Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Application of chopped basalt fibers in reinforced mortar: A review

R. Ralegaonkar a,b,⇑, H. Gavali a, P. Aswath b, S. Abolmaali c
a
Department of Civil Engineering at VNIT, Nagpur, India
b
Material Science and Engineering Department, University of Texas, Arlington, United States
c
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas, Arlington, United States

h i g h l i g h t s

 Application of chopped basalt fibers for mortar design was reviewed extensively.
 Chopped basalt fibers were assessed for several properties.
 Mix design of fiber-reinforced mortar was analyzed from the studied literature.
 Physico-mechanical, durability and dynamic properties of mortars were reviewed.
 Application of suitable chopped basalt fiber proportion in mortar is examined.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Appropriate mortar design is one of the key challenges as connections between two structural elements
Received 15 June 2017 play a significant role in building construction. Appropriate design refers to the selection of suitable con-
Received in revised form 6 November 2017 stituents with their relative proportion for producing mortar of required workability, strength and dura-
Accepted 29 December 2017
bility in a cost effective manner. The mortar designed with suitable fiber reinforcement shall significantly
Available online 6 January 2018
help to enhance the fresh, mechanical, durability and dynamic properties. In view of the significance of
chopped basalt fibers (CBF) for mortar strengthening, the present study elaborates the application of CBF
Keywords:
for mortar design. The CBF manufacturing, the engineering properties and relevant advantages of its
Chopped basalt fibers (CBF)
Reinforced mortar design
application are elaborated in the study. The study is extended further with relevant literature indicating
Physico-mechanical the challenges of mix design of appropriate CBF reinforced mortar, various test methods and standards
Durability and dynamic properties used to evaluate its performance and possible applications in civil engineering. The improved perfor-
mance of the CBF reinforced mortar not only signifies its potential use for the application, but also is help-
ful to standardize the process of reinforced mortar design.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
2. Chopped basalt fibers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
3. Mortar reinforced with chopped basalt fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
4. Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Civil Engineering at VNIT, Nagpur, India.

E-mail addresses: rvralegaonkar@civ.vnit.ac.in (R. Ralegaonkar), aswath@exchange.uta.edu (P. Aswath), abolmaali@uta.edu (S. Abolmaali).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.12.245
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
590 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602

1. Introduction

0.01–0.03
Conventional mortar in construction primarily contains binder
and fine aggregate in a specific proportion along with water.

S
Although, it is being used to bind two structural elements like brick
to brick or any end connection of beam and column, due to high

0.01–0.03
compressive strength, there is always a challenge for the applica-
tion due to its brittle behavior, easy to crack because of the shrink-

Cr
age of the materials, concentration of stress, low tensile strength
and weakness in impact resistance, etc. [1]. As a result, the struc-

0.01–0.04
tures begin to suffer degradation after a specific time. To develop
a sustainable engineering structure, a number of previous studies

Zr
have shown that the optimum percentage and type of fiber can
increase the workability, slump flow prevention, setting time,

0.02–0.04
fluidity [2–4] and mechanical properties like impact resistance,
splitting tensile and flexural strength [5,6] of mortar. The use of

Sr
fibers in the mortar can also significantly enhance the bond
strength between the old substrate and the repair materials, which

0.03–0.05
is one of the most important requirements for a successful repair
[1,7–10]. In addition, utilizing fibers in the mortar also substan-

Ba
tially improves the fracture toughness and flexural post cracking
behavior of the mixture. Likewise, the presence of fibers also lowers
width and number of cracks in the mortar due to bridging action

0.02–0.08
of them [11,12] and improves the durability properties of mortar,
like abrasion resistance and freeze thaw resistance [13,14].

