5 3 x 4 2 − 3 4 x 13
Calculate the expression within the bracket first 1 1 1 8

5 x4 −3 x
3 2 4 3
1 1 1 3+2 1
( + )x = x 16 9 13 8
2 3 4 6 4 = x − x
5 1 3 4 4 13
= x
6 4 Do the multiplication before subtraction
5
=
24 = 24 − 2
= 22
Example 2
3 1 1 1
Evaluate (4 x 3 − 12) ÷ 2
3 1 1 1 3 1 2
( x − ) ÷ = ( − )x
4 3 12 2 12 12 1
3−1
= x2
12
2
= x2
12
1
=
3
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercise 1.1.11 2) Find the values of the following, expressing your answer in the
simplest form.
1) Evaluate the following
1 1 3 5
a) x (3 + 4) ÷ 2
1 1 1 3
a) x (3 + 4)
3
1 1 1 1
b) 3
x (4 − 12 + 2)
3 1 2
b) (4 − 2) x 3
1 1 2 1
c) (2 + 3) ÷ (3 x 8)
4 1 2
c) (5 + 3) ÷ 3
3 4 3 1 1
d) 1 4 x (9 + 2) x (1 5 − 2)
3 1 1
d) (1 4 − 2) ÷ 3
2 1 1 1
e) x − 12 ÷ 2
3 1 5 3 4
e) 3 4 x (4 5 − 2 9)
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Decimal System Similarly
456 1 1 1
In the decimal system, a number like 4269 can be expressed as 123 = 1x100 + 2x10 + 3x1 + 4x + 5x + 6x
1000 10 100 1000
= 4x1000 + 2x100 + 6x10 + 9x1 7891 1 1 1 1
= 7x + 8x + 9x + = 0.7891
10000 10 100 1000 10000
39
Can we express a fraction like 4269 100 in the same manner?
We know that The dot is called the decimal point
39 39
4269 = 4269 +
100 100
30 9
= 4269 + +
100 100
30 9
= 4x1000 + 2x100 + 6x10 + 9x1 + +
100 100
39
4269
100
Means 4 thousands, 2 hundreds, 6 tens, 9 ones, 3 tenths and 9

hundredths
This can be written as 4269.39. The dot (called the decimal point)
separates the integral part from the fractional part.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Example 1 Worked Examples
Express each of the following as a decimal: Express each of the following as a decimal.
a) 3 6
a) 5
= 10 = 0.6
87
= 0.87
100
Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 2 mentally ensuring
that the denominator is in the powers of 10.
3 75
b) 4
= 100 = 0.75
2 zeros 2 decimal places Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 25.
b)
11 c)
27 108
= 100 = 1.08
= 0.0011 25
10,000
21 1 25
d) 4
= 5 4 = 5 100 = 5.25
4 zeros 4 decimal places

c)
97
34 = 34.097
1,000
3 zeros 3 decimal places
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Conversion of Decimals to Fractions Exercise 1.1.12

Example 1
Express the following as a fraction in their lowest terms. Express the following fractions as decimals.
95 19
0.95 = = 43
100 20 a) 100
57
b) 1000
8
c) 10000
2 decimal places 2 zeros
27
d)
15 3 20
0.015 = =
1000 200
33
e) 4
2
f) 23
96
3 decimal places 3 zeros g) 15 1000
11.25 = 11 + 0.25
25 1
= 11 + = 11
100 4
31.75 = 31 + 0.75
75 3
= 31 + = 31
100 4
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Addition and Subtraction of Decimals Exercise 1.1.13

When two decimals are added together or subtracted from each other,
the decimal points must be placed directly one below the other. Do the following additions and subtractions:
Decimals are added and subtracted in the same way as whole numbers. a) 3.45 + 15.52
It is simplest to work in columns when adding decimals. Keep the
decimals points under each other and write the digits in the correct place b) 0.872 + 56.43 + 239.8
value columns.
a) 137.45 + 145.25 + 12.106 c) 83.72 + 16.43 + 1.4 + 25.63
137.450+ d) 11.42 + 9.865 + 3.1 + 7.98

145.250+
012.106 e) 7.02 + 4.55
294.806
f) 20 – 6.72
b) 733.25 – 123.98
g) 9.6 – 4.751
733.25-
123.98 h) 10 – 0.366
609.27
i) 610.57 - 602.57
c) 123.14 + 52.76 – 152.75 j) 325.5 – 18.674
123.14+
52.76
175.90.-
152.75
23.15
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
General Multiplication of Decimals Example 1
To find the product of decimals, multiply the numbers in the same way b) 256.7 x 0.0056
as for whole number first before putting in the decimal point. The
number of decimal places in the answer is the total number of decimals 46.75 x 2.12
places in the decimals being multiplied. 2567 x
56
Example 1 15402 +
128350
a) 46.75 x 2.12 143752
4675 x
212
256.7 x0. 0056 = 1.43752
9350 +
46750 +
935000 5 decimal places
991100
4 decimal places
46.75 x 2.12 = 99.1100 1 decimal place
4 decimal places
2 decimal places
2 decimal places
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Division of a decimal number by another decimal number Exercise 1.1.14
Multiply the divisor and the dividend by the same power of 10 so that the
Evaluate the following:
divisor becomes a whole number, and then perform a division,
remembering to line up the decimal points. a) 120 x 0.2 x 3.2
b) 3.418 x 0.45
2.345 2.345x100
= c) 3.94 x 0.023
0.05 0.05x100
234.5 d) 0.5 x 0.4 x 0.07
= 46.9
5
e) 753.8 ÷10
f) 0.0066 ÷ 10
g) 10000 x 0.0124
h) 63.6 ÷ 6
i) 7.647 ÷ 0.25
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Ratio and Proportion

50 1
50: 200 = = = 1: 4
In 2004, SIA have 29 B747-400 and 52 B777. We can compare the 200 4
number of B747-400 and the number of B777 in the class using two
different ways: Treat original ratio as a fraction and reduce it to lowest terms.
Divide each item of ratio by the HCF of all terms of the ratio.
1) There are 23 more B777 than B747-400. Here, we are
comparing the number of B777 and B747-400 in SIA by finding Therefore the ratio of 50 g to 200 g is 1:4.
their difference.
2) If we compare the number of B747-400 to B777, we will give the 2) 700 g to 1 kg

ratio of 29:52
700g and 1 kg are of different units and thus we have to express
Equivalent Ratio them in the same units first.
It is easier to express 1 kg as 1000g.
30 2 Therefore the ratio of 700 g to 1 kg is 700: 1000 or 7:10
We know that 15
= 1 thus 30: 15 = 2: 1. We say that 30: 15 and 2: 1 are
equivalent ratios. A ratio has no units. It is merely a number, which Ratios can be used to compare more than two quantities. For
indicates how many times one quantity is as great as the other or what example, three men A, B and C share the profits of a business.
fraction one quantity is of another. They receive $4,000, $3,000 and $1,000 respectively. The ratio
of their share of the profit is then 4000:3000:1000 or 4:3:1
For example, the boy-girl ratio of 2: 1 indicates that the number of boys
is twice that of girls, and the girl-boy ratio of 1: 2 or 2 1 indicates that
there are half as many girls as there are boys.
Example
1) Find the ratio of 50 g to 200 g
The ratio of 50g to 200g can be found using two different

methods.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercise 1.1.15 2) Express each of the following as a ratio of the first quantity to the
second, in its lowest term.
1) Express each of the following ratios in its simplest form.
a) 25 cents, 80 cents
a) 6: 10
b) 210º, 360º
b) 44: 8
c) 250 cm, 1 m
c) 3.6: 4.5
d) 80 cents, $1.20
d) 0.4: 20
e) 1 kg 250 g, 3 kg
1
e) 12 :2
f) 3 min 30 s, 1 h
f) 32:40:24
1 2 1
g) 1 : :
3 3 6
h) 1.2: 2: 2.8
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Increase and Decrease in Ratio Exercise 1.1.16
If the number of teachers in a school has increased from 45 to 55, then

1) Increase 96 in the ratio of 7:4, what is the result?
the ratio of increased staff = 55: 45 = 11: 9
number of present staff 55 11 2) Decrease $288 in the ratio of 2:9, what is the result?
= =
number of previous staff 45 9
We say that the number of teachers has been increased in the ratio 11:9 3) Find the result of increasing or decreasing the quantities in the
11 11 given ratios:
or 9
. In other words, the number of present staff is 9
.times that of
previous staff. Hence, we have
a) 40kg, 5 : 8
9
no. of previous staff = no. of present staff b) 35 hectares, 2.5 : 1
11
Examples c) 56m, 8 : 7
1) Increase $20 in the ratio of 6: 5; what is the result?
d) 25cm, 2 : 5
6
The new value is $20 x 5 = $24
4) The price of petrol drops from $1.20 per litre to 95 cents per litre.
2) A newspaper agent orders 84 copies of newspaper every day. Find the ratio in which the price decreases.
During the holidays, he decreases his order to 63 copies. The
ratio (no. of copies ordered during the holidays): (usual no. copies 5) Two sums of money are in the ratio 5 : 8. The smaller amount is
3
ordered) = 63:84 = 3:4 or 4 $65. Find the larger amount.
We say that the number of copies ordered per day has been
3 6) A proud prospective owner of a car was disappointed with a price
decreased in the ratio of 3: 4 or , during the holidays. In the other
4 increase ratio of 11: 8. If the original price was $25,600, what is
words, the number of copies ordered per day during the holidays the new car price?
3
is 4 of the usual number of copies ordered.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Direct Proportion
If A and B are in direct proportion,
A = kB
Where the number K is known as the proportionality factor.
Examples
I suppose that you all have hand-phones. Simple common sense tells us
that greater utilization of hand-phones will incur greater costs. If the rate
for the hand-phone charges is 15 cents per minute, how much will it cost
us to use the hand-phone for 3 minutes?
It will cost us 15¢ x 3 mins = 45 cents to use for 3 minutes.

The table below shows the cost of the hand-phone usage on a minute
basis.
No. of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Minutes
Cost
15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
(cents)
The proportionality factor in this case is 15.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Weights, Measures and Conversion Factors
There are various types of measurement systems in the world. The

Chinese have their own systems of weights and measures, the
Europeans have their metric systems, and the Americans have their
Imperial systems.
The world is trying to move towards a standardized system, namely the

metric system, as it will facilitate trade, science and technology. There
were many instances when different systems have caused scientists
and engineers to make mistakes. Sometimes, these mistakes have
catastrophic effects, such the lost of a multi-million dollar satellite in a
mission to MARS.
We are going to learn the imperial system and the metric system
measurement because these are the most common systems used in the
world today. We need to know about the process of conversion from one
system to another. For example, the equivalent of one kilogram is 2.2
pounds.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Length Area
Metric Metric Imperial Imperial Imperial Metric
1 millimetre (mm) 0.0394 in 1 sq inch (in2) 6.4516 cm2
1centimetre (cm) 10 mm 0.3937 in 1 sq foot (ft2 ) 144 in2 0.0929 m2
1 metre (m) 100 cm 1.0936 yd 1 sq yard (yd2) 9 ft2 0.8361 m2
1 kilometre (km) 1000 m 0.6214 mile 1 acre 4840 yd2 4046.9 m2
1 sq mile (mile2) 640 acres 2.59 km2
Length
Imperial Imperial Metric Area
1 inch (in) 2.54 cm Metric Metric Imperial
1 foot (ft) 12 in 0.3048 m 1 sq cm (cm2) 100 mm2 0.1550 in2
1 yard (yd) 3 ft 0.9144 m 1 sq m (m2) 10,000 cm2 1.1960 yd2
1 mile 1760 yd 1.6093 km 1 hectare (ha) 10,000 m2 2.471 acres
1 nautical mile (nm) 1.15 mile 1.852 km 1 sq km (km2) 100 ha 0.3861 miles2
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Volume Metric Volume
Metric Metric Imperial USA measure Imperial Metric
1 cubic centimetre 1 fluid ounce 1.0408 UK fl oz 29.574 ml

0.0610 in3
(cm3)
1 pint (16 fl oz) 0.8327 UK pt 0.4731 l
1 cubic decimetre 3 3
1,000 cm 0.0353 ft
(dm3) 1 gallon 0.8327 UK gal 3.7854 l
1 cubic metre (m3) 1,000 dm3 1.3080 yd3
1 litre (l) 1 dm3 1.76 pt
1 hectolitre 100 l 21.997 gal
Volume
Imperial Imperial Metric
1 cubic inch (in3) 16.387 cm3
1 cubic foot (ft3) 1.728 in3 0.0283 m3
1 fluid once (fl oz) 27.413 ml
1 pint (pt) 20 fl oz 0.5683 l
1 gallon (gal) 8 pt 4.5461 l
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Mass Mass
Metric Metric Imperial Imperial Imperial Metric
1 milligram (mg) 0.0154 grain (g) 1 ounce (oz) 437.5 grain 28.35 gm
1 gram 1,000 mg 0.0353 oz 1 pound (lb) 16 oz 0.4536 kg
1 kilogram (kg) 1,000 g 2.2046 lb 1 stone 14 lb 6.3503 kg
0.9842 long 1 hundredweight

1 tonne (t) 1,000 kg 112 lb 50.802 kg
tons (UK) (cwt)
1 long ton (UK) 20 cwt 1.016 t
1 short ton (US) 2,000 lb 0.907 t
In conversion from one measurement system to another, we will use

ratio system to find its equivalence.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Examples Solution
1) A passenger wanted to check in 30 kgs of baggage. Will he a) Size of the flat in square feet.
be penalised if the weight limit is set at 60 pounds?
1 ft2: 0.0929 m2
Solution 1 ft 2 0.0929 m2
:
Find the ratio of the kg: lb from the table given above and 0.0929 0.0929
multiply both sides by 30.
10.764 ft2: 1 m2
Obtain the equivalent of 30 kgs 89x10.764 ft2: 89 x 1 m2

1 kg: 2.2046 lb
958 ft2: 89 m2
30 kg: 2.2046 x 30 lb
30 kg: 66.138 lb The size of the flat in square feet is 958 ft2
b) The cost of the flat per square feet.

The equivalent of 30 kg is 66.138 lb, which exceeds the weight
limits. This means that the passenger will be penalized for The cost of the flat divided by the size of the flat in square feet:
exceeding the weight limit.
CHF 200,000
= CHF208.77/ft 2
958ft 2
2) A man bought a flat for CHF 200,000. The size of the flat is 89
square metres. One day an agent asked the flat owner about the
The cost of the flat per square feet is CHF208.77/ft 2
size of the flat in square feet.
3) An aircraft on en-route requires 45,000 gallons (imperial) of
a) Find the size of the flat in square feet.
aviation fuel. The cost of the fuel is approximately $0.60 per litre.
How much does it cost to re-fuel the aircraft?
b) Find the cost of the flat per square feet.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Solution Exercise 1.1.17
1 gallon: 4.5461 litres 1) David B. gained 1 stone weight after a long holiday. Sir Alex was
angry upon the news, ordered a strict diet and exercise regime
45,000 x 1 gallons: 45,000 x 4.5461litres for him, preparing him for the physically arduous league ahead.
Suppose, he can only lose 250 grams of weight per day, how
45,000 gallons: 204574.5 litres many days are required before he can be ready for the league?
The 45,000 gallons is equivalent to 204574.5 litres 2) The A345-500 plane travels 9,000 nautical miles to New York.
Suppose the flight takes 18 hours, what is the average distance
The cost of re-fuelling the aircraft is (km) travelled per hour?
204574.5 x $0.60 = $122744.7 dollars. 3) Suppose the area of a Boeing 747’s wing is 5400 ft2. If a cleaner
takes 1 hour to clean 1 m2, how long will he/she take to clean the
whole wing?
4) If a motor vehicle travels at 45 miles per hour on a road with a

speed limit of 60 km/h, is the vehicle exceeding the speed limit?
5) The cabin door’s width of a Lear-Jet model 24 is 3.00 ft. There

is a new type of electronics equipment with a width of 1.4 m
needing to be retrofitted in the aircraft. Will the equipment be
able to pass the cabin door?
6) An investor needed some investment information of a palm oil

estate. From past data, 1 hectare of land produces about 20
short tons (US) of palm oil. If 1 lb of oil will sell for about 3 CHF in
the market, how much can the investor sell its palm oil for if the
land size is about 200 acres?
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Averages Example 1
Suppose we have a group of 5 children with the following ages: David, Mikes and Sam each has $15, $20 and $x respectively. If they
have an average of $18 each, how much money does Sam have?
Child Age (yrs)
Solution
1 7
Total amount of money = $18 x 3 = $54
2 9
x = $54 − $15 − $20 = $19
3 6
Therefore Sam has $19.
4 4
Example 2
5 10
Two cyclists, A and B travelled 90 km in a race and finished in 5 hours
1
and 4 2 respectively. Which cyclist travels faster?
Sum of ages for whole group = 7 + 9 + 6 + 4 + 10 = 36
Solution
The average age of the group of children
Cyclist B travels faster since he takes less time to complete the race.
Sum of ages for whole group 36
= = = 7.2 yrs
Total number of children in the group 5 We can also find the speed at which each cyclist travels to find out who
travels faster.
Similarly, for any given group of values, the average is the value of each
group member as if the sum of all the values were equally divided out 90 km
Cyclist A’s speed = = 18 km/h
among the group members (i.e. each member has the same value) 5 hrs
Sum of all Values 90 km
Averages is given by = Cyclist B’s speed = = 20 km/h
Group Size 1
4 hrs
2
Averages can be used on continuous quantities such as speed.
Cyclist B travels faster since he travels at a greater speed.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
When calculating the speed of each cyclist, we assume that one travels
at the same speed all the time. In reality, each cyclist will have difficulty
cycling at the speed all the time. For example, he may slow down when
he is cycling up a slope or he speed up when he is going down a slope.
Therefore, the speed calculated for each cyclist is not his exact speed at
a particular instant. Instead, it is his average speed.
For example, the average speed of cyclist A is 18 km/h. This means

that on the average, he travels 18 km every hour. The average speed
can be obtained by the formula:
Total Distance Travelled

Average Speed =
total time taken
It is the same for an aircraft. The take-off speed of an aircraft may be

different as compared to the cruising speed of the aircraft.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Examples Solution
1) A car travelled 510 km in 6 hours. Find the average speed of the car 1) 18 km = 18 x 1000 m,
for the whole journey.
1h = (60 x 60) s
Distance Travelled = 510 Km
18 km 18 x 1000 m 5m
Therefore = = = 5 m/s
Time Taken = 6 hours h 60 x 60 s s
Distance Travelled 510 km 2) In 3 hours, the cyclist travels (18 x 3) km = 54 km

Average speed = = = 85 km/h
time taken 6 hrs
2) A cyclist is travelling at an average speed of 18 km/h.
a. Express his average speed in m/s.

Average speed in km/h Time taken in hours
b. Find the distance he travels in 3 hours
3) In 25 sec, the cyclist travels D = 5 m/s x 25 = 125 m
c. Find how far he travels in 25 seconds.
In general,
distance travelled = average speed x time taken
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercises 1.1.18
6) A car travelled on a normal road for 20 minutes at an average
1) Complete the following table speed of 57 km/h and then travelled a distance of 55 km in 30
minutes on an expressway. Find
Distance Time Average
Travelled Taken Speed 7) The distance the car travelled on the normal road.
1 180 km h 1.5 hrs 120 km/h 8) The average speed, in km/h, of the car when it travelled on the
expressway.
2 200 m 25 s
3 400 m 1 min 9) A train travels 68 km at an average speed of 51 km/h. It then

travels another 20 km at an average speed of 40 km/h
4 5.5 hrs 80 km/h before reaching its destination. Calculate the average speed
for the whole journey.
5 100 m 20 m/s
2) Express the following in m/s

a) 18 km/h
b) 90 km/h
c) 72 km/h
3) Express the following in km/h

a) 10 m/s
b) 35 m/s
c) 0.5 km/s
4) How long will a man take to run, once, round a circular track of
radius 28 m at an average speed of 8 m/s? (π = 3.142)
A cyclist begins on a 24-km journey at 0923hrs. When will he
5)
complete his journey if he travels at an average speed of 16 km/h?
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Percentages Transformation between percentages and decimals
To convert percentages to decimals, divide percentages by 100.