B
The present study briefs the possible application of various
cement composites reinforced with chopped basalt fibers. The

0.05–0.1
paper further elaborates the origin and development of chopped
basalt fibers. The physico-mechanical property investigation of

P
chopped basalt fibers is also discussed. To enhance the properties
of chopped basalt fibers, several studies indicating the desired

0.1–0.2
treatments are studied further. The influence of these chopped

Mn
basalt fibers for various mix designs of several mortar mix is briefly
discussed along with relevant tests related to fresh, mechanical,
durability, functional and dynamic mortar properties including 0.4–0.6
specific civil engineering applications. The findings of the literature
Ti

study signify the potential use of chopped basalt fibers as better

reinforcement to cement mortar. It also helps to standardize the
0.1–1.6

design process of reinforced mortar.

Mg
1.4–1.8

2. Chopped basalt fibers

K

In order to improve the structural integrity, conventional mor-

tar needs to be reinforced with fibers. Although, various fibers such
2.1–2.3

as carbon, organic, glass, and synthetic may be applied for the

Na

strengthening of mortar, the present paper, reviews the application

of chopped basalt fibers as they are extracted from volcanic basalt
4.0–4.5

rock, and thus is natural and need lesser energy. Chopped basalt
fibers are manufactured by thermo-chemical process with the vol-
Ca
Element ratios of high temperature basalt rock ore [15].

canic basalt rock as the raw material (Tables 1 and 2). Basalt fibers
are manufactured by melting the washed acidic basalt rock (silica
6.0–6.6

>46% white) at around 1400 °C. The major examples of the con-
Fe

stituent mineral of considered an igneous (basalt) rock includes

plagioclase: Na (AlSi3O8)-Ca (Al2SiO8); pyroxene: XY2[(Si, Al)2O6]
(where X represents Ca, Mg, Fe2+ and Y represents Fe3+, Al, Ti);
8.7–9.3

and olivine: (Fe, Mg)2 SiO4 [15]. The rheological characteristics

Al

such as primarily surface tension, density, crystallizability, the vis-

cosity and behavior of basalt melts determine the elemental
23.5–28.8

chance of producing a continuous fiber from it [16]. The melted

material is forced through a platinum-rhodium bushing. The fibers
Si

are then extruded under hydrostatic pressure and are formed in a

certain range of temperature and viscosity. Corresponding to these
Wt (%)

phenomena, the melt’s viscosity at the outlet of the bushing and its
Table 1

temperature is considered as the lower limit of the operating vis-

cosity and the upper limit of the operating temperature range
 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602 591

respectively [17]. The larger fiberizability (proportion of viscosity

0.01–0.03
to surface tension) leads to much stable process. Using the cut
machines, the produced continuous basalt fibers are chopped fur-

SO
ther for desired composite application. The fiber dimensions are
generally in the significant range 10–20 mm in diameter and 3–

0.01–0.05
130 mm in length [18]. Application of chopped basalt fibers has
advantages as can be used in varying geometrical parameters (i.e.

Cr2O3
diameter and length) and in random orientation. The prior investi-
gations also reveal that the surface properties and morphology of
basalt fibers avoid any harmful or carcinogenic impacts and cause
0.02–0.05
no hazard to people [19,20]. Another significant advantage is man-
ZrO2

ufacturing process of basalt fiber consumes less energy and is

cheaper than glass or carbon fibers [21].
The various previously mentioned engineered basalt fiber prop-
0.02–0.06

erties could suitably be determined using experimentation [22,23].

Cerny et al. [22] determined the content of SiO2 by gravimetric
SrO

analysis, that of TiO2, Fe2O3 and P2O5 by UV–visible spectrometry,

FeO and Al2O3 content by volumetric analysis, and content of MnO,
0.03–0.07

MgO, Na2O, and K2O by atomic absorption spectrometry. In addi-

tion, the chemical composition of prototype basalt fibers was
BaO

obtained using electron micro analyses. Actual cross-sections of

the fiber tows were determined from microscopic observation of
0.1–0.3

the metallographically polished specimens with filaments

B2O3

mounted perpendicularly to the polished surface. The X-ray

diffraction (XRD) was used to detect structural changes, which
may occur during thermal treatment of the investigated fibers.
0.1–0.3
P2O5

The fibers were studied by the powder diffraction method. The

samples were powdered in ethyl alcohol and mounted onto silicon
diffraction-free sample holder. The data were obtained in the con-
0.1–0.3

tinuous scanning mode between 20 and 100° at 2 theta angles with

MnO

step 0.05° and counting time 250 s. The obtained data were ana-
lyzed using the High Score software.
As per thermal gravimetric analysis (Fig. 1) the basalt fiber’s
0.7–1.0

(B1) thermal stability (around 40 °C more) is better than glass fiber

TiO2

(G1) [24]. The crystallization behavior and presence of iron oxide

in the production of continues basalt fibers influence the heat tem-
0.20–2.5

perature stability [25,26]. The thermal stability and crystallization

MgO

of basalt fibers was examined with the effect of ZrO2 and 5–7% wt
for modifying the same was recommended by Lipatov et al. [27].
Kim [28,29] studied the option of using chopped basalt fiber to
1.8–2.1

form thermally stable composites with an epoxy based bicompo-

K2O

nent resin system (20%–50% of epoxy content with 10% of basalt

fiber) and benzoxazine monomer or bisphenol F type epoxy resin.
2.8–3.3

Tabi et al. [30] concentrated the attention on poly-lactic acid (PLA)

Na2O
Oxide equivalent composition ratios of high temperature basalt rock ore [15].

composites, which were strengthened with chopped silane basalt

fibers. Using injection and extrusion molding techniques the fiber
composites were prepared. Dynamic mechanical analysis, SEM
5.5–6.8

observations, melt flow index analysis, differential scanning

CaO

calorimetry, dimensional stability test and heat deflection temper-

ature analysis were carried out. Based on experimental data
FeO + Fe2O3

obtained from three-point bending, tensile and dynamic mechani-

8.0–9.7

cal tests it was observed that the treated chopped basalt fibers are
efficient in reinforcing PLA composites than natural fibers.
Egerhazi et al. [31] made the comparison of long and fiber rein-
forced composites with chopped basalt fiber (13 mm diameter (Ø),
16.1–19.2

10 mm Length (L)) reinforced PLA composites formed by using the

Al2O3

conventional dry mixing, extrusion and injection molding tech-

niques. In case of 20% weight reinforcement, the flexural, tensile
and the average impact strength increased by 1.26, 1.27 and 2.7
57.1–61.2

times, respectively, indicating better mechanical properties of the

long basalt fiber than short basalt fibers. Typical Physico-
SiO2

mechanical properties related to specific basalt fiber were specified

by Jian-Jun Table 3 [32].
Wt (%)