The expression percentage means for every hundred or out of
Examples
every hundred thus percentage is a fraction whose denominator is
100. We use the symbol % to represent percentage. Change each percentage to a fraction and then to a decimal.
So, if a shop offers a customer 75% off an item, which originally cost 25
1) 25% = 100 = 0.25
$600, then for every $100 of the original price, the customer will pay
$75 less. 2) 65% = 65 = 0.65
100
125
Similarly, if a bank provides 90% housing loan to a customer who is 3) 125% = 100 = 1.25
4
buying a house, then the customer will get a loan of $90 for every $100 4) 4% = 100 = 0.04
of the price of the house he is buying.
To change a percentage to a decimal, express it as a fraction with a
A mathematics examination paper is marked out of 50. If William obtains denominator of 100. Then convert it to a decimal.
35 marks, Charles 43 marks and Johnny 32 marks, then we say that:
52
1) 52% = 100 = 0.52
35 70
William gets the of marks or i. e 70% of the marks
50 100 36
2) 36% = = 0.36
100
43 86
Charles gets the of marks or i. e 86% of the marks
50 100 4.8
3) 4.8% = 100 = 0.048
32 64
Johnny gets the of marks or i. e 64% of the marks 0.75
50 100 4) 0.75% = = 0.0075
100
100
5) 100% = 100 = 1
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Changing decimals to percentages Transformation between fractions and percentages
To change a decimal to a percentage, multiply it by 100. To change a fraction to a percentage, multiply it by 100. It is common
practise to write percentages in decimal places instead of fractions.
Examples
7 7
1) 40
= x 100% = 17.5%
Express each decimal as a percentage. 40
5 5
24
1) 0.24 = 100 = 24% 2) 8
= 8 x 100% = 62.5%
2 5
72
2) 0.72 = 100 = 72% 3) 1 3 = 3 x 100% = 166.7%
9 To change a percentage to fraction write it as a fraction with the

3) 0.09 = 100 = 9% denominator of 100 and reduce it to the lowest term.
13.6
4) 0.136 = 100
= 13.6%
15 3
15% = =
112 100 20
5) 1.12 = 100 = 112%
375 3
300 37.5% = =
6) 3 = 100
= 300% 1000 8
215 43 2
21.5% = = =2
1000 20 3
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercises 1.1.19 3) Change each fraction to a percentage.

3
a) 4
1) Express the following percentages as decimals.
9
a) 6% b) 10
b) 11% 17
c) 10
c) 179%
d) 0.27% 6
d) 1 25
e) 28.7%
2
f) 54.27% e) 2 5
6
2) Write each decimal as a percentage. f) 125
a) 0.17
b) 0.575
c) 2.36
d) 0.09
e) 0.025
f) 0.0005
g) 1.2
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Areas and Volumes Area of the rectangle = Length (L) X Width (W)
Units of Area
Square centimetres (cm2): We usually used unit squares to compare

areas. A square of side 1 cm is used as a standard unit. We call this unit Perimeter of the rectangle = 2 x ( L + W)
1 square centimetre (1 cm2). Worked Examples
Square millimetre (mm2): 1 cm = 10 mm Therefore, 1 cm2 = 10 mm x 10 The width of a rectangular is 5 cm less than its length and its perimeter
mm = 100 mm2 Square millimetre is used to measure the areas of very is 46 cm. Find its width and its area.
small shapes.
Solution
Square metre m2: The square metre is used to measure the area of large
surfaces such as the floor area of a flat. Hectare (ha): The hectare is used Let the width of the rectangle be x cm.
to measure large land area such as farms. 1 ha = 10,000 m2
Then the length is (x + 5) cm
Square kilometres: The square kilometre is used to measure the area of
Perimeter = 2 [ x + (x + 5)] cm = 46 cm
a very large surface such as the area of a country.
1 km = 1,000 m 1 km2 = 1,000 m x 1,000 m = 1,000,000 m2 = 100 ha 4 x + 10 = 46 cm
Areas and Perimeter of Rectangles 4x = 36 cm
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with all internal angles of 90⁰. x = 9 cm
Therefore its width is 9 cm and its length is 14 cm.
Therefore its area A is
A = ( 9 x 14 ) cm2
Area of the rectangle (A) Width (W)
= 126 cm2
A square is a special case of rectangles where L = W and the above

formulae still applies.
Length (L)
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Area of a Triangle 𝟏
= 𝐱 𝐛 𝐱 𝐡 (𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐄𝐆 – 𝐅𝐆 = 𝐛)
We see that a triangle of base b and height h occupies half of 𝟐
rectangle BCD. Therefore
Either method of defining the base and height gives the same result
E for area.
D C
Height (h)
Height (h)
A B
Base (b)
B
1
Area of triangle AEB = x base x height
2 E F G
Base (b)
𝟏
= 𝐱𝐛𝐱𝐡
𝟐
Base and height of a triangle can be also be defined in another way.
Area of ∆EFH = Area of ∆EGH – Area of ∆FGH
1 1
= EG x h – FG X h
2 2
1
= x (EG – FG) x h
2
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercises 1.1.20
a) Find the number of 15 centimetre square tiles required to

cover a rectangular floor 5.4 m long, 4.05 m wide.
b) Find the area, in square centimetres; of a rectangular strip of

board 3.28 m long and 75 mm wide.
c) A square cardboard of sides 20 m has 4 m wide border

round three sides. Find the area of the border.
d) A paper box without a lid is 25 cm long, 16 cm wide and 5 cm

deep. How many square centimetres of paper have been used
to make the box?
e) A swimming pool 25 m by 10 m has a concrete border all

round. Find the area of the concrete border if it is 2.5 m wide
at the sides and 5 m at the ends.
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Area of a Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which the opposite pairs of sides

are parallel. We can see that there are two similar triangles in the
parallelogram. These two triangles can form together with the
rectangle DEBG to form a large rectangle, DEFC. This rectangle is
the equivalent area of the parallelogram, which is given by
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 = 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒙 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
D G C
Height (h)
A E B F
Base (b)
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Area of a Trapezium 1
= 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
A trapezium, like a rectangle, has four sides. The difference between 2
a rectangle and the trapezium is that the rectangle has all the
In general,
opposite sides parallel to each other and they are also at right angles
to one another. 𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒛𝒊𝒖𝒎 = 𝒙 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒙 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔
𝟐
The trapezium is a quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel sides.
H
Area of Trapezium ABCD = area of ∆ADB + area of ∆BCD
1 1
= 𝐴𝐵 𝑥 ℎ + 𝐶𝐷 𝑥 ℎ
2 2
1
= 𝑥 ℎ 𝑥 (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷)
2
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Worked Examples
Example 1
Find the areas of the following figures. 7 cm
7 cm 5 cm
12cm 1 12 cm
Area of the parallelogram = base x height 11 cm
= 12 cm x 7 cm = 84 cm2
1
area of trapezium = x height x sum of parallel sides
2
1
= x 5 cm x (7 + 11)cm
2
= 45 cm2
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Example 2 Solution
In the figure below, the sides AB and DC of the quadrilateral ABCD are 1
Area of ∆ABC = x AB x AC
both perpendicular to the diagonal AC. Given AB = 2 cm, DC = 8 cm and 2
the area of ∆ABC = 6 cm2, calculate
1
6cm2 = x 2 x AC
2
1. The length of AC ∴ AC = 6 cm
2. The area of the quadrilateral ABCD 1

Area of ∆ACD = x CD x AC
2
B 1
2 cm = x 8 cm x 6 cm = 24 cm2
2
The area of the quadrilateral ABCD = ∆ACD + ∆ABC

A
= 6 cm2 + 24 cm2
= 30 cm2
8 cm
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercises 1.1.21 2) Calculate and complete the following table for each trapezium (a), (b)
and (c).
1) Find the area of the triangle in the following cases.
a b c
height 6 14 8
One parallel side 7 8
2nd parallel side 11 5

10 cm
Area 126 73
3) Find the unknown, marked x in the following figures.
7 cm
12 cm
X cm
6 cm
19 cm
a) Area of Trapezium = 124 cm2
Jun19/Technical Training
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
17 cm 27 cm
14 cm
X cm
X cm
31 cm
b) Area of Trapezium = 280 cm2

c) Area of Trapezium = 280 cm2
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Perimeter of a Circle
A circle consists of points that are all equidistant* from a particular point where
called the centre. d = diameter and
r = radius and
The perimeter of a circle or the length of its boundary is called the π = 3.14
circumference. 2
d2
Area of the circle = πr or π x
4
The distance from the centre of a circle to any point on its circumference
is called the radius.
The diameter of the circle is twice the length of its radius.
* Same distance apart from every point.
Circumference (c)
Diameter (d)
Radius (r)
Circumference of a circle = 2πr or πd
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Worked Examples
1) A circle has a radius of 7 m. Find its area and circumference. 3) The diameter of the wheel of a car is 0.35 m. Find the number of
22
revolutions made by the wheel per minute when the car is travelling
Take π = 22
at 33 km/h. (Takeπ = )
7
7
Solution
22
Area of circle = πr 2 = x 7m x 7m = 154 m2 Solution
7
In 60 minutes (1h), the car travels (33 x 1,000m)
Circumference of circle = 2πr = 2 x (3.14) x (7)m
33 x1000
= 43.96 m In 1 minute, the car travels 60 m
Number of revolutions made per minute
2) The area of a circle is 78.5 cm2. Calculate the circumference of the distance travelled in 1 min
=
circle. (Take π = 3.14) Circumference of wheel
Solution 33 x 1000 33 x 1000 x 7 x 100

= = = 250r pm
60 x πd 60 x 22 x 35 x 2
Area of circle = πr2 = 78.5 cm2
3.14r2 = 78.5 cm2
78.5
r2 = = 25
3.14
r = √25 = 5 cm
Therefore circumference of circle = 2πr
= 2 x (3.14) x (5) cm = 31.4 cm
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercise 1.1.22 4) Two wires making circles of diameter 12 cm and 8 cm are cut
and then joined to make one larger circle. Find the diameter of
1) Complete the following table below for each circle this larger circle.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

5) As many 8-cm diameter disc are cut from a sheet of rectangular
Radius 10 m cardboard measuring 170 cm by 90 cm. Find the area of the
sheet that is left.
Diameter 3.6 m
Circumference 176 mm 6) If the minute hand of a big clock is 1.12 m long, find the rate
at which its tip is moving in centimetres per minutes.
Area 616 cm2
2) Calculate the circumference and area of each circle, given its

diameter.
a) 70 mm
b) 28 cm
c) 35 cm
14
d) cm
3
3) Calculate the circumference and area of each circle, given its

radius (take π = 3.14), giving your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
a) 3.5 cm
b) 13.8 m
c) 0.37 m
d) 5.25 m
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Volumes
The volume of an object is the amount of space it occupies. The object
that occupies more space is said to have greater volume. In the
standard case of the cube, the volume of the cube is given by length x
width x height, which is 1 cm3.
Height (h)
Width (w)
Length (l)
The volume of any cuboids = length x width x height
Worked Example
A container is in the form of a cuboid 20 cm long, 3 cm wide and 14 cm

high. Find the volume of the liquid, in litres, that the container can hold
(i.e. the capacity of the container).
Solution
The volume of the container = (20 x 3 x 14) cm3 = 840 cm3
1000 cm3 = 1 litre

840
Therefore the volume of the liquid = 1000
litre = 0.84 litres
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercises 1.1.23 b) The cost of transport, material and administration for

each truck is $55, how much would it cost to fill the
1) Complete the following table for each cuboid: reservoir?
Length Width Height Volume
a) 24 mm 18 mm 5 mm
b) 5 cm 3 cm 120 cm3
c) 6 cm 3.5 cm 52.5 cm3
d) 12 m 6m 576 m3
2) Find the capacity of the following rectangular tanks, giving your

answer in litres:
a. Height = 3.6 m, length = 5.5 m, width = 3.5 m
b. Height = 2.7 m, length = 4.75 m, width = 2.6 m
c. Height = 0.15 m, length = 0.24 m, width = 0.19 m
d. Height = 38 cm, length = 52 cm, Width = 18 cm
3) A rectangular oil tank measures 4 m long, 2m wide and 4.8 m

high. Initially, it is half filled with oil. Find the depth of oil in the
tank after 4000 litres of oil are added to it.
4) It took two and a half years and 2.85 million m3 of earth to filled
an empty reservoir. If each truck can carry a maximum load of
6.25m3 of earth per trip,
a) How many trips are needed to fill the entire reservoir?
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Cylinders
Radius (r)
Height (h)
We can form a cylindrical solid by vertically stacking up a pile of 50

cents coins. This solid is called a right circular prism or simply a right
cylinder. Its cross-sectional area is a circle. Steel pipes, oil drums and
many tin containers for liquids and preserved food are all common
examples of cylinders.
Volume of Cylinder
Since a cylinder is a right prism with uniform cross-section, we can find
its volume by applying the same method used in finding the volume of a
right prism.
The volume of a cylinder = base area x height

Volume = πr 2 h
22
Where π =
7
r = radius of the cylinder
h = height
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Worked Example Solution
Example 1 Radius = 28 mm = 2.8 cm
Find the mass, in kg, of a cylindrical metal bar 1.2 m long and 1.4 cm H = 3m = 300 cm
in radius. (The density of the metal is 6.5 g/cm3)
Volume of water discharged per second = πr 2 h
Solution
Radius = 1.4 cm, h = 1.2 m = 120 cm 22
= x 2.82 x 300 cm3
7
Volume of cylinder = πr 2 h
= 7392 cm3
22
= x (1.4)2 x 120 cm3 Volume of water discharged per minute = (7392 x 60)cm3
7
= 739.2 cm3 = 443520 cm3
Mass = Density x volume = 443.5 lts
= (7.5 x 739.2)g
= 5544 gm
Therefore the mass of the bar = 5.544 kg
Example 2
If water flows through a 56-mm diameter pipe at the rate of 3 m/s, what
22
is the volume of water, in litres, is discharged per minute? (Take π = 7
)
Diameter = 56 mm 3 m/s
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Right Prism volume of a cuboid = area of the base x height
A right prism has a uniform cross-section; the cross section of the prism
is identical to the two parallel ends and the height of the base is at right
angles to the height. This enables us to calculate the volume of the
prism by finding the area of the base and multiply it by the height of the
right prism.
volume of a right triangular prism
= area of the the right triangular base x height

Example
The volume of the cylinder, which is a right prism, can be found by
finding the area of the circular base and multiplying it by the height of the
cylinder. Therefore
volume of the prisms = area of the circular base (πr2) x height (h)
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Example 1
Find the volume of the right pentagonal prism shown.
Solution
Area of the base = the area of the triangle and the area of the rectangle.
1
Area of the base = {(6 x 5) + x 4 x 3} = 36 cm2
2
Therefore the volume of the prism is = 36 x 4.5 cm2 = 162 cm3
5 cm
6 cm
3 cm
4.5 cm
4 cm
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercises 1.1.24 2) The height of right prism h is 9 cm and the width of the triangle b
is 12 cm. The length H is 26 cm. Find the volume of the right
1) Find the volume and the surface area of the solid, which is the prism shown.
shape of the right prism, as shown.
9 cm
2 cm
6 cm
7 cm
5 cm
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
3) Complete the table shown below for the right angle prism shown 4) Find the volume of the prisms shown below.
in the figure below:
B D
Area of Volume
AB BC CD
∆ABC of Prism
(a) 3 cm 4 cm 7 cm
(b) 9 cm 11 cm 63 cm2
(c) 15 cm 300 cm 72000 cm3
(d) 24.6 cm 7.8 cm 38376 cm3
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
5) A fuel storage tank, 100 m long 30 m wide, 3 m deep at the 8) A cylindrical can radius 5 cm and height 8 cm is used to pour
shallow end and 10 m deep at the other end, find the volume of water into a larger cylinder of radius 20 cm and height 2 m.
water in the tank when it is full. How many times must this be done to fill the larger cylinder?
9) A railway tunnel 147 m long is to be bored with a circular cross

section of radius 5 m. What volume of soil has to be excavated?
If the soil is to be taken away in wagons of capacity 75 m3 each,
how many wagons are needed?
10) A cylindrical solid, whose base radius and height are 10 cm

and 14 cm respectively, has a density of 8.6 g/cm3.Find its
volume and it’s mass.
11) A cylindrical solid with a base radius of 7 cm and a height of 20

cm has a mass of 2.6 kg. Find its density?
6) Find the diameter of the cylinders given in the following.
a) Volume 704 cm3, height 14 cm
b) Volume 12320 cm3, height = 20 cm
7) Find the height of the cylinders given in the following
a) Volume 528 cm3, diameter 4 cm
b) Volume 1056 m3, radius 4 m
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Square, Cubes and Cube Roots 7 x 7 = 72 = 49 and √49 = 7

2
The area of a square of side 6 cm is given by 6 x 6 = 36 cm 6 cm 6 cm
Examples
1) Find the positive square root of 784
36cm2 6cm Solution
Using prime factorisation
784 = (2 x 2) x (2 x 2) x (7 x 7)
6cm = (2 x 2 x 7)2
Therefore 36 is said to be the square of 6.
2
∴ √784 = √(2 x 2 x 7)2
For short, we write 6 = 36
= 2x2x7 = 28
And we read “the square of 6 is 36” or simply “6 squared is 36”
2) Find the positive square root of 2025
Clearly, to find the side of a square whose area is 36 cm2, we find
a positive number y such that 36 = y x y = y2 Solution
Now y= 6 and we say that 6 is a positive square root of 36 and we write Using prime factorisation
√36 = 6 2025 = 5 x 5 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3
2
Similarly, = (5 x 3 x 3)
2 x 2 = 22 = 4 and √4 = 2 ∴ √2025 = √(5 x 3 x 3) 2
3 x 3 = 32 = 9 and √9 = 3 = 5 x 3 x 3 = 45
4 x 4 = 42 = 16 and √16 = 4
5 x 5 = 52 = 25 and √25 = 5
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
3
Volume of a Cube 5x 5 x 5 = 53 = 125 and √125 = 5
The volume of the cube of side 6 cm is given by:
3
7x 7 x 7 = 73 = 343 and √343 = 7
Examples
1) Find the cube root of 512
6cm Solution
Using prime factorisation,
512 = (2 x 2 x 2)x (2 x 2 x 2)x (2 x 2 x 2)
= (2 x 2 x 2)3
3
6cm ∴ √512
3
= √(2 x 2 x 2)3
6cm
=8
Volume = 6 x 6 x 6 = 216 cm3 2) Find the cube root of 5832
Therefore 216 is said to be the cube of 6. Solution
In short, we write 63 = 216 and we read “the cube of 6 is 216” or simply Using prime factorisation
“6 cubed is 216”
5832 = (2 x 3 x 3) x (2 x 3 x 3) x (2 x 3 x 3)
3
2 x 2 x 2 = 2 = 8 and √8 = 2
3
= (2 x 3 x 3)3
3
3 x 3 x 3 = 33 = 27 and √27 = 3 3
∴ √5832 = (2 x 3 x 3) = 18
3
4x 4 x 4 = 43 = 64 and √64 = 4
1.1 Arithmetic
Training Manual
Exercises 1.1.25
1) Find the square root of each of the following numbers:
a) 1156
b) 1296
c) 1764
d) 9801
e) 11025
2) Find the cube root of the following numbers:
a) 3375
b) 4096
c) 13,824
d) 21,952
e) 46,656
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
1.2 Algebra ................................................................... 3

Notations in Algebra ........................................................................... 4
Polynomial, Variables, Coefficients and Constant Terms.................... 5
Practical Application of Algebraic Expressions ................................... 7
Some Rules in Algebra ..................................................................... 11
Use of Bracket in Algebraic Expression ............................................ 12
Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Fractions ............................... 16
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomial ............................................ 24
Linear Equations and their Solutions ................................................ 26
Solving Linear Equations .................................................................. 27
Simultaneous Equations ................................................................... 28
Indices and Surds............................................................................. 38
Logarithms ....................................................................................... 39
Various Numbering Systems ............................................................ 45
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
1.2 Algebra
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Notations in Algebra x x y = z may be written as xy = z omitting the multiplication sign

in between
In arithmetic expressions, numerical values are used. x ÷y = z
x
is written as y = z (in fractional form)
e.g. 5 + 4 = 9
Example
In algebraic expressions, numbers are represented by alphabets or
symbols or a mixture of these with numerical values. Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
Algebra allows us to write mathematical equations or formulae in a 1) Subtract 2x from y and multiply the difference by z.
convenient way. Algebraic expressions are written in the same way as
arithmetic expressions. Solution
Arithmetic algebraic When 2x is subtracted from y, we have y – 2x.
Addition 5+4=9 x + y =z Multiplying the difference by z gives the result (y-2x) z.
Subtraction 5–4=1 x – y = z 2) Divide the sum of x and y by the difference when x is subtracted
Multiplication 5 x 4 = 20 x x y = z from y.
Division 36 ÷ 9 = 4 x ÷ y= z Solution
Power 23 = 2 x 2 x 2 A 3= A x A x A The sum of x and y is (x + y).
When x is subtracted from y, the difference is (y – x).