Reza Khalili et al. [33] prepared a matrix by mixing chopped

Table 2

basalt fiber with a polypropylene–clay mixture. It was observed

that the yield strength and modulus of elasticity have been signif-
592 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602
Basalt Fiber
Fig. 1. X-ray diffraction patterns of the pristine and heat-treated to 650 and 750 °C basalt and glass fibers [24]. Note: cpx – clinopyroxene, sp – spinel.
Table 3
Physico-mechanical properties of basalt fiber [32].
Performance Density (g/cm3) Elongation (%)
Basalt Fiber 2.65 2.4–3.0
icantly improved due to this approach. Due to ductility and ease of
availability, basalt has been used for reinforcing the matrix. Basalt
has higher tensile strength as well as elongation at break. It can
enhance the environmental sustainability and impact resistance.
Botev et al. [34] studied the tensile strength properties of chopped
basalt fibers treated with the polypropylene-g-maleic anhydride. It
was shown that the bonding between basalt fiber and the matrix
increases due to hybridization that ultimately improves the
mechanical properties [35,36].
During the chemical durability study of basalt fibers, it was
observed that, it has poor acid resistance, but better alkali attack
resistance [37]. After corrosion treatments, the mechanical behav-
ior of basalt fibers found to be better than glass fibers [38]. The
degradation in E-glass fibers was seen to be extreme. Myadara-
boina et al. [39] worked on the durability of basalt fiber in a variety
of chemical solutions (sodium hydroxide, sodium chloride, sodium
sulfate and combinations of the three). The effect on durability was
measured by calculating the weight loss after soaking fibers in dif-
ferent solutions over a period of 62 days. The condition of the fibers
was also examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Fig. 2).
It was concluded that neither chloride ions nor sulfate ions alone
have any deleterious effect on the basalt fibers. However, in an
alkaline environment equivalent to a pH 12.5, severe degradation
was observed. Degradation increased in an alkaline environment
Fig. 2. SEM images of BF after 62 days treatment with (a) 3% NaCl, (b) 10% Na2SO4, (c) 1 M NaOH, (d) 1 M NaOH + 3% NaCl, (e) 1 M NaOH + 10% Na2SO4, (f) 1 M NaOH + 10%
Na2SO4 + 3%NaCl.
Glass fiber
Modulus of elasticity (E) (GPa) Tensile strength (MPa)
95–115 3000–4500
due to the presence of sulfate ions. The application of thick coat-
ings of zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) over
the basalt fibers could improve its durability when exposed to var-
ious chemicals like Ca(OH)2 and NaOH. Rather than alkaline resis-
tance, the other authors demonstrated higher confrontation of the
basalt fibers in the acidic environment [40,41]. Corrosion of basalt
fibers can be controlled using alkaline solution, the ZrO2 coating
[42] on the surface of the fiber. Furthermore, the coated (alkaline
solution) and uncoated basalt fibers were incorporated in a cement
matrix for reinforcements. The phase composition, the morphology
of the fiber was studied by using different analytical methods
before exposure to alkaline media as well as after exposure. The
corrosion behavior of TiO2 and ZrO2 coated basalt fiber in Ca
(OH)2 and NaOH solutions was also examined [43]. It was shown
that the oxides coating retards corrosion and concluded that rather
than TiO2, ZrO2 is more effective to improve the corrosion resis-
tance of basalt fibers.
For the composite products, rather than glass, the basalt fibers
are a good substitute. The density of basalt fiber is more than glass
fiber (2.80 versus 2.56 g/cub. cm), but the mechanical properties of
it are better as compared to that of glass fibers. Moreover, basalt
fiber has the properties such as high thermal stability, better flex-
ibility and stability in alkaline and acidic media [38,40]. As com-
pared to glass fibers, the elastic modulus (E) of basalt fiber is
 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602
(1.06 times) more [44]. The manufacturing process of basalt fiber
consumes less energy, desires no additives, and is cheaper than
the manufacturing process of glass fiber process [45].
3. Mortar reinforced with chopped basalt fibers
Although basalt fibers have enough engineering properties, its
association with cement mortar and reduction in cross section dur-
ing cement hydration is a primary concern. Stupishin et al. [46]
examined the level of basalt fiber destruction in a cement medium
using an optic and electronic microscope concluded that the dam-
age of the structure was nominal. Chatterji et al. patented the
application of basalt fiber for reinforced mortar design [47]. He
suggested the use of different types and blends of cement (Ordi-
nary Portland cement, gypsum cement, pozzolana cement, slag
cement, silica cement, high alumina content cement and combina-