However in algebra, for sake of convenience, multiplication and division
symbols are written as follows: The final result is
x+y
y−x
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Polynomial, Variables, Coefficients and Constant Terms Since the value of 4x varies according to the value given to x, x is called
a variable. In the term 4x, the constant factor 4 is called the coefficient
An algebraic expression involves numbers and operational signs such of the term.
as +, -, x and ÷. The + and – signs in an algebraic expression separate it Thus, the coefficient of x in 5x is 5, and
into terms. the coefficient of xy in 7xy is 7, and
the coefficient of abc in 23abc is 23, and so on.
For example, the expression
Check Point
(8y + 7z) consist of 2 terms What is the coefficient of x2 in 25x2?
(7x2 – 2xy + 7y2) consists of 3 terms while The polynomial in b) will take on different values of x given. For
example, when:
xy consists of only 1 term x=2, 5x + 7 = 5 x 2 + 7 = 17
x=3, 5x+7 = 5 x 3 + 7 = 22
A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of one or more terms. x=5, 5x+7 = 5 x 5 + 7= 32 and so on.
For example, the expressions x + 5, x + 3y, 5x + 7y and x2 + 4x –3 Notice that the value of the polynomial depends on x; the numeral 7
are polynomials. always remains unchanged. We call this numeral a constant term or
simply a constant.
Example
Consider the algebraic expressions. Each polynomial has a degree, which is given by the highest power of
a) 4x the variable.
and For example, in 8x3 – 7x2 + 5x + 3, the highest power of the
b) 5x + 7. variable x is 3. Therefore, the degree of the polynomial 8x3 – 7x2 + 5x +3
is 3.
The polynomial in a) will take on different values for different values of x.
For example, when: Check Point
What is the degree of the polynomial of 5x2 – 3x3 + 5x4 – 7x +2?
x=2, 4x = 4 x 2 = 8.
x=3, 4x =4 x 3 = 12 Usually, a polynomial is expressed such that the degrees of the terms
x=5, 4x = 4 x 5 = 20 and so on. appear in descending order, for example, 3x3 + 2x2 – 4x + 7.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Sometimes it is expressed with the degrees of the terms appearing in

ascending order, for example, 3 + 5x – 7x2 + 8x3.
Example
Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
(a) Add 2x to 3y
Solution: 2x + 3y
(b) Subtract 5x from 12.
Solution: 12 - 5x
(c) Multiply u by 3v
Solution: u x 3v = 3uv
(d) Divide 3k by 7x
3k
Solution: 7x
(e) Subtract the product of x and 3y from the sum of p

and q.
Solution (p + q) − 3xy
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Practical Application of Algebraic Expressions Example 2
Example 1 Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
Ali is 3 times as old as Beng and Beng is 5 years older than Chandra. If a) The sum of three consecutive integers, of which x is the
Beng is x years old, write algebraic expressions for each of the middle integer.
following:
b) The product of two consecutive odd integers, of which, x is
the smaller integer.
a) Ali’s age today.
c) The total cost of x number of 10¢ stamps and y number of
b) Chandra’s age today.
25¢ stamps.
c) Ali’s age in 5 years’ time.
Solution
d) The sum of Ali’s age and Beng’s ages in 2 years’ time. a) The integer after x is (x + 1) and the one before x is (x-1).
e) The sum of Beng’s and Chandra’s ages 4 years ago. The sum of the three consecutive integers is (x-1) + x +
(x + 1) = 3x.
Solution
b) The greater of the two consecutive odd integers is (x+2). The
a) Ali’s age is 3x years old.
product of the two integers is x(x+2).
b) Chandra’s age is (x-5) years old.
c) The cost of x 10¢ stamps = 10x¢. The cost of y 25 ¢ stamps
c) Ali will be (3x+5) years old.
= 25y¢ The total cost = (10x + 25y)¢.
d) In 2 years’ time, Ali will be (3x+2) years old and Beng will be
(x+2) years old. The sum of their ages is (3x+2) + (x+2) =
(4x+4).
e) Four years ago, Beng was (x – 4) years old and Chandra was
(x-5- 4), i.e. (x - 9) years old. The sum of their ages then was
(x-4) + (x – 9) = (2x –13) years old.
.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Example 3
Evaluate 2x + 5y when
a) X=3 and y=5
b) X=2 and y=-1
c) X=-2 and y=3
Solution
(a) When x = 3 and y = 5
2x + 5y = 2(3) + 5(5) = 6 + 25 = 31
(b) When x = 2 and y = -1
2x + 5y = 2(2) + 5(-1) = 4 – 5 = -1
(c) When x = -2 and y = 3
2x +5y = 2(-2) + 5(3) = -4 +15 = 11
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Exercises 1.2.1 (f) The total value of h 50¢ coins and k $2 notes in
dollars.
1. Express the following polynomials so that the degrees of the
terms are in descending order: (g) The total cost of buying x sets of stamps to
commemorate the 50th anniversary of the inter-
(a) 3x + 7x2 + 4 – 5x3
religious organisation (IRO) at $1.82 per set and y
(b) 7x4 – 4x + 7x3 – 5x2
sets of the Rabbit Zodiac series at $2.22 per set.
(c) 4x2 + 5x3 – 7x + 4
(d) 7x2 + 5x5 – 6x3 + 7
4. If a = 2, b = -3, c = 4, d = 5 and e = -6, find the value of each of
the following:
2. Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
a) 3a – 3(2c - e)
a) Add 2x to 14
b) 4(a - 3b) - 5c
b) Subtract 14 from 5a
c) 4c – (a – 2b – e)
c) Multiply 4 by 2k.
d) 9c – 3(2d + c)
d) Divide 8x by 24y
e) 7e – 5b2 + 4ac
e) Add 2x to twice 3y
f) 5abe – 4(e + c)2
f) Subtract 5x from half of y
3. Translate each of the following word expression into algebraic

expressions:
(a) The sum of a number 2x and a number y.

(b) The product of 7 and a number k.
(c) Fifteen subtracted from twice the number t.
(d) Three times the number u decreased by four.
(e) Eight more than half a number v.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
5. Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
a) The cost of x litres of petrol at $1.10 per litre.

b) 3 times the variable x divided by the sum of 3 and k.
c) 5 times the number, which is 3 more than h.
d) One quarter of the number that is 4 less than m.
e) The total number of eggs in k cartons where each carton
contains n eggs.
f) The total distance travelled by a car for x hours at a
constant speed of z km/h.
6. If a = 2, b = -3 and c = 4, evaluate each of the following:
5ac−2b2
a) 2ab
3a3 +2b2 −4c

b) 2a+4b
5a+3bc−c2
c) 2ac−4b
7a+8b+2c
d) 3c−2b−4a
2c−4b+5ab
e) (c+a)(c−a)
a c
( )( )
b b
f) a a
−
b c
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Some Rules in Algebra Example

a) 3 x 6a = 3 x 6 x a = 18a
Rules of arithmetic also apply in algebra. However, there are also some b) 2a x 5a = 2 x a x 5 x a = 10a2
additional rules in algebra.
c) 12m x 3n = 12 x m x 3 x n = 36mn
In algebra, terms of the same kind called like terms can be added to or d) 3(a – b) = 3 x a – 3 x b = 3a - 3b
subtracted from one another to form a single term that is terms with the
e) a x (-2ab) = (-1) x (a) x (-2) x (a) x (b) = (-1) x (-2) x (a) x (a) x (b)
same unknown but different coefficient could be added or subtracted to
form a single term. - 2a2b
f) 14m÷7=14m/7=2m
For instance 5x and 4x are like terms and therefore 4x+5x=9x. Similarly
18a 9a
4x3 and 5x3 are like terms and therefore 5x3-4x3=x3. However 4x2 and g) 18a ÷ 10b = 10b
= 5b
5x3 are not like terms and therefore they cannot be added or subtracted h) √9a4 = √3.3. a. a. a. a = 3a2
to form a single term.
The terms 3a2 and 2a are unlike terms. Therefore they cannot be
Example combined into a single term by adding or subtracting.
a) 3a + 5a = 8a Exercises 1.2.2
b) 7b – 3b = 4b Simplify the following expression:
c) 2a + 5b + 4a + 8b = (2a + 4a) + (5b + 8b) = 6a + 13b a) 5n x 12
d) 9c + 7d – 4c – 5d = (9c - 4c) + (7d – 5d) = 5c +2d b) –2 x 6a
e) 7a + 9b – 5a – 4b + 2a -b c) –4 x (-2k)
= (7a – 5a + 2a) + (9b – 4b – b) = 4a +4b 1
d) 3
x15a
3m
e) 2x
In multiplication and division, the term coefficients and the variables are 4
multiplied or divided.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
12 3
Use of Bracket in Algebraic Expression In arithmetic a fraction such as can be simplified to by ‘cancelling’
16 4
(dividing) the numerator and the denominator by 4.
When bracket occurs in an algebraic expression, the rules by which
operations are performed apply exactly as in arithmetic: Applying this process to the following example:
Simplify the expression within the bracket first. 12x 2 y 3 z

When an expression contains more than one pair of brackets, simplify 36xy 2 z 2
the expression within the innermost pair of brackets first.
12(x)(x)(y)(y)(y)(z)
=
Example 36(x)(y)(y)(z)(z)
[2c – 4(c – 1)] = [2c – 4c + 4] = 4 − 2c
Cancelling the numerator and the denominator by 12xy2z we get.
If an expression in brackets is multiplied by a number, each term within
the brackets must be multiplied by that number when the brackets are xy
=
removed. 3z
Example Cancelling may also be applied to bracketed terms, provided the

4(a – 2b + 3c) = 4a – 8b + 12c contents of the brackets are identical as in the example below.
y 2x−3 s(x + y)
The expression is called an algebraic fraction. In the fractions
x 4 t (x + y)
5x−7 2x−3
and the numerators can be placed within the brackets. Thus,
6 4
(2x−3) 5x−7 (5x−7) Cancelling the numerator and the denominator by (x+y) we get.
can be written as and can be written as . s
4 6 6
With division, only like symbols may be cancelled as seen below. =
t
8𝑥 2 𝑦
8𝑥 2 𝑦 ÷ 2𝑥 =
2𝑥 Thus, to simplify the expression x +2(3x + x) - 6x ÷ 2x
= 4𝑥𝑦 x + 2(3x + x) − 6x ÷ 2x = x + 2(4x) − 6x ÷ 2x
= x + 8x − 3 = 9x − 3
In this last example, a procedure known as 'cancelling' is applied. This
is used to simplify the expression.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Removal of Brackets
Multiplying the sides together may be written as:
As we have previously seen the bracket is a useful device for grouping
terms or quantities, however care must be exercised when the removal
of brackets is necessitated. Area of the rectangle = (3 + 2)(2 + 1)
To solve this, a sequence of operations would be required. Here is the
rule, multiply the latter bracket by each term inside the first bracket.
Consider a rectangle whose sides are respectively 5 and 3 units, as
shown in figure 1. = 3(2 + 1) + 2(2 + 1)
Now relieve the brackets as shown in the sequence table below.
3 x1 1c
2x1 m
Sequence 1 2 3 4
(3 x 2) + (3 x 1) + (2 x 2) + (2 x 1)
3x2 2x2 2c 6 + 3 + 4 + 2
m
That gives us a total of 15 square units the same answer as before.
3c 2c
m m
The area of this rectangle is the product of the two sides ie 5 x 3 = 15.
If however, the sides are now expressed as (3+2) and (2+ 1), then the
area would still be obtained from their product, but to achieve this, a
particular sequence of operations would be required.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Removal of Brackets for Algebraic Expression Example 1
Multiply (x - 3) by (x - 7)
If the sides of the rectangle are now expressed in algebraic form as
shown in figure 2 below whose sides are (X+2) and (X+1), the removal = (x-3) (x-7)
of the brackets would still require the same sequence to be followed. = x2 - 7x - 3x +21
= x2 - 10x + 21
Xx1 2x1 1c
Example 2
m
Multiply (2x - 5) by (4x + 3)
XxX = X2 2xX X cm = (2x - 5) (4x + 3)
= 8x2 + 6x - 20x - 15
= 8x2 - 14 x - 15
X cm 2c Example 3
m
Area of the rectangle = (X + 2)(X + 1) Remove the brackets from (3y - 7) (2y - 2)
(3y - 7) (2y - 2)
Sequence 1 2 3 4 = 6y2-6y-14y+l4
(XxX) + (Xx1) + (2xX) + (2x1) = 6y2 - 20y + 14
X2 + X + 2X + 2
= X(X + 1) + 2(X + 1)
= 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 2𝑋 + 2
= 𝑋2 + 3𝑋 + 2
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Exercises 1.2.3
1. Multiply the following bracketed terms together, collecting like terms.

(a) (7x + 4) (2x + 3)
(b) (2x - 1) (2x + 1)
(c) (3y - 2) (2y - 4)
2. Remove the brackets from:

(a) (2x - 5) (2x + 5)
(b) (3x - y) (2x - y)
(c) (5x + 3) (3x + y)
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Fractions Example 2

1 1
When dealing with the addition and subtraction of fractions in arithmetic, Express (R + R ) which is the equivalent resistance of 2 resistors
1 2
you will remember it was necessary to have a common denominator, connected in parallel, as single expression.
2 1 2𝑥5+1𝑥3
thus when adding 3 + 5 = 3𝑥5 a common denominator of 3x5 is The common denominator is R1R2 therefore.
used. 1 1 R 2 + R1
( + )=
R1 R 2 R1R 2
Note the multiplication of the initial denominators ensures that a Example 3
common denominator is obtained.
3 2
Express (a2 + a − 5) as a single fraction.
In algebra, fractions are dealt with in a similar way.
3 2 3 + 2a − 5a2
Example 1 ( 2 + − 5) =
a a a2
Simplify the expression. Example 4
2 1 𝑥−2 𝑥−3
( + ) Express the following 3 − 2 as a single fraction.
𝑥 y
𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 3 2(𝑥 − 2) − 3(𝑥 − 3)
− =
The common denominator is xy and therefore. 3 2 6
2 1 2𝑥 − 4 − 3𝑥 + 9
+ =
x y 6
2y x 5−𝑥
= + =
xy xy 6
𝑥 + 2𝑦
=
𝑥𝑦
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Worked Examples
1) 3a + 5b – 3c –2b +7c – a + 4c – 6b + 8a
Group all the like terms together.
= (3 – 1 + 8) a + (5 – 2 – 6) b + (-3 + 7 + 4) c
= 10a – 3b +8c
2) 3x + 2(x + 4) – (2x – 3) + 5x – 7
Relieve the brackets and group all the like terms together.
= 3x + 2x + 8 – 2x + 3 + 5x – 7
= (3 + 2 – 2 + 5)x + (8 + 3 – 7)
= 8x + 4
3) 2[4p –3(m + p)]
Relieve the inner most bracket and then square bracket and group all
the like terms together.
= 2(4p - 3m - 3p)
= 2(p – 3m)
= 2p – 6m
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Exercises 1.2.4 2(𝑥+3) 1 3𝑥−4

i) 5
− +
2 4
1. Simplify the following expressions.
(a) 5(a + 2b) – 3b

(b) 4u – 3(2u – 5v)
(c) –2a – 3(a – b)
(d) 6x – 2(4y + x)
(e) 7m – 2n – 2(3n – 2m)
(f) –3(2h – k) + 4(k – 3h)
(g) a + 3(2a –3b +c) + 7c
(h) (x + y) – 2(3x – 4y +3)
(i) 3(p – 2q) – 4(2p – 3q – 5)
2. Simplify the following algebraic fractions to single expressions.

1 1
a) 2
[2x + 2 (4x − 12)]
2
b)
5
[8p − (5 − 2p)]
c) a − (b − (c + d))
d) −2[3a − 4(a − (2 + a))]
1 2
e) (4x − 2y) − 3 (9x − 3y) − 2(x − y)
2
f) 2[y − 3(2y + x)] − 3x

𝑥 2𝑥−4
g) 5
− 7
2𝑥+7 6𝑥−3
h) 3
− 5
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Factorizing Linear Expressions And by inspection we see that the factor 2a is common to each term in
the expression which may be drawn out and written as follows:
Factorizing is an algebraic process in which an expression with more = 2a (2b-c)

than one term is expressed as a product of 2 expressions. For instance Example 2
4a+8 may be rewritten as the product of 4 and (x+2)
Factorize 4a2 – 2ac
4a+8 = 4(a+2) 4a2 – 2ac = 2x2axa - 2ac
This means that 4 multiply every term inside the bracket. So if we now We find that 2a is common to both terms in the expression and therefore
relieve the brackets by multiplying each term inside the bracket by 4 we we draw it out and rewrite it with the brackets as follows:
would end up with (4a+8) - the original expression. The reverse process
of factorizing is known as expanding. =2a (2 a- c)
Factorizing an expression is useful in many instances such solving

equations cancelling common factors in algebraic divisions and so on. Example 3
There are many different methods for factorizing depending on the Factorize (- 4a3 + 2ac)
nature of the expression. Let us look at this process with some typical
(- 4a3 + 2ac) = (-2a) (2a2) + (-2a) (-c)
examples.
Observe that (-2a) x (–c) gives us 2ac. Now we find that (-2a) is
common to both terms and therefore the expression may now be
Factorizing by taking the common term out rewritten as:
(- 4a3 + 2ac) = (-2a) (2a2 – c)

Example 1
Factorize 4ab – 2ac
In solving this we need to first identify the factor that is common to each
term. 4ab – 2ac may be seen as 2 x (2a) b – (2a) x (c)
4ab – 2ac = 2x (2a) b – (2a) x (c)
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Factorizing using Standard Identities Identity 2
Standard Identities (a − b)2 = (a − b)(a − b)
Identity 1 (a − b)(a − b) = a2 − 2ab + b2 − − − − − −(2)
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) Example 1
If we now expand this according to the rules that we learnt in the Factorize (x 2 − 2xy + y 2 )
previous section.
(a + b)(a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2 − − − − − −(1) By inspection we see that (x 2 − 2xy + y 2 ) resembles (2) if a = x and b =
y Therefore
Any 3 term quadratic expression where we could identify a, and b which
satisfy the identity (1) could be factorized using this identity. (x 2 − 2xy + y 2 ) = (x − y)(x − y) = (x − y)2
Example 1 Example 2
Factorize (x 2 + 2xy + y 2 ) Factorize (y 2 − 10y + 25)
By inspection we see that (x 2 + 2xy + y 2 ) resembles (1) if a = x and b = This may be rewritten as follows where a = y and b = 5
y therefore
y 2 − 10y + 25 = (y 2 − 2x5xy + 52 )
(x 2 + 2xy + y 2 ) = (x + y)(x + y) = (x + y)2
Since it now resembles (2) we may factorize it using the identity (2)
Example 2
(y 2 − 10y + 25) = (y − 5)2
Factorize (y 2 + 10y + 25)
This may be rewritten as follows where a = y and b = 5
y 2 + 10y + 25) = (y 2 + 2x5xy + 52 )
(y 2 + 10y + 25) = (y + 5)2
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Identity 3
Difference of squares
a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b) − − − − − − − (3)
This could be shown to be true if we expand the RHS of (3) according to

the rules that we learnt in the previous section as shown below.
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − ab + ab − b2
= a2 − b2
Example 1
Factorize (x 2 − y 2 )
By inspection we see that (x 2 − y 2 ) resembles (3) if a = x and b = y
Therefore
(x 2 − y 2 ) = (x + y)(x − y)
Example 2
Factorize (y 2 − 25)
This may be rewritten as follows where a = y and b = 5
y 2 − 25 = y 2 − 52
(y 2 − 25) = (y + 5) (y − 5)
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Factorizing General Quadratic Expressions ie, (x + 4) (x + 2)

This process is known as 'factorisation' with the quadratic expression x2
In the last section the multiplication of bracketed terms is fairly straight + 6x + 8 being factorised into (x + 4) (x + 2).
forward, provided the rules are followed. On occasions, however the
reverse process is sometimes required. This is not so easy, and may
require a trial and error approach. Example 1
Factorise x2 + 8x + 15
Consider the example of (x + 4) (x + 2) = (x ) (x )