tions thereof), with sand, water, foam, super plasticizer, etc. Pre-
ferred basalt fibers were having a diameter and length in the
range from about 9–13 mm, and 3–6 mm respectively. Fiber pro-
portion within the mortar in the range from about 0.1–1.5% wt of
the cement was recommended. Palou et al. (2013) performed dif-
ferential thermal analysis (DTA) and thermogravimetry (TG) anal-
ysis on fiber-reinforced cement composites [48]. Experimentation
was done by using cement 42.5, high alumina cement 70, silica
fumes, blast furnace slag in proportions by weight of 54:23:23:0
& 54:23:14:9, and basalt fibers (0.01%) along with water. The spec-
imens were steam cured at 100 °C for 30 min. The hardened spec-
imens were demolded immediately after the pre-curing procedure.
Later, the specimens were kept in an autoclave for durations of 1, 3
and 7 days with incremental pressure of 0.3 MPa–2.0 MPa. Further,
these samples were immersed in the temperate water at a decided
time of autoclaving. Mechanical properties were tested after the
curing periods of 1, 3 and 7 days. A few fragments were used for
the SEM test (for analysis of microstructure) after drying them in
a vacuum oven at 100 °C to study the morphology of hydrated
product. The Thermogravimetry analysis was carried out on the
dried sample having a diameter and weight not more than 10
mm and 2 g respectively. The pore structure parameters of the
composite were estimated using Mercury intrusion porosimeter
(MIP). Microstructure analysis, thermal analysis and MIP of fiber-
reinforced binder composites evaluated the phases that occurred
during adopted curing. The porosities by crystallization pressure
could be enhanced in hardened pastes, which reduce compression
strength. At an earlier period of hydrothermal curing, due to the
chemical process, the formation of hydrated products like C–S–H,
C3AH6 and AH3 occurs preferentially at low pressure. In the later
curing period under higher pressure, the secondary reaction occurs
from C–S–H and AH3, which forms C2ASH8. The partial thermal
decomposition of C3AH6 into C3AH1.5 at high pressure and at later
curing period occurs preferentially causing the carbonation of the
sample. C3AH6 was partially carbonated, while C3AH1.5 completely
carbonated. The reaction between C-S-H and AH3 at increasing
pressure and time of curing forms newer stage. Whereas, during
the early stage AH3 converted C3AH6 through reaction with CA.
As the binder solidifies crystallization, pressure is developed that
leads to other physico-chemical processes. Gurieva and Belova
(2016) studied the mortar stone structure by comparing the sam-
ples of the basalt fiber reinforced solution and the solution without
reinforcement [49]. Investigation of the slurry microstructure
revealed that administration of a modified microfiber basaltic com-
position reduced the size, pores, cracks and defects. This was
because of the presence of a carbon nano-modifier, the acerous cal-
cium silicate neoplasms that were formed fills the voids in the
stone structure and helps to seal it. The interface reinforcing micro-
fibers and a cement-sand matrix was characterized by a tight grip,
593
thereby increasing the efficiency of the particulate reinforcement
in the cement. The results of the X-ray diffraction data confirm
the electron microscopy data. They also point to the growth rate
of tumors gel (calcium hydro silicate type C-S-H (I and II)). Estab-
lished features of the cement-sand mortar structure, which was
modified basalt microfiber reinforcement, allowed to explain the
increase in physico-mechanical properties of the dispersion-
reinforced mortar.
Quattrociocchi et al. [50] investigated the physico-mechanical
and micro-structural properties of mortars reinforced with fibers.
Two kinds of basalt fibers were used for designing different mor-
tars. The hydraulic binders chosen for the mortars were Portland
limestone, cement (complying EN 197-1: 2011) [51], labeled as
‘‘PIIa” and ‘‘PIIb” indicated as cement for structural and renewal
applications respectively. The ratio of binder to aggregate was cho-
sen as 1:2 by weight. The fine aggregate used for the study was the
siliceous feldspathic sand having a particle size range between 180
and 600 lm. The basalt fibers (6.35 mm length, and diameter in
the range of 10–19 lm) added to the matrix was in the proportions
of 1%, 3% and 6% by weight. In order to determine the best working
condition, the different mixing parameters were used to assess the
workability and dispersion of fibers. For each composition three
mortar specimens were prepared as per the standards UNI EN
1015-11: 2007 [52]. The ratio of binder to aggregate was kept con-
stant, assuming the fibers as a part of the aggregate. The water to
binder ratio was also maintained in order to ensure the best work-