Now 15 is obtained from the product of 15 x 1 or 5 x 3 but only the sum
of 5 and 3 will give 8, thus the solution is
Multiplying the brackets together gives:
x2 + 2x + 4x + 8 = (x + 5) (x + 3)
x 2 + 6x + 8 Example 2
To return to the original bracketed pairs it is necessary to first start with Factorise x2 - 9x + 14
a pair of brackets: = (x 7) (x 2)
( )( ) For the product of 7 and 2 to be +14 and their sum to be -9, both must
be negative, ie
Given that the first term, in the expression x2 + 6x + 8 is x2 and that this
is the product of x and x, an x may be placed in each of the brackets. (x - 7) (x - 2)
(x ) (x ) Example 3
The last term is 8 and this is obtained either from the product of 8 x 1 or Factorise x2 - x - 12
4 x 2, but only the sum combination of 4 and 2 will provide 6, the value = (x 4) (x 3)
of the middle term. So, inserting 4 and 2 into the bracketed pair gives: 4 and 3 are chosen since their product is twelve and their sum is minus
(x 4)(x 2) one if considered as -4 and +3. Note that it is the larger of the two
2
quantities which takes the sign of the middle term of the original
As every term in x + 6x + 8 is positive there are no complications with quadratic. ie, (x - 4)(x + 3)
sign allocation. Both the 4 and 2 will be positive.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Example 4 Exercises 1.2.5

2
Factorise 6x - x - 15
a) x2 - 9x + 20
This example is much more complicated that the preceding ones and
b) x2 - 9x - 22
can only be tackled by trial and error. This is because 15 may be formed
by the product of 15 x 1, or 5 x 3, and that 6x2 may be formed by the c) x 2 - 25
product of 6x and x or 3x and 2x. This leads to many combinations. d) 6x2 -22x + 12
i.e. (6x ) (x )
or
(3x ) (2x )
with
(15 )( 1)
( 3) ( 5)
Here the solution is (2x + 3) (3x - 5) but there is no easy path to factorise
such a quadratic equation.
Example 5
Factorise x2 – 9 = (x - 3) (x + 3)
This is a special type of quadratic and should be recognised as being
'the difference between two squares'. Factorising such an expression is
relatively easy and needs only for the root of the number part to be
found. It should be noted however that the signs associated to these
roots must be both positive and negative as shown below.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomial
Example 1
Find the sum of 4x2 – 9x + 3 and x2 – 2x – 8
Solution
The expressions are arranged so that the like terms are grouped
together.
= 4x2 + x2 –9x –2x +3 –8 = 5x2 –11x –5
Example 2
Find the sum of (2a + 3b –4c), (3a –2b), (-4a +5c) and (a –2b + c)
Solution
Grouping all the like terms together would give.
(2a + 3b –4c)+ (3a –2b),+ (a –2b + c) + (-4a + 5c)
= 2a + 3a - 4a + a + 3b - 2b - 2b - 4c + 5c + c =2a – b + 2c
Example 3
Subtract x3 –5x2 + 6x –7 from 2x3 – 7x2 + 11x + 6
Solution
(2x3 – 7x2 + 11x + 6) - (x3 –5x2 + 6x –7)
= 2x3 – x3 –7x2 + 5x2 +11x – 6x + 6 +7 = x3 – 2x2 + 5x +13
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Exercises 1.2.6 e) 2(a + c- 3c) – 4(a – b + c) + 5a

f) 5(b +a – 6c) – 7(c – b + 6a)
1. Find the sum of the following expressions:
g) 8(3a – 4b + c) + 5(2a – 3b + c) –3(2c + 9a + 7b)
a) x2 - 3x - 1, 3x2 + 2x + 9
h) 6(a – 3b + 5c) – 4(5b – c + 2a) – 5(2a – 4c + 3b)
b) –2a3 – 3a2 + 4a + 6, 2a3 + 5a2 +7
c) (p + 2q – 4r), (2p – 3q + 5r), (3p – q + 2r)
d) 2x3 + 3x2 + 1, 2x3 – 2x2 + 6x, 4x2 –2x + 9, -3x3 + 5
e) 9p + 12q – 3r – 4s, -8q +4s, -7p +q + 2r, p + 4r – 5s
f) 5xy – 6yz + 7zx, xy + 5yz –6zx, -6xy + yz + zx
g) (x3 – 5x2 + 4x – 7), (x4 + 2x3 + x2 –7x + 4), ( x4 –7x + 8)
h) 3x2y + xy – xy2, 5x2y + 2xy – 7xy2, 2x2y + 7xy + 9xy2
2. Subtract
(1) 3x2 – x – 1 from 4x2 + 3x –3
(2) 3x2 –5x from 2x2 – 4x – 5
(3) a – 2b + 6c from 3a + 3b – 4c
(4) 2q – 3r – s from p – 4q – 6r
(5) 3x2 + 2x – 4 from x3 – 3x2 – 5x +6
3. Simplify the following expression

a) (3a2 + 7a) + (2a2 – 9a)
b) (-2a + 7b) – (a + 4b)
c) 6(2a + 3b – 7ab) – 4(5a – 2b + 5ab)
d) (3a + 4b – 5c) + (2a – 7b – 6c) + (8a – 5b + 9c)
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Linear Equations and their Solutions Identity
Equation Identity is a mathematical statement which is true for all values of the
unknown whereas an equation is only true for a particular value(s) of the
In mathematics, an equation is an equality containing one or more unknown.
unknowns. Solving the equation consists of determining which values of
the unknown make the equality true. The value(s) which satisfy the 𝑥 2 − 4 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) − − − − − − − − − (3)
equality are known as the solutions. 3𝑥 + 2 = 8 is an equation with a
single unknown x. This equation would be true only if the value of the
unknown x was 2. Therefore 2 is said to be the solution of this equation. (3) Is an identity since the expression on the RHS is equal to the
expression on the LHS for all values of x.
Linear Equations
𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) − − − − − − − (4)
A Linear equations is one in which the unknown is in the first order.
Example
(4) is an identity again since the RHS expression is equal to the LHS
4𝑥 + 3 = 15 − − − − − − − − − (1) expression for whatever set of values you choose for x and y.
is a linear equation with a single unknown. It is a linear equation
because the unknown x is of the first power of x. On the other hand
4𝑥 2 + 3 = 39 − − − − − − − − − (2)
is not a linear equation since the unknown x is in the 2nd order (ie 𝑥 2 ). It
is called a second order equation or a quadratic equation.
Number of Solutions
Linear equations such as (1) with a single unknown have only one value
of the unknown that satisfies the equation. In other words they have only
one solution. Quadratic equations such as equation (2) in general have
2 values of the unknown which satisfy them or in other words they have
2 solutions. Equation (2) for instance has +3 and -3 as its solutions.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Solving Linear Equations In order to isolate x on the LHS we need to divide both sides of the
equation by 4 which leaves us with:
Solving an equation as we said before is to find the value of the 𝑥 =2
unknown for which the equation holds true. The answer you find is
Let’s solve
called the solution to the equation.
𝑥
= 5 − − − − − − − −(8)
3
𝑥 + 3 = 5 − − − − − − − −(5)
In order to isolate x we need to multiply both sides of the expression by
3 which leave us with:
By observation we know that equation (5) would be true if x was 2. 2 is
therefore said to be the solution of equation (5). x = 15
Though mental mathematics may work well in solving a simple equation
like (5) it may not work so well when the equation gets complicated and Let’s attempt to solve the following equation:
therefore we need to find more methodical means of solving an 4𝑥+3
equation. 5
+ 7 = 10 − − − − − − − − − −(9)
In solving equation (5) we need to isolate the x and in order to do so we By subtracting 7 from either side fo the equation we could say:
may subtract 3 from either side of the equation which does not affect the
balance of the equation. 4𝑥 + 3
=3
Subtracting 3 from either side of equation 5 we end up with. 5
By multiplying both sides by 5 we arrive at:
𝑥+3−3= 5−3
4𝑥 + 3 = 15
𝑥=2
By subtracting 3 from either side of the equation:
Let’s solve
4𝑥 = 12
𝑥 − 5 = 7 − − − − − −(6)
Now dividing both sides by 4 we find the value of x and we have also
In order to solve (6) we add 5 on either side of the equation so that x is
solved the equation.
isolated on the LHS of the equation.
𝑥=3
𝑥−5+5= 7+5
𝑥 = 12
Let’s solve
4𝑥 = 8 − − − −(7)
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Equations of diverse nature RHS (5 x 6) + 22 = 30 + 22 = 52

Consider these equations 5y – 5 = 3y + 9 or 5(m – 2) = 15 Equations Containing Brackets
When we solve linear equations, the appearance of the equation may The first step is to remove the brackets and then solve as normal
change. For example, the first equation could be re-written as 5y – 3y =
9 + 5 and the second as 5m – 10 = 15. Both of these look different from 3(2y + 3) = 21 first expand the brackets to obtain
the original form, but equality has been maintained and they are 6y + 9 = 21 then subtract 9 from both sides
therefore the same. The general rule for all equations is:
6y = 12 then divide both sides by 6
Whatever you do to one side of the equation, you must do the
same to the other side. The solution is y=2
By convention we name each side of the equation Left Hand Side (LHS) To check the solution is correct, we substitute y = 2 in the original
or Right Hand Side (RHS) equation.
Equations Containing Unknowns on both Sides LHS 3(2 x 2 + 3) = 3(4 + 3) = 3 x 7 = 21
In equations of this type we should group the unknown quantities on one RHS = 21
side and the other terms on the other side.
For example, solve 8y + 4 = 5y + 22
If we subtract 4 from both sides, and also subtract 5y from both sides we
will get:
3y = 18
The solution can then be obtained by dividing each side by 3.
3𝑦 18
=
3 3
𝑦=6
Note: As in all cases of solving equations, we can and should check our
solution is correct by substituting the solution in the original equation.
i.e. LHS (8 x 6) + 4 = 48 + 4 = 52
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Equations Containing Fractions Example 2
In this case we must multiply each term by the LCM of the Solve the equation
denominators. 𝑥 − 4 2𝑥 − 1
+ =4
3 2
Example 1
Solve the following equation The LCM of 3 and 2 is 6, so we multiply all of the terms by 6
𝑦 3 3𝑦 𝑥−4 2𝑥 − 1𝑥6
+ = −2 𝑥6 + = 4𝑥6
4 5 2 3 2
2(𝑥 − 4) − 3(2𝑥 − 1) = 24
The LCM of the denominators 4, 5 and 2 is 20, so we must multiply each
term in the equation by 20 2𝑥 − 8 − 6𝑥 + 3 = 24
𝑦 3 3𝑦 −4𝑥 − 5 = 24
𝑥20 + x20 = 𝑥20 − 2𝑥20
4 5 2
−4𝑥 = 29
5𝑦 − 12 = 30𝑦 − 40
𝟐𝟗
5𝑦 − 30𝑦 = −40 − 12 𝒙=− = −𝟕. 𝟐𝟓
𝟒
−25𝑦 = −52
Dividing both sides by -25 we get
𝟓𝟐
𝒚=
𝟐𝟓
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Transposing Equations Here's another example.
When a formula relates several parameters, instead of solving the 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

V = (the volume of a cone)
equation we often have to rewrite the formula in a different form where a 3
particular parameter is the subject of the formula. Let’s try to understand
this with an example. Express the formula with r as the subject.
Find r (the radius), step by step.
Here is a formula involving several algebraic symbols.
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Find N, in terms of the other parameters if 𝑉𝑥3 = 3
𝑥3 (Multiply both sides by 3)
(𝑁 − 𝑛) 3𝑉 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝐶= = = 𝑟 2 (Divide both sides by h)
2𝑝 𝜋ℎ 𝜋ℎ
In other words we are required to express the formula with N as the
subject. Remember, we want N on one side by itself. It is important to Remember, to find r, take the square root of r2 and do the same to both
get a 'feel' for the form of the equation. To help, we will put brackets sides.
around (N - n).
So 3𝑉
(𝑁 − 𝑛) √ = √𝑟 2 = 𝑟
𝐶= 𝜋ℎ
2𝑝
𝟑𝑽
To remove the 2p we must multiply both sides by 2p 𝒓=√
𝝅𝒉
(𝑁 − 𝑛)
𝐶𝑥2𝑝 = 𝑥2𝑝 This is what transposition is all about. We are re-arranging formulas
2𝑝
expressed as equations, which then allows us to find a particular
numerical value for one (unknown) quantity if the other numerical values
Which gives us are given.
One important point, it is only possible to find an unknown quantity if all
2Cp = (N – n) the other values are known. This is known as 'solving an equation'.
To remove the -n, we must add n to both sides
2Cp + n = (N – n) + n = N
That's it, 𝐍 = 𝟐𝐂𝐩 + 𝐧
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Exercise 1.2.7
1. Solve the following equations for x
a) 3x − 7 = −28
b) 8x − 3 = −11
c) 2x + 3 = 4
1 4
d) 3
x +3 = 2
e) 11x − 1 = 10
f) 0.01x − 1 = 0
g) 5x − 4 − 2x + 3 = −7 − 3x + 5 + 2x
1 𝑥 2
h) 𝑥 + 2 = 2 − 3
i) 2(𝑥 − 4) + 4(2 − 𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 4(𝑥 + 1)
4𝑥+5 2𝑥−1
j) 6
− 3 =𝑥 1
3
2. Transpose the following equations with the parameter shown in
brackets as the subject
a) 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (𝑅 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
b) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑎 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
c) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 (𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
d) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
1
e) 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
2
𝑙
f) 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔 (𝑙 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Simultaneous Equations Example

Let us take a simple example to understand how 'simultaneous 3X + 5Y = 11 − − − − − − − − − − − − (2)
equations' arise in reality.
2X + 3Y = 7 − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)
Tom bought 4 pens and 3 pencils at a total cost of CHF 18 while Laura Solution
bought 3 pens and 4 pencils at a total cost of CHF 17. We are required Elimination Method
to find the cost of a pen and a pencil. In this method we multiply or divide each equation and rearrange them
so that one of the unknown could be eliminated either by addition or
There are two unknowns in this problem namely the price of a pen and subtraction as illustrated in the example below.
the price of a pencil. We could express these verbal statements
mathematically as follows using x to represent the price of a pen and y In this example lets choose eliminate x in order to do so we could
to represent the price of a pencil. multiply (1) by 3 and (2) by 2 so that the x term would 6x in each
equation. Then we could subtract one from the other to get rid of x which
4x + 3y = 18 − − − − − − − − − (1) will leave us with an equation entirely in terms of y.
3x + 4y = 17 − − − − − − − − − (2) : (1) x 3 → 6x + 9y = 21 − − − − − − − − (3)
Equations 1 and 2 are referred to as simultaneous equations. They : (2) x 2 → 6x + 10y = 22 − − − − − − − (4)
involve 2 unknowns. In general when there are two unknowns 2
equations are required to determine the value of each known. If there (4) -(3): y =1 Substitute y = 1 into (1): 2x+3=7 x=2
are 3 unknowns 3 equations are required to determine the 3 unknowns
and so on. These simultaneous equations are referred to as first order .˙. The solution is x = 2 and y = 1.
simultaneous equations since each unknown x and y are of the first
order. Substitution Method
In this method we express one unknown in terms of the other unknown
We shall now proceed to see how these equations could be manipulated by manipulating either one of the equation. In this example we express x
to find the values of each unknown x and y. there are two methods that in terms of y by rearranging equation 1. then we substitute for x with this
are generally employed to solve these equations the first method is expression in equation 2 which now leaves us with an equation with one
called the elimination method and the second method is called the unknown namely y. This may now be solved for y the same way a linear
substitution method. equation is solved.
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Exercise 1.2.8
Solve the following simultaneous equations
1.
y= 2x + 3 ; y = 5x − 3
2.
y = 3x − 1 ; 2x + 4y = 10
3.
6x + y = 4 ; 5x + 2y = 1
4.
x − 3y = 1 ; 2x + 5y = 35
5.
1
2x + y = 1 ; 3x + 5y = 6
3
6.
3y=1
4x + 3y = 5 ; 2x − 4
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Second Degree Equations (with one unknown) Area of the frame = (6+2x) (11+2x) - 66 =38
if this simplified it leads to 4x2 + 34x − 38 = 0
This discussion is about single-variable quadratic equations and their Dividing by 2 we get 2x2 + 17x − 19 = 0
solutions. A second degree equation or a quadratic equation is one in
which the highest power of the unknown is 2. In general a quadratic equation has 2 solutions however not both
solutions may be realistic. In this example x=1 and x=-19/2 are both
In elementary algebra, a quadratic equation (from the Latin quadratus solution which satisfies this equation, however only x=1 gives us a
for "square") is any equation having the form where x represents an realistic answer to the problem.
unknown, and a, b, and c represent known numbers such that a is not
equal to 0. The numbers a, b, and c are the coefficients of the Let us now explore how we could have solved this equation to find the
equation, and may be distinguished by calling them, respectively, the values of x.
quadratic coefficient, the linear coefficient and the constant.
If a = 0, then the equation reduces to a linear equation and it is not

quadratic anymore. However if b=0 the equation would have only a X
quadratic term and a constant term and it still qualifies as a quadratic
equation. Similarly if c=0 it still retains its quadratic nature.
Here are some examples of quadratic equations. X

6cm
1. 4x2+2x+3=0 (a,b,c≠o)
2. x2+5=0 (b=0)
2
3. 5x +4x=0 (c=0)
Here is a typical instance where such equations occur.
Picture frame needs to be cut out from a wooden plank to hold a picture 11cm
of 11cmx6cm. What should be the thickness (x) of the frame if the area
of the border should be 38 sq. cm?
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Solving Quadratic Equations by the previous argument we may now conclude that either
x+2=0 or x+1=0
By completing the square Therefore x=-1 or -2

Though many expressions may be factorized in this manner again not all
Example x2+6x+9=0
expression lend themselves to such manipulation. In cases where
This may be expressed as (x + 3)(x + 3) = 0 by inspection
When the product of 2 unknowns A x B = 0, obviously either A or B
has to be zero. Therefore it follows that if
(x + 3)(x + 3) = 0
This requires that either
x+3=0
𝑥 = −3
Therefore 𝑥 = −3
By factorization
Only a few quadratic expressions with certain quadratic and linear
coefficients however may be written in the form above.
When an expression doesn't lend itself to be written in this form we may
resort to the method of factorization to solve the equation.
Example solve x2+3x+2=0 by inspection the expression on the LHS may
be written as a product of (x+1) (x+2) = 0
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
By the use of the quadratic formula Special Cases
Case 1
Any quadratic equation that appears in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 may be
solved by using the formula. x2-25=0 this is a quadratic equation with no linear term (b=0) and may
be solved by factorization using the difference of squares method that
−b ± √(b2 − 4ac) we learnt under factorization.
x=
2a
As we said before any quadratic equation has 2 solutions and they are x2-25=0 may be written as 𝑥 2 − 52 = 0
given by: Which may be written as
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 5) = 0
−b + √b2 − 4ac
x=
2a Using the identity for difference of squares from which it follows that x=5
or -5.
−b − √b2 − 4ac
x= Case 2
2a
Example 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 = 0
Solve x2+3x+2=0 which is the same equation that we solved by 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 = 0 is a quadratic equation with no constant term (c=0) and
factorizing. may be solved by factorizing by taking the common term out.
We first need to identify a, b, c before we apply the formula.

a=1, b=3 and c=2 This may be factorized and written as
Substituting a, b and c in the formula we get. 5𝑥(𝑥 − 2) = 0
−3 ± √32 − 4x1x2
x=
2x1 From which it follows that x =2 or 0
x = −1 or − 2 Note:
This answer agrees with the answer that we found by factorizing. Should you, at any time in your solution of quadratic equations, arrive at
a situation which requires you to find the square root of a negative
number, then you will be unable to proceed any further, as a solution is
not possible using the mathematical principles you have considered so
far in this unit.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Exercises 1.2.9
1. Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the square

(a) x2 - 4x + 4 = 0
(b) x2 - 10x + 25= 0
(c) x2 +4x + 4 = 0
(d) x2 +2x + 1 = 0
(e) 4x2 +4x + 1 = 0
2. Solve the following quadratics using the factorizing method.

(a) x2 - 16x + 39 = 0
(b) x2 - 1 Ox + 2 4 = 0
(c) x2 + 15x + 36 = 0
(d) x2 - 81 = 0
(e) 4x2 + 6x - 28 = 0
3. Solve the following quadratic equations.

1. x2 - 3x + 2 = 0
2. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
3. 2x2 - x = 3
4. x2 - x = 20
5. 4x2 - 4x =-1
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Indices and Surds 𝑎0 = 1
𝑎𝑚
= 1 = 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑚
In this section, you will learn how to: 𝑎𝑚
1. Simplify expressions involving indices; = 𝑎(𝑚−𝑚) = 𝑎0
2. Solve simple exponential equations;
Rule 3
If a is a positive integer, we have a x a x a = a³.
Here, a is called the base, and 3 is the index or exponent or power. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Thus, a4 means the 4th power of a.
In general, an means the nth power of a, where n is any positive index Example
of the positive integer a.
There are several important rules to remember when dealing with (23 )2 = 23 𝑥23
Indices.
If a and b are positive and m and n, any rational indices then. = 2𝑥2𝑥2𝑥2𝑥2𝑥2
Rule 1 = 26
𝑎𝑚 𝑥𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎(𝑚+𝑛) Rule 4

Example
𝑎𝑚 𝑥𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑚
32 𝑥33 = 35 Example
Rule 2 22 𝑥32 = 2𝑥3𝑥2𝑥3
𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎(𝑚−𝑛)
= 6𝑥6
Example = 62
3𝑥3𝑥3𝑥3
34 ÷ 32 =
3𝑥3
= 3𝑥3 = 32
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Special Cases Case 3
Case 1 1
𝑛 ( )
√𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑛
𝑎0 = 1
Proof
Proof 1 1 1
𝑎 = 𝑎(3) 𝑥𝑎(3) 𝑥𝑎(3)
𝑎𝑚
= 1 = 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑚 1
𝑎𝑚 ∴ √𝑎 = 𝑎(3)
3
= 𝑎(𝑚−𝑚) = 𝑎0
Case 2
1
𝑎(−𝑛) =
𝑎𝑛
Proof
For example using rule 2
𝑎3
= 𝑎3 ÷ 𝑎5 = 𝑎−2
𝑎5
Alternatively
𝑎3 1
5
= 2
𝑎 𝑎
Therefore
1
𝑎(−2) = 2
𝑎
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Example Note
Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator:
1) 𝒂𝒎 𝒙 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂(𝒎+𝒏) 𝐡𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝒂𝒎 + 𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝒂(𝒎+𝒏)
a) 27½ x 3½
b) 2−3 x 16¾ 2) 𝒂𝒎 ÷ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂(𝒎−𝒏) 𝐡𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝒂𝒎 − 𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝒂(𝒎−𝒏)
c) 8⅓ ÷ 16¼
3) (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒎 ≠ 𝒂𝒎 + 𝒃𝒎 𝐞. 𝐠 (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐
Solution:
Method 1 Exercise 1.2.11
½ ½ ½
a) 27 x 3 = (27 x 3) 1) Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator:
= 81½ = 9 3
a) 7−1 x 170 x 49(2)
Method 2 2 1
½ ½ 3 ½ ½ b) 8(−3) x4
( )
2 ÷ 2−3
a) 27 x3 = (3 ) x 3
1 1
= 31½ 𝑥 3½ = 32 = 9 c) 5(2) x25

( )
3 ÷ 125−3
4 1
d) ( )(−3) x81 ÷ 3−1
1 ( )
4
27
3
1
b) 2−3 x 16¾ = 𝑥(24 )4 2) Simplify each of the following, giving your answer in index form:
23
1 a) 𝑎3 ÷ 𝑎−4 𝑥𝑎2
= 3 𝑥23 = 1 1⁄ 1 1
2 b) 𝑎 2 𝑥𝑎 ⁄3 𝑥𝑎 ⁄6
3
c) √𝑎 𝑥 √𝑎
⅓ ¼ (23 )⅓ 4 ¼
c) 8 ÷ 16 = ÷ (2 )
d) 12𝑎−4 ÷ 4𝑎−6
=2÷2=1 4
e) √𝑎3 𝑥√𝑎
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Solving Exponential Equations Solution:
An equation that contains an unknown in an index (or exponent) is b) 4(𝑥+1) = 0.25

called an exponential equation.
1
5 4(𝑥+1) = = 4−1
A simple example will be2 = 32. 4
Note that 32 can be expressed as 25. Therefore, x = 5 satisfies the ∴ 𝒙 + 𝟏 = −𝟏

equation. In general, we shall use the following rule to solve exponential
𝒙 = −𝟐
equations.
IF 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 then x=y where a >1.

Exercise 1.2.12
Example
Solve the following exponential equations: Solve the following equations:
a) 4x = 8 a) 3x = 81
b) 4(x + 1) = 0.25 b) 5x = 125
Solution: c) 32x = 8
1
a) 4x = 8 d) 2x = 8
1
4𝑥 = 8 e) 16x = 2
(22 )𝑥 = 23
22𝑥 = 23
∴ 2𝑥 = 3
𝟑
𝒙=
𝟐
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Logarithms
If a number (y) is expressed as the exponent (x) of a number (a) i.e.

𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 (a > 0, a ≠ 1)
Then we say that x is the logarithm of y to the base a i.e.
x = log 𝑎 𝑦
This relationship can be illustrated as below.
(exponential form ) 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 x = log 𝑎 𝑦 (logarithmic form)
52 = 25 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
Log 5 25 = 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
102 = 100 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
log10 100 = 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Example Note
(a) Logarithms of a positive number (<1) maybe negative.
Convert the following to logarithmic form:
10−2 = 0.01 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10(0.01) = −2
a) 23 = 8
-2 (b) Logarithms of 1 to any base is 0.
b) 3 = 1/9
c) 2x = 47 𝑎0 = 1 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 1 = 0
Solution (c) Logarithms of a number to a base of the same number is 1.
𝑎1 = 𝑎 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 = 1
a) 23 = 8 ∴ log 2 8 = 3
1 1
b) 3−2 = 9 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (9) = − 2 (d) Logarithms of a negative numbers are not defined.
c) 2𝑥 = 47 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (47) = 𝑥 For example 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 (−7) is not defined.
Convert the following to exponential form: (e) The base of logarithms cannot be negative or 1.
a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 32 = 5
b) 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 9 = 2
1
c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( ) = 𝑥
4
Solution
a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 32 = 5 ∴ 25 = 32
b) 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 9 = 2 ∴ 32 = 9
1 1
c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( ) = 𝑥 ∴ 2𝑥 =
4 4
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Common Logarithms
When the Logarithms of a number is expressed to the base of 10 it

is called common logarithms. For example the common log of 100 is
2.
𝟏𝟎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∴ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐
When denoting common log we drop the base and simply write lg x.
The base is understood to be 10. Example lg 100=2
The values of common logarithms can be readily obtained from

tables of common logarithms or by using the LOG key on a
calculator.
𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 ∴ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 ∴ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∴ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∴ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑
Number 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
lg 0 1 2 3 4 5
From the table above we observe that any number between 1 and 10
has a lg values between 0 and any number between 10 and 100 has a
lg value between 1 and 2 and so on.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Use of logarithmic tables to find the common log of a number Finding the common log of a number greater than 10
The logarithmic table on the opposite page shows the common log of all If we need to find the lg of a number between 10 and 100 such as 43.8
the number between 1 and 10. It does not show the common log of any we may rewrite it as
number greater than 10. The first page shows the common log of
numbers from 1.00 to 5.49 and the second page shows the common log lg43.8 = lg (4.38x10)
of numbers from 5.50 to 9.99. Though the left most column of sheet 1 = lg10 + lg 4.38
reads as 10 to 54 it should be treated as 1.0 to 5.4 = 1 + lg4.38
= 1.6415
For instance the common log of 4.38 may be found by locating 4.3 on the
left most column titled N on sheet 1 and then going across the row and We already know that the lg 4.38 is 0.6415 and therefore the log 43.8 is
looking up the number listed under the column titled 8 which gives us a 1.6415
value of 6415. This number should be read as 0.6415. You may cross
check with you calculator to confirm this value. We recall that the log of So in general if you need to find the common log of any number greater
any number between 1 and 10 is always less than 1 or in other words a than 10, we rewrite the number as a product of a number between 1 and
decimal value. 10 and the appropriate power of 10. For example if we need to find the
log10 4.38 = 0.6415 common log of 243.5 we rewrite this as 2.435x102. This form is called the
standard form or the scientific notation.
If we need to find the log of a number with 3 decimal place, we need to
additionally use the differential part column as well. For example to find Now the log of 243.5 is the same as the log of (2.435x102).
the log of 4.386 we need to add the number listed under the column titled
6 on the differential part (along the same row) which is 6, to the log10(243.5) = log10 (2.435𝑥102 )
number we found already for 4.38.
= log10 100 + log10 (2.345) = 2 + log10(2.435)
This would be 0.6415+0.0006 = 0.6421. You may cross check with your
calculator to confirm that this value is correct to 4 decimal places. From the table
log10(2.435) = 0.3865
∴ log10(243.5) = 2.3865
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Use of Logarithmic Tables to find the Inverse Log
We saw how we could use the table to find the common log of a number
in the previous section. We will now explore how we find the original
number from the table if the common log of a number is given. This is
called inverse log. For instance let’s say we are asked to find the
number whose common log is 0.6415 in other words what is the value of
for x for which
log10 𝑥 = 0.6415?
𝑥 = 100.6415
We first realize that the value of x is a number between 1 and 10 (the log
of a number between 1 and 10 is less than 1). We then look for this
number in the table and identify the row and the column under which it
falls. It occurs along row 4.3 and under column 8. Therefore the inverse
log of 40.6415 is 4.38
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Various Numbering Systems
Decimal Numbering System
Decimal notation is the writing of numbers in the base 10 numeral

system, which uses various symbols for ten distinct quantities (0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, called digits) to represent numbers. These digits are
frequently used with a decimal point which indicates the start of a
fractional part, and with one of the sign symbols + (plus) or – (minus) to
indicate sign.
The decimal system is a positional system numeral system; it has

positions for units, tens, hundreds, etc. The position of each digit conveys
what multiplier is to be used with that digit.
Decimal is the most common numeral system used in the world. This is
because humans have ten fingers; for example, in English, ‘digits’ is also
the anatomical term referring to fingers and toes. However, some
cultures do or did historically use other numeral systems, including the
Tzotzil, who use a base 20 system (using all 20 fingers and toes), some
Nigerians who use several base 12 systems, the Babylonians, who used
base 60 and the Yuki, who reportedly used base 8.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
The Decimal Number Base Systems Computers commonly use a different system, binary, internally. For
external use by computer specialist, this binary representation is
The Decimal Number System uses base 10. It includes the digits from 0 sometimes presented in a related octal or hexadecimal system. For
through 9. The weighted values for each position is as follows: most purposes however, binary values are converted by a computer to
the equivalent decimal values for presentation to humans.
104 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 Nevertheless, sometimes computers do use internal representations,
10 000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.2 0.3 which are equivalent to decimal for doing arithmetic. Frequently this
arithmetic is done on data in the form of binary-coded decimal, but there
You have been using the decimal (base 10) numbering system for so are other decimal representations in use.
long that you often take it for granted. When you see a number like "123", Probably the biggest stumbling block most beginning programmers
you don't think about the value 123. Instead, you generate a mental encounter when attempting to learn assembly languages is the common
image of how many items this value represents. In reality, however, the
use of the binary and hexadecimal numbering system. Understanding
number 123 represents:
these numbering systems is important because their use simplifies other
complex topics including Boolean algebra and logic design, signed
1 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 3 x 100 = 1 x 100 + 2 x 10 + 3 x 1 numeric representation, character codes and packed data.
=100 + 20 + 3 = 123
Each digit appearing to the left of the decimal point represents a value
between 0 and 9 times power of 10 represented by its position in the
number. Digits appearing to the right of the decimal point represent a
value between 0 and 9 times an increasing negative power of 10.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Binary Number Base System Binary Number Formats
Most modern computer systems operate using binary logic. The We typically write binary numbers as a sequence of bits (bits is short for
computer represents values using two voltage levels (usually 0V for binary digits). We have defined boundaries for these bits. These
logic 0 and either +3.3 V or +5V for logic 1). With two levels we can boundaries are:
represent exactly two different values. These could be any two different
values, but by convention we use the values 0 and 1. These two values,
coincidentally, correspond to the two digits used by the binary number Name Size (Bits) Example Name
system.
Bit 1 1 Bit
Since there is a correspondence between the logic levels used by the
computer and the two digits used in the binary numbering system, it Nibble 4 0101 Nibble
should come as no surprise that computers employ the binary system.
Byte 8 0000 0101 Byte
Word 16 0000 0000 0000 0101 Word
Double 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000

32 Double Word
Word 0000 0000
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
The Bit If you use a bit to represent a Boolean (true/false) value then that bit (by
your definition) represents true or false. For the bit to have any true
The smallest "unit" of data on a binary computer is a single bit. Since a meaning, you must be consistent. That is, if you're using a bit to
single bit is capable of representing only two different values (typically represent true or false at one point in your program, you shouldn't use
zero or one) you may get the impression that there are a very small the true/false value stored in that bit to represent red or blue later.
number of items you can represent with a single bit. Not true! There are Since most items you will be trying to model require more than two
an infinite number of items you can represent with a single bit. different values, single bit values aren't the most popular data type.
With a single bit, you can represent any two distinct items. Examples However, since everything else consists of groups of bits, bits will play an
include zero or one, true or false, on or off, male or female, and right or important role in your programs. Of course, there are several data types
wrong. However, you are not limited to representing binary data types that require two distinct values, so it would seem that bits are important
(that is, those objects which have only two distinct values). by themselves. However, you will soon see that individual bits are difficult
to manipulate, so we'll often use other data types to represent Boolean
To confuse things even more, different bits can represent different things. values.
For example, one bit might be used to represent the values zero and
one, while an adjacent bit might be used to represent the values true and
false. How can you tell by looking at the bits? The answer, of course, is
that you can't. But this illustrates the whole idea behind computer data
structures: data is what you define it to be.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
The Nibble (4-Bit)
A nibble is a collection of bits on a 4-bit boundary. It wouldn't be a

particularly interesting data structure except for two items: BCD (binary
coded decimal) numbers and hexadecimal (base 16) numbers. It takes
four bits to represent a single BCD or hexadecimal digit.
With a nibble, we can represent up to 16 distinct values. In the case of

hexadecimal numbers, the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E,
and F are represented with four bits. BCD uses ten different digits (0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) and requires four bits. In fact, any sixteen
distinct values can be represented with a nibble, but hexadecimal and
BCD digits are the primary items we can represent with a single nibble.
1 1 1 1
B3 B2 B1 B0
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
The Byte (16 Bit) Since a byte contains eight bits, it can represent 28, or 256, different
values. Generally, we'll use a byte to represent:
Without question, the most important data structure used by the 80 x 86
micro-processor is the byte. This is true since the ASCII code is a 7-bit 1) unsigned numeric values in the range 0 => 255
non-weighted binary code that is used on the byte boundary in most 2) signed numbers in the range -128 => +127
computers. A byte consists of eight bits and is the smallest addressable 3) ASCII character codes
datum (data item) in the microprocessor. 4) Other special data types requiring no more than 256 different
values. Many data types have fewer than 256 items so eight bits
Main memory and I/O addresses in the PC are all byte addresses. This is usually sufficient.
means that the smallest item that can be individually accessed by an 80x
86 programs is an 8-bit value. To access anything smaller requires that Since the PC is a byte addressable machine, it turns out to be more
you read the byte containing the data and mask out the unwanted bits. efficient to manipulate a whole byte than an individual bit or nibble. For
this reason, most programmers use a whole byte to represent data types
The bits in a byte are numbered from bit zero (b0) through seven (b7) as that require no more than 256 items, even if fewer than eight bits would
follows: suffice. For example, we'll often represent the Boolean values true and
false by 00000001 and 00000000 (respectively).
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Probably the most important use for a byte is holding a character code.
B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0 Characters typed at the keyboard; displayed on the screen, and printed
on the printer all have numeric values. To allow it to communicate with
the rest of the world, the IBM PC uses a variant of the ASCII character
set. There are 128 defined codes in the ASCII character set. IBM uses
Bit 0 is the low order bit or least significant bit, bit 7 is the high order bit or
the remaining 128 possible values for extended character codes
most significant bit of the byte. We'll refer to all other bits by their number.
including European characters, graphic symbols, Greek letters, and math
symbols.
A byte also contains exactly two nibbles. Bits b0 through b3 comprise the
low order nibble, and bits b4 through b7 form the high order nibble. Since
a byte contains exactly two nibbles, byte values require two hexadecimal
digits.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
The Word (32–Bit) The Double Word (64 Bit)
For the 8085 and 8086, a word is a group of 16 bits. We will number the A double word is exactly what its name implies, two words. Therefore, a
bits in a word starting from bit zero (b0) through fifteen (b15) as follows: double word quantity is 32 bits. Naturally, this double word can be
divided into a high order word and a low order word, four bytes, or eight
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 nibbles.
B15 B14 B13 B12 B11 B10 B9
Double words can represent all kinds of different data. It may be
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B8 B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0 1) an unsigned double word in the range of 0 => 4,294,967,295,
2) a signed double word in the range -2,147,483,648=>
2,147,483,647,
Like the byte, bit 0 is the LSB and bit 15 is the MSB. When referencing 3) a 32-bit floating point value
the other bits in a word use their bit position number. 4) Any data that requires 32 bits or less.
Notice that a word contains exactly two bytes. Bits b0 through b7 form
the low order byte, bits 8 through 15 from the high order byte. Naturally, a
word may be further broken down into four nibbles. Nibble zero is the low
order nibble in the word and nibble three is the high order nibble of the
word. The other two nibbles are "nibble one" or "nibble two".
With 16 bits, you can represent 216 (65,536) different values. These could
be the unsigned numeric values in the range of 0 => 65,535, signed
numeric values in the range of -32,768 => +32,767 or any other data type
with no more than 65,536 values. The three major uses for words are
1. 16-bit integer data values

2. 16-bit memory addresses
3. Any number system requiring 16 bits or less
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Binary to Decimal Base System
The binary number system works like the decimal number system except
the binary number system:
1. uses base 2
2. includes only the digits 0 and 1 (any other digit would make the
number an invalid binary number)
Take for an example, the number 0110 0100 1100 0011
The weighted value for each position is determined as follows:
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Number Base Conversion
Binary to Decimal Division Quotient Remainder Binary Number
It is very easy to convert from a binary number to a decimal number. Just 2671/2 1335 1 1
like the decimal system, we multiply each digit by its weight position.
1335/2 667 1 11
Decimal to Binary
667/2 333 1 111
To convert decimal to binary is slightly more difficult. There are two 333/2 166 1 1111
methods that may be used to convert from decimal to binary, namely the
division and subtraction method. 166/2 83 0 0 1111
Repeated Division by 2 83/2 41 1 10 1111
41/2 20 1 110 1111

For this method, divide the decimal number by 2, if the remainder is 0, on
the side write down a 0. If the remainder is 1, write down a 1. This 20/2 10 0 0110 1111
process is continued by dividing the quotient by 2 and dropping the
previous remainder until the quotient is 0. When performing the division, 10/2 5 0 0 0110 1111
the remainders which will represent the binary equivalent of the decimal
number are written beginning at the least significant digit (right) and each 5/2 2 1 10 0110 1111
new digit is written to more significant digit (the left) of the previous digit.
2/2 1 0 010 0110 1111
Consider the number 2671.
1/2 0 1 1010 0110 1111
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
The Subtraction Method
Weighted
For this method, start with a weighted position value greater that the Subtraction Remainder Binary Number
Value
number.
212 = 4096 2671 - 0 2671 0
1. If the number is greater than the weighted position for the
digit, write down a 1 and subtract the weighted position value. 212 = 4096 2671 – 2048 623 01
212 = 4096 623 – 0 623 0 10

2. If the number is less than the weighted position for the digit,
write down a 0 and subtract 0. 212 = 4096 623 – 512 111 0 101
This process is continued until the result is 0. When performing the 212 = 4096 111 – 0 111 0 1010
subtraction, the digits, which will represent the binary equivalent of the
decimal number are written beginning at the most significant digit (the 212 = 4096 111 – 0 111 0 1010 0
left) and each new digit is written to the next lesser significant digit (on
212 = 4096 111 – 64 47 0 1010 01
the right) of the previous digit. Consider the same number, 2671, using a
different method. 212 = 4096 47 – 32 15 0 1010 011
212 = 4096 1-1 0 0 1010 0110 1111 212 = 4096 15 – 0 15 0 1010 0110
212 = 4096 15 – 8 7 0 1010 0110 1
212 = 4096 7–4 3 0 1010 0110 11
212 = 4096 3–2 1 0 1010 0110 111
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Octal Numbering System Donald Knuth wrote in his book “The art of computer programming” that
King Charles XII of Sweden was the inventor of octal in Europe. Octal
numerals can be made from Binary numerals by grouping consecutive
The octal number system:
digits into groups of three (starting from the right). For example, the
1. uses base 8 binary representation for decimal 74 is 1001010, which groups into 1
2. includes only the digits 0 through 7 (any other digit would 001 010 — so the octal representation is 112.
make the number an invalid octal number) Octal is sometimes used in computing instead of hexadecimal. It has the
advantage of not requiring any extra symbols as digits (the hexadecimal
85 84 83 82 81 80 system is base-16 and therefore needs six additional symbols beyond
32768 4096 512 64 8 1 0–9). It is also used for digital displays. However it has a disadvantage
in that while two hex digits make a byte, three octal digits would be
required, with the most significant octal digit inelegantly representing
The weighted value for each position is as follows: only two binary digits (and in a series the same octal digit would
It is reported that the Yuki Native Americas of California used an octal represent one binary digit from the next byte).
system because they counted using the spaces between their fingers
rather than the fingers themselves. Octal counting may have been used
in the past instead of decimal counting, by counting the spaces like the
yuki or by counting the fingers other than the thumbs. This may explain
why the Latin word novem (nine) is so much the word novus (new). It
may have meant a new number.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Binary to Octal Conversion For this method, divide the decimal number by 8, and write the remainder
on the side as the least significant digit. This process is continued by
It is easy to convert from an integer binary number to octal. This is dividing he quotient by 8 and writing the remainder until the quotient is 0.
accomplished by: When performing the division, the remainders which will represent the
octal equivalent of the decimal number are written beginning at the least
1. Break the binary number into 3-bit sections from the LSB to significant digit (right) and each new digit is written to the next more
the MSB. significant digit (the left) of the previous digit. Consider the number
2. Convert the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent. 44978.
Octal to Binary Conversion

Division Quotient Remainder Octal Number
It is also easy to convert from an integer octal number to binary. This is
accomplished by: 44978/8 5622 2 2
1. Convert the decimal number to its 3-bit binary equivalent. 5622/8 702 6 62
2. Combine the 3-bit sections by removing the spaces.
702/8 87 6 662
Octal to Decimal Conversion 87/8 10 7 7662
To convert from Octal to Decimal, multiply the value in each position by 10/8 1 2 27662
its octal weight and add each value.
1/8 0 1 127662
Decimal to Octal Conversion
To convert decimal to octal is slightly more difficult. The typical method to

convert from decimal to octal is repeated division by 8. While we may
also use repeated subtraction by the weighted position value, it is more
difficult for large decimal numbers.
Repeated Division By 8
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Hexadecimal Numbering System The Hexadecimal Number System
In mathematics and computer science, hexadecimal, or simply hex, is a Uses base 16

numeral system with a radix or base of 16 usually written using the Includes only the digits 0 through 9 and the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F.
symbols 0-9 and A-F. IBM first introduced the current hexadecimal
system to the computing world in 1963. An earlier version, using the It is a useful system in computers because there is an easy mapping
digits 0-9 and u-z was used by Bendix G-15 computer in 1956. from four bits to a single hex digit. A byte can be represented as two
consecutive hexadecimal digits.
When dealing with large values, binary numbers quickly become too
unwieldy. The hexadecimal (base 16) numbering system solves these Binary to Hex Conversion
problems. Hexadecimal numbers offer the two features:
It is easy to convert from an integer binary number to hex. This is
1. Hex numbers are very compact. accomplished by:
2. It is easy to convert from hex to binary and binary to hex.
1. Break the binary number into 4-bit sections from the LSB to the
MSB.
2. Convert the 4-bit binary number to its Hex equivalent.
Hex to Binary Conversion
It is also easy to convert from an integer hex number to binary.

This is accomplished by:
1. Convert the Hex number to its 4-bit binary equivalent.

2. Combine the 4-bit sections by removing the spaces.
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Hex Bin Dec
0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
A 1010 10
B 1011 11
C 1100 12
D 1101 13
E 1110 14
F 1111 15
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Decimal to Hex Conversion Hexadecimal Multiplication Table
To convert decimal to hex is slightly more difficult. The typical method to

convert from decimal to hex is repeated division by 16. While we may
also use repeated subtraction by the weighted position value, it is more
difficult for large decimal numbers.
Repeated Division by 16
For this method, divide the decimal number by 16, and write the
remainder on the side as the least significant digit. This process is
continued by dividing the quotient by 16 and writing the remainder until
the quotient is 0. When performing the division, the remainders which will
represent the hex equivalent of the decimal number are written beginning
at the least significant digit (right) and each new digit is written to the next
more significant digit (the left) of the previous digit. Consider the number
44978.
Division Quotient Remainder Hex Number
44978/16 2811 2 2
2811/16 175 11 B2
175/16 10 15 FB2
10/16 0 10 0AFB2
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Answers to Exercises on Algebra 1.2 d) – 6

e) – 55
Exercises 1.2.1 f) 164
5.
1. a) $1.10x
3 2 3𝑥
a) 5x + 7x + 3x + 4 b) 3+𝑘
b) 7x 4 + 7x 3 – 5x 2 – 4x c) 5(h + 3)
c) 5x 3 + 4x 2 – 7x + 4 d)
1
(𝑚 − 4)
4
d) 5x 5 – 6x 3 + 7x 2 + 7
e) kn eggs
2.
f) xy km
a) 2x + 14
6.
b) 5a – 14 5
a) −1 6
c) 8k
1
x
d) 3y b) −3 4
1
e) 2x + 6y c) −1 2
𝑦 1
f) 2 − 5𝑥 d) 5
3. 5
e) − 6
a) 2x + y 16
b) 7k f) − 21
c) 2t – 15
d) 3u – 4 Exercise 1.2.2
𝑣
e) +8 a) 60n
2
ℎ
f) $( + 2𝑘) b) -12a
2
g) $(1.82𝑥 + 2.22𝑦) c) 8k
4.
d) 5a
a) – 36
b) 24 e) 3/2 a
c) 2
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Exercise 1.2.3 28𝑥+26

h) 15
1. (a) 14x2 + 29x + 12 i)
23𝑥−6
20
(b) 4x2 - 1
Exercices 1.2.5
(c) 6y2 - 16y + 8
a) (x - 4) (x - 5)
b) (x - 11 ) (x + 2)
2. (a) 4x2 - 25
c) (x - 5) (x + 5)
(b) 6x2 - 5xy + y2
(c) 15x2 + 5xy + 9x + 3y d) (2x - 6) (3x - 2)
Exercise 1.2.4
Exercises 1.2.6
1.
a) 5a + 7b 1.
b) 15v – 2u
a) 4x 2 – x + 8
c) 3b – 5a
b) 2a2 + 4a + 13
d) 4x – 8y
c) 6p – 2q + 3r
e) 11m – 8n
f) 7k – 18h d) 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 4x + 15
g) 7a – 9b + 10c e) 3p + 5q + 3r – 5s
h) 9y – 5x – 6 f) 2xz
i) 6q – 5p + 20 g) 2x 4 + 3𝑥 3 – 4𝑥 2 – 10x + 5
h) 4𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 2 + 3x – 14
2. 2.
a) 2x – 3
1) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2
b) 4p – 2
2) −𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5
c) a–b+c+d
3) 2a + 5b – 10c
d) – 6a – 16
e) 3y – 6x 4) p – 6q – 3r + s
f) – 9x – 10y 5) 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 10
17𝑥−20
g) 35
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
𝑇
3. f) 𝑙 = 𝑔(2𝜋)2
Exercise 1.2.8
a) 5𝑎2 − 2𝑎
b) – 3a + 3b a) x = 2, y = 7
c) – 8a + 26b – 62ab
d) 13a – 8b – 2c b) x = 1, y = 2
e) 3a + 6b – 10c
c) x = 1, y = −2
f) – 37a + 12b – 37c
g) 61a – 68b + 7c d) x = 10, y = 3
h) – 12a – 53b + 54c
e) x = 1/3, y = 1
Exercise 1.2.7
f) x = 3/4, y = 2/3
1.
Exercise 1.2.9
a) X=-7
1.
b) X=-1 a) x=2
c) X=1/2 b) x=5
d) X=2 c) x=-2
e) X=1 d) x=-1
f) X=100 e) x=-1/2
2.
g) X=-1/4
a) x=3 or 13
h) X=7/6
b) x=6 or 4
2. c) x= -3 or -12
𝑉 d) x=-9 or 9
a) 𝑅 = e) x= 2 or -7/2
𝐼
𝐹
b) a=𝑚
3.
𝑣−𝑢
c) 𝑡 = a) X=1 or 2
𝑎
𝑣 2 −𝑢2 b) X=-1 or -2
d) 𝑠 = 2𝑎 c) X=3/2, -1
2(𝑠−𝑢𝑡) d) X=5, -4
e) 𝑡 = √ e) X=1/2
𝑎
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
Exercise 1.2.10 Exercise 1.2.11

1)
1. a) 49
a) 12√3 b) 4
b) 9√2 c) 1/5
c) 2√2 d) 729
d) 14√2 2)
e) 7√7 a) 𝑎9
f) 16√3 b) a
2. 5
c) 𝑎(6)
a) 1.0605
b) 3.464 d) 3𝑎2
12
c) 2.598 e) 𝑎( 7 )
d) 0.2236
e) 1.984 Exercise 1.2.12
a) 4
3. b) 3
3
a) √3 − 1 c) 5
15−3√2
b) d) -3
23
−1
c) −√3 e) 4
d) √5 − √6
1.2 Algebra
Training Manual
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
1.3 Geometry ................................................................ 3

Simple Geometrical Constructions ...................................................... 4
Different Kinds of Angles .................................................................... 9
Perpendicular Bisector and Angle Bisector ....................................... 25
Graphs ............................................................................................. 26
Construction ..................................................................................... 28
Function and Shape ......................................................................... 35
Nomographs..................................................................................... 40
Simple Trigonometry ........................................................................ 42
Angles of Elevation and Depression ................................................. 55
Polar/Rectangular Coordinates......................................................... 81
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
1.3 Geometry
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Simple Geometrical Constructions we have ray XY, ray HK and ray PQ. A line is either straight or
curved.
Points
H
Y P
The basic geometric figure is a point. All other geometric figures are
made up of a collection of points. The smallest dot you can mark on
your paper with a sharp pencil will give you an idea of what is meant by
a geometric point.
A point is only an idea in our mind; it is not a physical object and

X Q
we regard it as having a position but not size or shape. We use a K
dot or sometimes a cross to mark the position of a point. We normally
use capital letters to name points. Thus we speak of point A, point B, The diagram shows a curved line. A Curved line is also called a curve.
point C, etc.
Lines A curved Line
A line is the path describe by a moving point. A straight-line segment In this topic, when we speak of a line, it refers to a straight line whereas a
is formed when we use a ruler to join two points, say A and B. curve refers to a curved line. Also, we shall simply use AB to denote line
AB, line segment AB, ray AB and the length of AB.
A B
We call the line segment AB or BA, A and B are called the end-points.
If we extend the line segment AB in each of the two directions
indefinitely, we get a line. This is represented by the following diagram.
A B
The diagrams on the right show parts of lines with only one end-
point and extending in only one direction. We call them rays. Thus
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Planes The box shown in the following figure has six flat surfaces of three
different sizes. We call this solid figure a cuboid.
A plane is a flat surface in which any two points are joined by a straight
line lying entirely on the surface. The floor of a classroom is an example This is a cuboid where AB = 12 cm, BC = 6 cm and CG = 8 cm
of a horizontal plane and the wall of a classroom is an example of a
vertical plane.
Solids
A solid is a three-dimensional shape or object. The box shown in the

following figure has six flat surfaces of equal size and each surface is
part of a plane. We call this solid figure a cube.
The figure below left shows a pyramid, which has five flat surfaces. Each
surface is part of a plane. The figure below centre shows a prism with
five flat surfaces. Each surface forms parts of a plane. The figure below
right is an example of a prism with seven flat surfaces.
This is a cube where AB = BC=CG =10cm
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Curved Surfaces
A surface, which is not flat, does not form part of a plane. Such a
surface is called a curved surface. For example, the surface of a
basketball is a curved surface. The basketball is an example of a
sphere (Figure below left).
Figure above centre shows a solid figure, which has two flat surfaces
and a curved surface. It is called a cylindrical solid figure, or a cylinder.
A cone has only one flat surface and a curved surface (Figure above
right)
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Intersecting Lines Angles

The following figure shows two lines, AB and PQ, on the same plane When two rays OA and OB meet at a point O, an angle is formed.
having a common point X. We say that the two lines intersect at X. Point
X is called the point of intersection. O is known as the vertex of the angle and arms of the angles. OA and
OB are the sides or
The angle is called angle AOB or angle BOA and is written 𝐴𝑂̂𝐵 or 𝐵𝑂̂𝐴
Another way of writing this angle is AOB or BOA or we may also

represent it as simply 𝑂̂ or O as it is clear in this case that we are
referring to the angle subtended at O by the lines AO and OB.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
The Protractor and Angle Measure
The standard unit for measuring angles is one degree (written as 1⁰). It
1
1is defined as 360 of a complete revolution. By definition, one complete
rotation about a point has an angle of 360⁰.
The following figure shows a protractor, which is used to measure

angles.
Measuring an angle using a protractor
To measure an angle, place the protractor so that its centre A is at the

vertex of the angle and its base AB along one side of the angle. Note
under which graduation mark the other side passes. Thus, in the figure
below left, the angle x is 60⁰. The figure (b) shows another way of
measuring the angle.
Notice that the graduation marks on the protractor are marked with
two sets of numbers, one greater than 90⁰ and the other less than
90⁰. Hence, when using the protractor, use your common sense to
choose the correct set of numbers. For example, if one arm of the
angle to be measured lies along AB, the set of numbers to be used
is the one in which the numbers increase as you read the
graduations from AB towards AC.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Different Kinds of Angles

Right Angle
Acute Angle
A right angle is equal to 90⁰.
An acute angle is less than 90⁰.
POQ is an acute angle
XOY is a right angle
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Obtuse Angle Reflex Angle
An obtuse angle is larger than 90⁰ but less than 180⁰. A reflex angle is larger than 180⁰ but less than 360⁰.
Both AOB and COD are reflex angles.
ROS is an obtuse angle
Straight Angle
A straight angle is equal to 180⁰.
AOB is a straight angle
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Complementary Angles Supplementary Angles
Two angles are called complementary angles if their sum is 90⁰. Two angles are called supplementary angles if their sum is 180⁰.
The angles 45⁰ and 135⁰ are supplementary angles and so are 53⁰ and
The angles 28⁰ and 62⁰ are said to be complementary and so are the 127⁰, 105⁰ and 75⁰, etc.
angles 40⁰ and 50⁰, 30⁰ and 60⁰, etc.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Adjacent Angles on a Line
In the following figure, XOZ and YOZ are called adjacent angles
because:
(a) they have a common vertex O

(b) they have a common side OZ and
(c) They lie on opposite sides of the common arm.
The sum of adjacent angles on a line is equal to 180⁰. (Abbreviation for

reference: adj. s on a line)
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
To Construct an Angle Using a Protractor
Suppose you have a line XY and wish to construct angle YXZ of 64⁰.
Place a protractor such that its centre is at X and its base is along XY as
shown in the following figure. Make the 64⁰ graduation with your sharp
pencil and label it Z. Join Z to X and we have 𝑋𝑌̂𝑍 = 64⁰(below right).
Method 1: Use a protractor
Y
X
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example
Find the values of a, b and c in the following diagrams:
(a) 49⁰ + a = 180⁰ (adj. s on a line)
∴ a = 180⁰- 49⁰ = 131⁰
(b) 57⁰+ 2b + 31⁰= 180⁰- 57⁰- 31⁰ = 92⁰
∴ b= 46⁰
(c) 90⁰+ c + c + 4c = 360⁰ (angle at a point)
6c = 270⁰
∴ c = 45⁰
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Vertically Opposite Angles Example
Vertically opposite angles are formed when two straight lines intersect
each other. The angels of AOC and BOD are also vertically opposite to
each other: We shall prove that vertically opposite angles are equal.
With the notation in the following figure,
Find the values of x, y and z in the given diagram.
90⁰+ 56⁰+ x = 180⁰(adj. s on a line)
x = 180⁰- 90⁰- 56⁰= 34⁰
z = x = 34⁰ (vert. Opp. Vs)

a + b = 180⁰(adj. s on a line)
z = 34⁰
a + c = 180⁰ (adj. s on a line)
z +y +38⁰= 180⁰(adj. s on a line)
a+b=a+c
34⁰+ y + 38⁰= 180⁰
Similarly, we can also show that b = d
∴y = 180⁰- 38⁰- 34⁰
Hence, vertically opposite angles are equal. (Abbreviation for reference:
vert. Opp s) = 108⁰
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Exercises 1.3.1
4. Refer to the figure on the right in which, XOY is a straight line, and
1. Name relationship between a,b and c
answer the following questions:
2. Find the complementary angle of each of the following angles:

(a) 18⁰
(b) 46⁰
(c) 53⁰
(d) 64⁰
(a) Find a, given that b= 45⁰ and c = 86⁰
(e) 7⁰
(b) Find a, given that b= 2a and c = 3a
(c) Find b, given that a + c = b
3. Find the supplementary angle of each of the following angles:
(d) Find c, given that a = b = c
(a) 36⁰
(b) 12⁰
(c) 102⁰
(d) 171⁰
(e) 88⁰
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
5. Using the figure below, find y in each of the following cases: 6. In the diagram given,
(a) If a = 2 y⁰ and c = (y + 30)⁰ (a) Write an equation involving a and d

(b) If a = (3 y + 40) ⁰ and c = (y + 60⁰) (b) Find the value of HOK
(c) If a = (10 y - 20⁰) and c = (6 y + 16)⁰ (c) If d = 25⁰, find a
(d) If a = y⁰ and b = 2 y⁰
(e) If b = (y + 30)⁰ and d = (4 y + 16)⁰
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Parallel Lines In the following figure, the line PQ is called a transversal. The angels k1
and k2 are called corresponding angles (corr.s). Similarly l1, l2 are also
Parallel Lines are lines, which extend in the same direction and remain called corresponding angles. Use your protractor to measure the angles
the same distance apart. We can take parallel lines as two points moving k1, k2, l1 and l2. What do you notice about the size of angles k1, k2, l1 and
in the same direction. In geometry, a pair of parallel lines is represented l2. Can you name two other pairs of corresponding angles in the figure
by either a pair of single or double arrows, as shown in the figure below. below?
We use the symbol “//” to represent “is parallel to”. Thus, in fig. above
(a) AB// HK means that ABis parallel to HK and

(b) XY// PQ.
(c) MN // ST
(d) ST //UV
And this also implies that MN //UV.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
The following figure shows two parallel lines AB and CD cut by a The following figure shows two parallel lines AB and XY cut by a
transversal. The angles a1 and a2 are called alternate angles (alt. s). transversal PQ .The angles a and b are called interior angles. The angles
x and y are also interior angles. Use your protector to measure the
Similarly, b1 and b2 are also called alternate angles. Use a protractor to angles a, b, x and y. Find the value of (a + b) and of (x + y). Are the
measure the angles a1, a 2, b1 and b2. What do you notice about the size interior angles supplementary?
of angles a1 and a2, and b1 and b2?
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
We can conclude from the above discussion that when two parallel Example 1
lines are cut by a transversal,
Calculate the unknowns in the following figure.
1. The corresponding angles are equal
2. The alternate angles are equal; a = 48⁰ (corr. s, AB// CD)
3. The interior angles are supplementary. b = 61⁰ (vert. opp. s)

The converse statements for the above are also true. That is, when
d = b = 61⁰ (corr. s, AB// CD)
two straight lines are cut by a transversal, and
1. if the corresponding angles are equal, then the two lines b + c = 180⁰ (interior s)
are parallel;
c= 180⁰ - 61⁰= 119⁰
2. if the alternate angles are equal, then the two lines are
parallel;
3. If the interior angles are supplementary, then the two
lines are parallel.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example 2
Find the unknowns in the figure below.
i + 30⁰ = 69⁰ (corr.s, OA//BC)

i = 69⁰ - 30⁰ = 39⁰
j = i (corr. s, OA//BC)
j = 39⁰
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Drawing Parallel Lines Using a Set-square and a Ruler
Given: A straight line AB
To construct: A line parallel to AB
Write the construction steps
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Perpendicular lines
Two lines, which are at right angles to each other, are said to be
perpendicular to each other. We use the symbol “AB ┴ PQ” to denote
AB is perpendicular to PQ.
Given: a point K, which is not on the line
To construct: a line through K perpendicular to AB
(A) Drawing perpendicular lines using a set-square and a ruler Construction steps:
1. Place one edge of the setsquare on AB as shown in the figure
Given: a point K on a line AB above.
To construct: a line through K perpendicular to AB.
2. Slide the setsquare along the length of the ruler until the other edge
Construction steps: passes through k.
1. Place the setsquare on the line AB and place the ruler as shown 3. Draw HK as shown in fig above (ii).
in the figure above.
We write HK ┴ AB
2. Slide the setsquare along the length of the ruler until the other
Note: the length of KH gives the distance of the point K to line AB.
edge of the setsquare passes through K. Draw HK as shown in
In addition, if we draw a line passing through K and parallel to AB,
the figure above.
KH also gives the distance between the two parallel lines.
We write AB ┴ HK
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Use of compasses
A pair of compasses is a mathematical instrument often used for
drawing circles, marking off lengths and measuring the length of a line
segment.
The following explains how to use a compass.

To mark off a length equal to AB on the line PQ, i.e.HK
Construction steps:
1. Adjust the arms of the compass until they touch AB
2. Mark a point H on a another line PQ
3. With H as the centre and radius AB, draw an arc to cut PQ at K
4. Hence, AB=HK
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Perpendicular Bisector and Angle Bisector Angle bi-sector
Perpendicular bisector Given: An angle PQR
Given: A straight line PQ To construct: The angle bisector of a given angle
To construct: A perpendicular bisector of a given line segment.
1. Draw an arc with a compass with P and Q as the centre above

and below the line PQ.
2. Interconnect the points of intersection of these arcs as shown in
the sketch.
P Q
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Graphs
Graphs are a pictorial method of displaying numerical data that enables

you to quickly visualise certain relationships, complete complex
calculations and predict trends.
The data can be presented in many different ways as shown below, and
most data can be presented in any format. However, care should be
taken when selecting a format to use, some formats are better suited to
particular types of data or data sets.
For example, if have a whole amount divided into known proportions,

then this is better presented as a pie chart; if we have a list of scores in
a test, then a bar graph is better. If we are plotting temperature with
respect to time then a continuous line graph is better.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Construction Look at the largest right-hand, and the smallest left-hand values that will
In order to construct graphs effectively, some simple rules should be be plotted along the x-axis. Subtract the LH value from the RH value to
followed. give a range of values (= some number of units). Study the graph paper
to find how many large squares there are from left to right.
First of all, present the data in a clear, tabular form. The data will data
will generally comprise 2 variables, one that is being varied, the Now divide the value found by the subtraction, by the number of large
independent variable, and the one that changes as a result of the squares. This should give an idea of a suitable scale. That is, so many
variation, the dependent variable (its value depends on the value of the units should be represented by 1 large square along the x-axis. The
other). most useful scales are 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 units etc. etc to 1 large square.
For example, an experiment was conducted, where a volume of gas was The same procedure is used for the y-axis. Subtract the smallest (lower)
heated. As the temperature of the gas increased, it was noted that the value from the largest (upper value) to give the range, divide by the
gas expanded: its volume increased. The first quantity, the temperature, number of large squares between top and bottom of the paper.
is the independent variable and the second quantity, the volume, is the
dependent variable.
The next stage is to plan the use of the graph-paper so as to present the
graph in the clearest manner possible.
Constructing the Graph
The graph constructed by plotting a series of points, each one

representing a particular value of the independent and corresponding
dependent variable. So the graph must be drawn so that each value
appears (or fits) on the paper.
Before “plotting” the points, the two axes must be drawn, and the scales
chosen. The horizontal (x-axis) will represent the independent variable
and the vertical (y-axis) the dependent variable. The scales cross at the
origin O.
There is no merit in drawing small graphs. Choose scales so that

completed graph fits the sheet of graph paper.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Having done this, draw the 2 axes, and mark off the units, using your
chosen scales.
The graph paper has now been prepared for the object of the exercise,
i.e. to transfer the data from the table to the graph.
The transfer is very simple. Take one value of the independent variable
and draws a (faint) line to coincide with its value along the x-axis so as
to intersect with a similar line drawn from the y-axis for its corresponding
dependent value.
The intersection represents one plotted point of the graph.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
The procedure is repeated for each pair of values in turn. When all the
points have been plotted, a continuous line is drawn through the points.
The way in which the line is drawn depends on the nature of the data. It
is probably true to say that most mathematical or scientific data change
gradually or progressively - they may form a definite relationship. In this
case, do not join the points with a series of straight lines.
But try to draw a continuous smooth line.
This probably means that the line only goes through some (not all) of the
points - don’t worry; experimental or plotting errors can occur. There
should be roughly the same number of points on both sides of the
smooth curve. Sometimes, it is fairly obvious that a straight line is the
(most) reasonable ‘fit’ to the point, and this is often the case for simple
scientific experiments.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Graphs and Mathematical Formulae There are many mathematical functions, examples might be:
This course is designed for engineers, not mathematicians and so maths

y = mx, y = x2, y = x3, y = sin x
is viewed as a servant, not a master.
Later, it will be seen that one physical quantity will vary as another y = ex, y = cos x etc. etc.
quantity varies, with the two linked by some mathematical law or This topic looks at the shape and characteristics of these functions when
equation. An example is that the drag force (D) varies according to the expressed graphically, so that a simple link can be made with physical
square of the airspeed (V). phenomena, which demonstrates similar characteristics.
Expressed as a formula D = k V2 When a mathematical function is plotted, certain shapes evolve

This relationship can be plotted in graphical form, and it is reasonable to characteristic of that function. If, following an experiment during which
presume that it would be of the same form as the maths relationship of y data is gathered, that data creates similar shapes, then a presumption
= x2 where y is considered as a function of x y = f(x) linking formula and experiment may made.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Function and Shape

Function y = mx + c
The variable y is often described as a function of x. Here several
This is a variation of y = mx.
different functions are considered graphically.
C is a constant and is clearly the value of y when x = 0 (y = m.0 + c = C).
Function y = mx where m is some constant coefficient.
This value of C measured along the y axis is known as the intercept.
y = mx describes a straight line, passing through the origin O.
m is the slope of the graph (m = tan θ) the greater the value of m, the
steeper the slope. Obviously for a straight line, the slope is constant for
a constant value of m.
If m is (-)ve, the line slopes as shown. (if m = 0, the ‘line’ Y = 0 coincides
with the x-axis).
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Function y = kx2 where k is some constant.

Function y = kx3 etc.
This gives a curve, known as a parabola. As K increases the value of
kx2 also increases. Note that the slope is no longer constant. This is a This is the characteristic shape. Note that the graph has Turning points,
function which is commonly found in physical situations. where the slope changes from (+)ve to (–)ve and vice versa.
Functions within this family are less likely to be encountered during this
course.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Function y = Sin x and y = Cos x.

Functions y = ex, y = e-x, y = 1 – e-x
Both of these functions are repetitive but the word used to describe such
behaviour is periodic (in this case, the period is 360º or 2 radians). y = ex is known as the Exponential function. It is also often found in
engineering applications. Some variations on the basic function are also
Note that the cosine graph ‘leads’ the sine graph by 90º when such shown.
behaviour occurs, it is often referred to a ‘phase difference’.
Reference has already been made to the slope of a graph. Straight lines
These graphs are often found, particularly in electrical work. have a constant slope. Curves have variable slopes, and often include
turning points (often termed maxima and minima).
Mathematicians determine slopes by using a branch of mathematics
called ‘calculus’. Engineers are often interested in slope, because
depending on the variables, the slope itself represents a physical
quantity – more about this in the Physics module.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Jun19/Technical Training
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Area under a Graph
The area under a graph is also often useful and may represent a
physical quantity.
The area can be calculated by:
1. Considering simple shapes and approximating

2. Counting squares
3. Using calculus
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Nomographs
The need to show how two or more variables affect a value is common
in the maintenance of aircraft. Nomographs are a special type of graph
that enables you to solve complex problems involving more than one
variable.
Most nomographs contain a great deal of information and require the
use of scales on three sides of the chart, as well as diagonal lines.
In fact, some charts contain so much information, that it can be very
important for you to carefully read the instructions before using the chart
and to show care when reading information from the chart itself.
Illustrated is a fairly typical graph of three variables, distance, speed and
time. If any two of the three variables is known, the approximate value of
the third can be quickly determined. In this example, the dotted line
indicates a known speed and time. The resulting distance travelled can
be extracted from the graph at the point where these two dashed lines
meet.
Whilst this nomograph is much too small for accurate computation, it can
be seen that when travelling at around 250 knots for three and a half
hours, you would travel a little less than 1000 nautical miles.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Simple Trigonometry
Introduction
Trigonometry (from Greek trigōnon, "triangle" and metron, "measure") is
a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and
angles of triangles. The field emerged during the 3rd century BC from
applications of geometry to astronomical studies.
Trigonometry is most simply associated with right-angle triangles (a

triangle with one angle equal to 90⁰). The applicability to non-right-angle
triangles exists, but, since any non-right-angle triangle (on a flat plane)
can be bisected to create two right-angle triangles, most problems can
be reduced to calculations on right-angle triangles. Thus the majority of
applications relate to right-angle triangles
The 3rd-century astronomers first noted that the lengths of the sides of a
right-angle triangle and the angles between those sides have fixed
relationships: that is, if at least the length of one side and the value of
one angle is known, then all other angles and lengths can be determined
algorithmically. These calculations soon came to be defined as the
trigonometric functions and today are pervasive in both pure and applied
mathematics.
And we give names to each side:

1. Adjacent is adjacent (next to) to the angle θ
2. Opposite is opposite the angle θ
3. The longest side is the Hypotenuse
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Naming the sides of a right angled triangle
Hypotenuse
Opposite
Adjacent
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Defining Trigonometric Ratios
In any right angle triangle whatever the size of the triangle the ratios
between different sides remains the same. For instance the ratio
between the adjacent and hypotenuse in any of the triangles QPR, SPT,
UPV or XPY remains the same as long as the angle θ remains the
same.
Therefore we can define different ratios for the angle θ as follows,
Sine Function
Opposite
: sin(θ) =
Hypotenuse
Cosine Function
Adjacent
cos(θ) =
Hypotenuse
Tangent Function
Opposite
tan(θ) =
Adjacent
Sine, Cosine and Tangent are often abbreviated to sin, cos and tan)
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Hypotenuse X
Y
U
V
Opposite
S
T
Q
Adjacent
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Use of Trigonometric tables to find the Sin, Cos and Tan ratios Example
As early as in the 10th century Arab mathematicians tabulated the Find the sine ratio of the following angles using the table.
different trigonometric ratios for the different angles which are shown in
the table below. 1. 47.5⁰
Let us see how the table could be used to find the Sin, Cos and the Tan 2. 58.5⁰
ratios for any angle ranging from 0 to 90⁰.
Find the cosine ratio of the following angles using the table.
The first and the last column give us the angle in degrees for which we
are seeking the ratio. The first column lists the angles from 0⁰ to 45⁰ 1. 42.5⁰
downwards and the last column the angles from 45⁰ to 90⁰ upwards. 2. 31.5⁰
The sine cosine and the tan ratios for angles form 0 to 45 is sought
under the appropriate header at the top of the table. The Sine cosine
and the tan ratios for angles from 45 to 90 are sought under the
appropriate footer of the bottom of the table.
Aas an example to find the sine ratio of 30⁰ seek 30⁰on the first column
of table and go horizontally along this row for the value listed under the
header titled sine at the top of the table. Following this instructions we
find that the sine of 30⁰ is 0.5.
To find the cosine of 60⁰ seek 60⁰ in the last column of the table and go
horizontally along this row seeking the value listed under the footer titled
cosine at the bottom of the table .Following this instructions we find that
the cosine of 30⁰ is 0.5.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Finding the Sin Cosine and Tan ratios of an angle by construction We may cross check with the trigonometric table to confirm if these
values are true and they do agree to 2 decimal places with the value
Let’s construct a right angle triangle subtending an angle of 35⁰ to the shown in the table.
horizontal and has a hypotenuse of 4.9cm. If we now measure the
dimension of the other two sides they would be 4.0 cm and 2.8 cm
respectively.
Now we can fine the various trigonometric ratios of 35⁰.
2.8
cm
35⁰
4.0
cm
2.8
𝑆𝑖𝑛350 = = 0.57
4.9
4.0
𝐶𝑜𝑠350 = = 0.82
4.9
2.8
𝑇𝑎𝑛35° = = 0.70
4.0
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Sin and Cos and Tan ratios of certain angles Now we can proceed to write the various trigonometric ratios for 45.
The trigonometric ratios of certain angles can be deduced from the

properties of the triangle. 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛450 = = 0.707
√2
If we construct a right angle triangle with 2 equal sides 1 unit each as
shown in the diagram the angle of the a and b would be 45 each. 1
𝐶𝑜𝑠450 = = 0.707
√2
A 1
𝑇𝑎𝑛45° = =1
1
45⁰ √2
45⁰
B
C 1
We can find the value of the side AB using Pythagoras rule as follows.
𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐵2
12 + 12 = 𝐴𝐵2
𝐴𝐵2 = 2
𝐴𝐵 = √2
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Sin and Cos of complementary angles Examples
A 𝑆𝑖𝑛 30° = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 60°
𝐶𝑜𝑠 200 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛70⁰
90-θ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 150 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 75⁰
We could also confirm this by consulting the table.
θ
B
C
𝐴𝐶
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (90 − 𝜃) =
𝐴𝐵
𝐵𝐶
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵
𝐵𝐶
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (90 − 𝜃) =
𝐴𝐵
From the above it follows that
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(90 − 𝜃)
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (90 − 𝜃)
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Sin Cos and tan of 30 and 60 Now that we have determined the length of AD we can write the Sin and
Cos ratios for 30⁰ and 60⁰ as follows
A
𝐵𝐷 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 300 = = = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 60⁰
𝐴𝐵 2
𝐴𝐷 √3
𝑆𝑖𝑛 600 = = = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 30⁰
30 30 2 𝐴𝐵 2
2 𝐵𝐷
𝑇𝑎𝑛 30⁰ =
𝐴𝐷
√3 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛30⁰ =
2 √3
𝐴𝐷
60 60 tan 60⁰ =
0 𝐵𝐷
B C
1 D 1
√3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 60⁰ = = √3
1
In triangle ABD using Pythagoras we can find AD
𝐵𝐷 2 + 𝐴𝐷 2 = 𝐴𝐵2
12 + 𝐴𝐷 2 = 22
𝐴𝐷 2 = 22 − 1
𝐴𝐷 2 = 3
𝐴𝐷 = √3
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Sin Cos and Tan of 0 and 90 Summary
A
Sin Cos Tan
0 0 1 0
𝟏 √𝟑 𝟏
30
𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
45 1
√𝟐 √𝟐
𝟏
θ 60 √𝟑/𝟐 √𝟑
𝟐
90 1 0
B C
In this triangle ABC
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
Sin 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠θ =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
When θ=0 AB=0 and AC=BC

0 𝐵𝐶 0
Therefore 𝑆𝑖𝑛 0 = =0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0 = = 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 0 = =0
𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶
When θ gets larger and larger AB becomes very large compared to BC

and when θ=90⁰ AB=AC and BC is very small compared to AB or AC.
Therefore
𝐴𝐶 0 𝐴𝐵
𝑆𝑖𝑛 90 = 𝐴𝐶 = 1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 90 = 𝐴𝐶 = 0 𝑡𝑎𝑛 90 = 0
=∞
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Practical application of trigonometric functions Solving Right Triangles
Worked Examples You can use your knowledge of the Pythagorean Theorem and the 3
trigonometric ratios to solve a right triangle. Because a right triangle is a
In this lesson we will return to right triangle trigonometry. Many real triangle with a 90⁰, solving a right triangle requires that you find the
situations involve right triangles. In your previous study of geometry you measures of one or both of the other angles. How you solve will depend
may have used right triangles to solve problems involving distances, on how much information is given.
using the Pythagorean Theorem. In this lesson you will solve problems
The following examples show two situations:
involving right triangles, using your knowledge of angles and
trigonometric functions. We will begin by solving right triangles, which a triangle missing one side, and
means identifying all the measures of all three angles and the lengths of
all three sides of a right triangle. Then we will turn to several kinds of a triangle missing two sides.
problems
Learning Objectives
 Solve right triangles.
 Solve real world problems that require you to solve a right
triangle
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example 1 (You may have also recognized the "Pythagorean Triple", 6, 8, 10,
instead of carrying out the Pythagorean Theorem.)
Solve the triangle shown below.
You can also find the third side using a trigonometric ratio. Notice that
the missing side, b, is adjacent to angle A, and the hypotenuse is given.
Therefore we can use the cosine function to find the length of b:
𝑎𝑑𝑗. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏
cos(53.13°) = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 10
𝑏
0.6 =
10
𝑏 = 𝟔 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
We could also use the tangent function, as the opposite side was given.
It may seem confusing that you can find the missing side in more than
one way. The point is, however, not to create confusion, but to show that
you must look at what information is missing, and choose a strategy.
Overall, when you need to identify one side of the triangle, you can
Solution
either use the Pythagorean Theorem, or you can use a trig ratio.
We need to find the lengths of all sides and the measures of all angles.
In this triangle, 2 of the 3 sides are given. We can find the length of the
To solve the above triangle, we also have to identify the measures of all
third side using the Pythagorean Theorem
3 angles. 2 angles are given: 90⁰and 53.13⁰. We can find the third angle
using the sum of angles in a triangle:
82 + 𝑏 2 = 102
180⁰ − 90⁰ − 53.13⁰ = 36.87°
𝟔𝟒 + 𝒃𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑏 2 = 36
𝑏 = ±6
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example 2 Answer
Now let's consider a triangle that has 2 missing sides We need to find a trigonometric ratio of the known angle of 45⁰ which
would involve the unknown side and the hypotenuse which is known.
Find the magnitude of the side AB in the right angled triangle shown in 𝐴𝐵 𝑋
the diagram below. The hypotenuse of this triangle is 20cm. sin 45 = =
𝐴𝐶 20
We may now look up the table to find the sin ratio of 45 which is 0.71
𝑥
A 0.7071 =
20
𝑥 = 20𝑥 0.7071
𝑥 = 14.142𝑐𝑚
20cm
X
45°
⁰
B C
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Angles of Elevation and Depression Angle of Elevation
You can use right triangles to find distances, if you know an angle of The angle of elevation is the angle between the horizontal line of sight
elevation or an angle of depression. The figure below shows each of and the line of sight up to an object. For example, if you are standing on
these kinds of angles. the ground looking up at the top of a mountain, you could measure the
angle of elevation.
Angle of Depression
The angle of depression is the angle between the horizontal line of sight
and the line of sight down to an object. For example, if you were
standing on top of a hill or a building, looking down at an object, you
could measure the angle of depression.
You can measure these angles using a clinometer or a theodolite.

People tend to use clinometers or theodolites to measure the height of
trees and other tall objects. Here we will solve several problems
involving these angles and distances.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example 3
You are standing 20m away from a tree, and you measure the angle of
elevation to be 38°. How tall is the tree?
Solution:
The solution depends on your height, as you measure the angle of
elevation from your line of sight. Assume that you are 1.5m tall. Then the
figure below shows the triangle you are solving
The figure shows us that once we find the value of T, we have to add
1.5 to this value to find the total height of the triangle. To find T, we
should use the tangent value:
𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑇
tan(380 ) = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗 20
𝑇 = 20𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛 (380 ) = 15.63𝑚
1.5 1.5
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = (15.63 + 1.5)𝑚
m m
= 17.13𝑚
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example 4
You are standing on top of a building, looking at park in the distance.

The angle of depression is 53°. If the building you are standing on is 100
m tall, how far away is the park? Does your height matter?
Solution:
If we ignore the height of the person, we solve the following triangle:
Given the angle of depression is 53°, angle A in the figure above is 37°.
We can use the tangent function to find the distance from the building to
the park:
𝒐𝒑𝒑 𝒅
𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝟑𝟕°) = =
𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝟑𝟕°) = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟑𝟔𝒎
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
If we take into account the height if the person, this will change the value
of the adjacent side. For example, if the person is 1.5 m tall, we have a
different triangle:
𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑑
tan(37°) = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗 101.5
𝑑 = 101.5𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛(37°) = 76.48𝑚
If you are only looking to estimate a distance, then you can ignore the
height of the person taking the measurements. However, the height of
the person will matter more in situations where the distances or lengths
involved are smaller. For example, the height of the person will influence
the result more in the tree height problem than in the building problem,
as the tree is closer in height to the person than the building is.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example 5
From a 200 ft observation tower on the beach, a man sights a whale in 200
𝑡𝑎𝑛7° =
difficulty. The angle of depression of the whale is 7⁰. How far is the 𝑥
whale from the shoreline? 200
𝑥= = 1628.66𝑓𝑡
Solution: 0.1228
The angle of depression from the man to the whale is the angle that an
imaginary line connecting the man and the whale makes with respect to
the horizontal; since the man has to look downwards to spot the whale,
this is called the angle of depression (if, on the other hand, he was
spotting a plane in the air, he would have to look upwards and the angle
would be called the elevation angle).
The correct picture showing all the data is shown in Figure 1.
From the right triangle, we see that
Tower
Angle of depression
7⁰
7
⁰
X e
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Right Triangles and Bearings to an angle from the north, towards the west. N 70° E is the same as the
angle shown in the graph above. N 70° W would result in an angle in the
We can also use right triangles to find distances using angles given as second quadrant.
bearings. In navigation, a bearing is the direction from one object to
another. In air navigation, bearings are given as angles rotated
clockwise from the north. The graph below shows an angle of 70
degrees:
It is important to keep in mind that angles in navigation problems are

measured this way, and not the same way angles are measured in the
unit circle. Further, angles in navigation and surveying may also be
given in terms of north, east, south, and west. For example, N70° E
refers to an angle from the north, towards the east, while N70° W refers
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example 6 Solution
A ship travels on a N50° E course. The ship travels until it is due north of The angle opposite d is the complement of 50°, which is 40°. Therefore
a port which is 10 nautical miles due east of the port from which the ship we can find d using the cosine function:
originated. How far did the ship travel?
𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝟏𝟎
𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟒𝟎°) = =
𝒉𝒚𝒑 𝒅
𝟏𝟎
𝒅= = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝒏𝒎
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟒𝟎°)
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example 7
You are building a ramp so that people in wheelchairs can access a

building. If the ramp must have a height of 8 feet, and the angle of the
ramp must be about 5°, how long must the ramp be?
Given that we know the angle of the ramp and the length of the side
opposite the angle, we can use the sine ratio to find the length of the
ramp, which is the hypotenuse of the triangle.
𝟖
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟓𝟎 ) =
𝑳
𝑳𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓° = 𝟖
𝟖
𝑳= = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟖𝒇𝒕
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓°
This may seem like a long ramp, but in fact a 5° ramp angle is what is
required by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). This explains why
many ramps are comprised of several sections, or have turns. The
additional distance is needed to make up for the small slope.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example 8
Right triangle trigonometry is also used for measuring distances that

could not actually be measured. This example shows a calculation of the
distance between the moon and the sun. This calculation requires that
we know the distance from the earth to the moon. In the following
example, we assume this distance, and use a right triangle to find the
distance between the moon and the sun.
The earth, moon, and sun create a right triangle during the first quarter
moon. The distance from the earth to the moon is about 240,002.5
miles. What is the distance between the sun and the moon?
Solution:
Let d = the distance between the sun and the moon. We can use the
tangent function to find the value of d:
d
tan(89. 50 ) =
240,002.5
d = 240,002.5xtan(89.5°) = 91,673992.71 miles
Therefore the distance between the sun and the moon is much larger
than the distance between the earth and the moon.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Technical Terms
Angle of depression
The angle between the horizontal line of sight, and the line of sight down
to a given point
Angle of elevation
The angle between the horizontal line of sight, and the line of sight up to
a given point
Bearings
The direction from one object to another, usually measured as an angle.
Clinometer
A device used to measure angles of elevation or depression.
Theodolite
A device used to measure angles of elevation or depression.
Nautical mile
A nautical mile is a unit of length that corresponds approximately to one
minute of latitude along any meridian. A nautical mile is equal to 1.852
kilometers.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Exercise 1.3.2
1. Solve the triangle:
2. Use the Pythagorean Theorem to verify the sides of the triangle

in example 2.
3. The angle of elevation from the ground to the top of a flagpole is

measured to be 53°. If the measurement was taken from 15 feet
away, how tall is the flagpole?
4. From the top of a hill, the angle of depression to a house is

measured to be 14°. If the hill is 30 feet tall, how far away is the
house?
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Inverse function of Cosine ratio
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0.5
𝜃 = arccos(0.5) = 60⁰
θ is the angle whose cosine ratio is 0.5.
Inverse function of tan ratio
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 1
𝜃 = arctan(1) = 45⁰
θ is the angle whose tan ratio is 1
They are like forward and backwards!
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Worked Examples
The inverse trigonometric functions sin−1(x), cos−1(x), and tan−1(x),

are used to find the unknown measure of an angle of a right triangle
when two side lengths are known.
Example 1:
The base of a ladder is placed 3 feet away from a 10-foot-high wall, so
that the top of the ladder meets the top of the wall. What is the measure
of the angle formed by the ladder and the ground?
Here we a have a right triangle where we know the lengths of the two
legs, that is, the sides opposite and adjacent to the angle. So, we use
the inverse tangent function. If you enter this into a calculator set to
"degree" mode, you get
10
tan−1 = 73.3°
3
If you have the calculator set to radian mode, you get
10
tan−1 ( ) = 1.28
3
If you've committed to memory the side length ratios that occur in 45-45-
90 and 30-60-90 triangles, you can probably find some values of inverse
trigonometric functions without using a calculator
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example
Find
√3
.cos −1 ( )
2
You may recall that in a 30-60-90 triangle, if the hypotenuse has length
√3
1, then the long leg has length .
2
Since cosine is the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse, the
value of the inverse cosine is 30°, or about 0.52 radians.
√3
cos−1 ( 2
) = 30⁰
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Exercise 1.3.3 Question 2
Examination type questions on Trigonometry
Question 1
Find the angle a°

a) 30°
b) 36.9°
Use the cosine function to find x, the distance across the seabed c) 38.7°
a) 23.31 m d) 53.1°
b) 24.29 m
c) 33.77 m
d) 37.05 m
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Question 3 Question 4
What is the size of angle a°?

a) 28.3°
What is the size of angle x°?
b) 30°
a) 33.7°
c) 32.6°
b) 40° d) 61.6°
c) 41.8°
d) 48.2°
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
What is the size of angle a°? What is the size of angle θ?

a) 30° a) 36.9°
b) 31.8° b) 120°
c) 40.4° c) 126.9°
d) 58.2° d) 143.1°
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Question 7
What is the value of θ?

a) 28.8°
b) 135°
c) 151.2°
d) 154.3°
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Measurement of Angles Definition of Radian
One Radian
There are two commonly used units of measurement for angles. The
more familiar unit of measurement is that of degrees. A circle is divided Consider a circle of radius r. 1 Radian is equal to the angle created by
into 360 equal degrees, so that a right angle is 90°. We shall, l only taking the radius r of any circle and stretching it along the perimeter of
consider angles between 0° and 360°, though at higher levels we do the circle as shown in the figure. The ratio between the arc length of r
define angles greater than 360° and negative angles. and the radius of the circle is therefore 1. Interestingly this angle would
remain the same whatever the radius of the circle.
Degrees may be further divided into minutes and seconds, but that
division is not as universal as it used to be. Each degree is divided into
60 equal parts called minutes. So seven and a half degree can be called
7 degrees and 30 minutes, written 7° 30'. Each minute is further divided
into 60 equal parts called seconds, and, for instance, 2 degrees 5 1 Radian is about 57.2958⁰
minutes 30 seconds is written 2° 5' 30". The division of degrees into
minutes and seconds of angle is analogous to the division of hours into
minutes and seconds of time.
Parts of a degree are now usually referred to decimally. For instance

seven and a half degrees is now usually written 7.5°.
Radians
Measuring angles in terms of degrees is used in applied areas such as
surveying, navigation and the design of mechanical equipment. In To find the radian measure corresponding to 360°, we must find the
scientific application that requires calculus, it is customary to employ number of times that a circular arc of length r can be laid off along the
radians as a measure of angle.
circumference. The number π is defined as the ratio between the length
The radian is a pure mathematical measurement and therefore is of the arc and the radius of any circle. This number is not an integer or
preferred by mathematicians over degree measures. For use in even a rational number. Thus, an angle of measure 2πr radians
everyday work, the degree is easier to work with, but for purely corresponds to the degree measure 360°, and we write 360° = 2 πr
mathematical pursuits, the radian gives better results. You probably will radians. This result gives us the following relationships.
never see radian measures used in construction or surveying, but it is a
common unit in mathematics and physics.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Relationships between Degrees & Radians We may use the techniques illustrated in the preceding chart to obtain
the following table, which displays the corresponding radian and degree
(1) 180° = π radians measure of special angles.
(2) 1° = π/180 radian = 0.0175 radian

Radians π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2 2π/3 3π/4 5π/6 π
degrees 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180
(3)1 radian = (180°/π) = 57.2958° Radians 7π/6 5π/4 4π/3 3π/2 5π/3 7π/4 11π/6 2π
degrees 210 225 240 270 300 315 330 360
When radian measure of an angle is used, no units will be indicated.
Thus, if an angle has radian measure 5, we write θ = 5 instead of θ = 5
radians. There should be no confusion as to whether radian or degree Several of these special angles, in radian measure, are shown in
measure is being used, since if θ has degree measure 5°, we write θ = standard position in the following figure.
5°, and not θ = 5.
The following table illustrates how to change from one angular measure
to another.
To change Multiply by Illustration
π π 5π
Degrees to radians 1500 = 150x ( )=
180° 180 6
180° 7π 7π 180°
Radians to degrees = x( ) = 315°
π 4 4 π
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Radians and Arc Length Radians and Sector Area
An alternate definition of radians is sometimes given as a ratio. Take A sector of a circle is that part of a circle bounded by two radii and the
any circle with centre at the vertex of the angle. Then the radian arc of the circle that joins their ends. The area of this sector is easy to
measure of the angle is the ratio of the length of the subtended arc to compute from the radius r of the circle and the angle θ between the radii
the radius r of the circle. when it’s measured in radians. Since the area of the whole circle is πr2,
and the sector is to the whole circle as the angle θ is to 2π, therefore
For instance, if the length of the arc is 3 and the radius of the circle is 2,
then the radian measure is 1.5.
The reason that this definition works is that the length of the
subtended arc is proportional to the radius of the circle. In particular,
the definition in terms of a ratio gives the same figure as that given
above using the unit circle. This alternate definition is more useful,
however, since you can use it to relate lengths of arcs to angles. The
length of an arc is the radius r times the angle θ where the angle is
measured in radians.
For instance, an arc of θ = 0.3 radians in a circle of radius r = 4 has

length 0.3 times 4, that is, 1.2.
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Sin and tan of small angles equal to the angle in radians
the sine and the tan ratio of small angles tend to equal the angle itself
measured in radians. For example look at the table below which r
tabulates the angle x measured in radians and the sine ratio of that 1
angle. We observe that as the angle gets smaller the sine x = x itself. r
This approximation leads to very interesting formulas in physics such as
the equation that gives the period (T) of a swinging pendulum. r
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
x Terminology Definition Illustration

1 0.1 0.01 0.001 For
(radians) very 01 acute angle 0⁰ < θ < 90⁰ 90° 12° ; 37°
small
sin(x) 0.8414710 0.0998334 0.0099998 0.0009999998 value 02 obtuse angle 90⁰ < θ < 180⁰ 180° 95° ; 157°
s. "x"
and "sin(x)" are almost the same 03 complementary α+ β = 90⁰ (20°,70° ); (7°, 83)
(as long as "x" is in Radians!) angles
04 supplementary α+ β + γ = 180⁰ (115°, 65°); (18°,

angles 162°)
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Example
Finding complementary angles
Find the angle that is complementary to θ:
(a) θ = 25°43' 37"
(b) θ = 73.26°
Solution
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Question 4
Exercise 1.3.4
5 revolutions are the same as:
Examination Type Review Questions a) 5π rads
Question 1 b) 7½π rads
180° is the same as: c) 10π rads
a) ½π rads d) 12½π rads
b) π rads
c) 1½π rads Question 5
d) 2π rads 90° is the same as:
a) ½π rads
Question 2 b) π rads
1 complete turn is the same as: c) 1½π rads
a) ½π rads d) 2π rads
b) π rads
c) 1½π rads Question 6
d) 2π rads 1 rad is the same as:
a) (90⁄𝜋)°
Question 3 b) (180⁄𝜋)°
2 revolutions are the same as: c) (270⁄𝜋)°
a) 2π rads d) (360⁄𝜋)°
b) 3π rads
c) 4π rads
d) 5π rads
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
2 rads is the same as: 6π rads is the same as:
a) (90⁄𝜋)° a) 1080⁰
b) (180⁄𝜋)° b) 1440⁰
c) (270⁄𝜋)° c) 1620⁰
d) (360⁄𝜋)° d) 1800⁰
5 rads is the same as: ½π rads is the same as:
a) (450⁄𝜋)° a) 45⁰
b) (500⁄𝜋)° b) 90⁰
c) (900⁄𝜋)° c) 135⁰
d) (1000⁄𝜋)° d) 180⁰
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Some Trigonometric Relationships 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶

( )2 + ( )2 = ( )2
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
(𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 + (𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 = 1
A
We may verify this for any angle by using the values from the table
1 3
(𝑆𝑖𝑛 30)2 + (𝐶𝑜𝑠 30)2 = + = 1
4 4
This has been verified to be true for 30 deg. We can try it for any angle and it
would hold true.
B C
In this triangle ABC
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
Sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑠θ = 𝐴𝐶
From pythagoras
(𝐴𝐵)2 + (𝐵𝐶)2 = (𝐴𝐶)2
Dividing this equation by (𝐴𝐶)2
(𝐴𝐵)2 (𝐵𝐶)2 (𝐴𝐶)2

+ =
(𝐴𝐶)2 (𝐴𝐶)2 (𝐴𝐶)2
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Polar/Rectangular Coordinates An alternative way of specifying the position of a point on a plane would
be to give first its distance from the origin and second the angle the line
In previous chapters it was shown that (x, y) coordinates were used to joining it to the origin makes with the x-axis. This is the basis of polar
represent points of a plane. coordinates.
(a, b) y
y
(r, Φ)
b r
a
0 Φ
x
x
By choosing a pair of perpendicular axes (x & y), then each pair of real The point is at distance r from the origin, such that the line joining it from
numbers (a & b) determines a unique point of a plane. The intersection the origin makes an angle Φ with the positive x axis, has polar
of the two reference numbers completes a rectangle; such coordinates coordinates (r, Φ).
are sometimes known as rectangular coordinates (they are also
referred to as Cartesian coordinates).
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
therefore
r is called the polar or radial distance, and Φ is called a polar angle.
x  r cos  and y  r sin 
Although the student will not be required to perform extensive
calculations using either system in this module, a basic appreciation is
necessary. This should include the ability to relate one system to the
other. The rectangular coordinates corresponding to the polar coordinates (r,
Φ) are (r cosΦ, r sinΦ)
To convert polar coordinates to rectangular is relatively easy.
Example
If we are given a point with polar coordinates (r, Φ)
(r, Φ)
r
y
x x
From trigonometry we can determine x and y
x y
cos   and sin  
r r
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
The problem of converting from rectangular to polar coordinates is only

slightly more difficult.
y
(x, y)
x x
By Pythagoras Theorem,
the length r  x  y2
and the angle Φ is such that
x x y y
cos    and sin   
r x2  y 2 r x2  y 2
1.3 Geometry
Training Manual
Answers to Exercises Exercise 1.3.3
Exercise 1.3.1
1. a)
1.  b =  c opp angles,  a supplementary angle b or  c
2. b)
2. 72, (b) 44, (c) 37,( d) 26 (e)83 3. c)

4. a)
3. 144, (b) 168 (c)78 (d) 9 (e) 92 5. b)
6. d)
4. 49 (b) 30 (c) 90 (d) 60 7. c)
5. 30 (b) 10 (c) 9 (d) 60 (e) 34.6

Exercise 1.3.4
6. a+d=90, (b) 90, (c) 75
i. b)
Exercise 1.3.2 ii. d)
iii. c)
iv. c)
v. a)
1. A = 58⁰, b = 5.83, a = 9.33 vi. b)
vii. d)
2. 62 + 5.032 = 36 + 25.3009 = 61.3009 = 7.832
viii. c)
3. About 19.9 feet tall ix. a)
x. b)
4. About 120.3 feet

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Basic Maintenance Module 1 Mathematics

1.1 Arithmetic ............................................................... 3 Square, Cubes and Cube Roots ....................................................... 71

Terms and Signs ................................................................................ 4 Volume of a Cube ............................................................................. 72

Methods of Multiplication .................................................................... 4

Terms and Signs Example 2

There are various terms and signs in basic mathematics.

The following table gives you general guidelines on how to multiply

1x1=1 2x1=2 3x1=3 4x1=4 5x1=5 6x1=6

1x2=2 2x2=4 3x2=6 4x2=8 5 x 2 = 10 6 x 2 = 12

1x3=3 2x3=6 3x3=9 4 x 3 = 12 5 x 3 = 15 6 x 3 = 18

7x1=7 8x1=8 9x1=9 10 x 1 = 10 11 x 1 = 11 12 x 1 = 12

7 x 10 = 70 8 x 10 = 80 9 x 10 = 90 10 x 10 = 100 11 x 10 = 110 12 x 10 = 120

7 x 11 = 77 8 x 11 = 88 9 x 11 = 99 10 x 11 = 110 11 x 11 = 121 12 x 11 = 132

7 x 12 = 84 8 x 12 = 96 9 x 12 = 108 10 x 12 = 120 11 x 12 = 132 12 x 12 = 144

This division may be done by long division as shown below

* Quotient is the whole number obtained by division.

Do the following multiplications & divisions without using the calculator.

Fraction and Decimals Exercise 1.1.2

Proper Fractions Improper Fractions and Mixed Fractions Exercise 1.1.3

Multiply integral part and denominator

To express an improper fraction as a mixed number, we divide the

Factors and Multiples

We call each of these number a factor of 60.

Conversely, we call 60 a multiple of each of the number

2) List the multiples of 5 by multiplying 5 with 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, we

Prime Numbers and Composite Numbers c) 9

1) Write down all the factors of each of the following.

Index Notation 3) Express 252 in prime factors

2) Express each of the following as a product of prime factors using

Highest Common Factor Exercise 1.1.6

And the factors of 36 is 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36. a) 6 and 9

6 is the highest common factor. (HCF) c) 27 and 36

60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 = 22 x 3 x 5 x 1 2) Find the HCF of the following:

The HCF of 60, 180 and 210 is 2 x 3 x 5 x 1 = 30 c) 45 and 42

Lowest Common Multiple

The smallest of all common multiple of 9 and 12 is 36. We call 36 the 24 = 23 x 3

Choose the biggest power of each prime factor.

1) Find the LCM of each of the following pairs of numbers:

e) 120 and 135

2) Find the HCF and LCM of each of the following:

d) 140 and 210

Comparing Fractions Exercise 1.1.8

Rearranging the fractions in the ascending order give.

Addition and subtraction of fractions with the same denominator Example 2

2 3 2+3 5 7 2 7x5 2x8

Addition and subtraction of fractions with different denominator 35 − 16

Worked Examples In adding or subtracting with different denominators we must first

Addition and subtraction of mixed numbers and improper fractions Example 2

Worked Examples Evaluate

Evaluate the following

Division of a fraction by another fraction Example 2

Exercise 1.1.10 Arithmetic Operations on Fractions

form. 4) When an expression contains only multiplications and

Calculate the expression within the bracket first 1 1 1 8

Decimal System Similarly

We know that The dot is called the decimal point

Means 4 thousands, 2 hundreds, 6 tens, 9 ones, 3 tenths and 9

Example 1 Worked Examples

4 zeros 4 decimal places

3 zeros 3 decimal places

Conversion of Decimals to Fractions Exercise 1.1.12

Addition and Subtraction of Decimals Exercise 1.1.13

a) 137.45 + 145.25 + 12.106 c) 83.72 + 16.43 + 1.4 + 25.63