ability. The mechanical properties and water absorption of the
mortars were evaluated as per UNI EN 1015-11: 2007 [52] and
UNI 1015-18: 2004 [53] respectively. The dispersion of relatively
large fibers was found more difficult with increasing content in
the mixture, in turn reduced workability of the mix. Thus, the addi-
tion of water demand for the mix subsequently resulted in a poten-
tial increase of porosity. Thus, it was concluded that beyond a
threshold the addition of fibers will not contribute to toughen
the material. The optimum fiber content for the performed study
was reported as 1 wt%.
Yun-Wang et al. [54] evaluated the influence of fluidity proper-
ties of (basalt) fiber reinforced blended cement composite. For a
mixing study of the basalt fiber in the mortar, the fluidity proper-
ties were evaluated for the six-replacement ratios of fly ash (10, 20,
30, 40, 50 and 60% by mass), five levels of super plasticizer (1.3, 1.5,
1.7, 1.9 and 2.1%) and for the five levels of liquid urethane (0.2, 0.4,
0.6, 0.8 and 1.0%). Also, the fluidity evaluation was carried out
using high volume fly ash (50 percentage by mass) for three basalt
fiber lengths (6, 20 and 30 mm). It was resulted that the viscosity
agent is much better than super plasticizer in improving the fluid-
ity for fiber dispersion.
Dong et al. [55] demonstrated that drying shrinkage can be
reduced for the cement mortar by reinforcing it with the basalt
fibers. Fiber reinforcement not only increases the toughness of
the mortar, but also increases the resistance to shock and plastic
shrinkage cracking. Besides, the basalt fiber reinforced mortars
were observed to have more early compression and flexural
strengths than plain mortar, but results in a lesser strength at
28-days age. Vyacheslava et al. [56] targeted the development of
masonry mortars with hollow ceramic microspheres and reinforc-
ing fibers with improved properties. The effect of various types of
fibers on the properties of mortar such as the average density,
compressive strength and tensile bending strength were studied.
A binder material CEM II/A-W 42.50H (Holcim) Portland cement
(9.80% granulated slag added) was used for the experimental work.
Lightweight filler, hollow ceramic microspheres with fractions of
10–500 lm was used. The water plummeting mediator, melamine
sulfonate in powdered form was used. To increase the mortar’s
adhesion strength as well as its tensile and compressive strength,
the redispersible powder of a copolymer of vinyl acetate and ethy-
594 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602
lene Vinnapas 8034H was added into the mortar. The anionic high
molecular surfactant was used to design lighter density mortar.
This study used the basalt fibers with the fiber length of 6 mm
and 12 mm. They were varied in the proportions from 0.2 to 1.2%
by mass of mortar mix at an interval of 0.2%. The basalt fibers with
fiber length of 12 mm with the dosage of 1% by mass of the binder
mass showed the greatest increase in strength as compared with
the reference composition. For the mortar reinforced with the
basalt fibers, the compressive strength increased by 47%
and the tensile bending strength (Fig. 8) increased by 55% as com-
pared with the reference composition. The microstructure analysis
of the masonry mortar with basalt fibers showed that the destruc-
tion of the fibers occurred in one cross-section with the cement
stone. Fibers were not visible on the fractured surface of the sam-
ple, which depicts that the strength of adhesion of basalt fibers
with the cement stone of the fibers was more than the tensile
strength.
Jiang et al. (2016) studied the behavior of mortar with respect to
the addition of basalt fibers for repair applications [57]. The various
properties of reinforced mortar were investigated as the fresh,
mechanical and durability properties. Fresh properties such as
workability (EN 1015-3 [58]), slump flow prevention, setting time
(EN 480-2 [59]) was found. The mechanical like flexural and com-
pressive strength (EN 1015-11 [60], bond strength- (DL/T5150-
2001 [61]) and the durability like drying shrinkage (ASTM
C1148-92 a [62]), abrasion resistance (ASTM C1138/97 [63]), water
permeability (DL/T5150-2001), freeze-thaw resistance (ASTM
C666 [64]) was investigated. The other properties of basalt fibers
such as length of 20 mm, density – 2.7 g/cm3, modulus of elasticity
93–110 GPa, diameter – 13 mm, tensile strength – 624 MPa, elonga-
tion at break – 3.1%, water absorption <0.5 was obtained. The rein-
forced mortar (BFRM-Ordinary Portland cement 45.5 Grade (680
kg/m3) as available in China, Natural river sand (1361.6 kg/m3),
water 367.3 kg/m3 and super plasticizer-sulfonated naphthalene-
formaldehyde with 2%–4% sodium sulfate (0.2%) with various fiber
contents of 0.6, 1.6 and 2.6 kg/m3 were used for the test. The
obtained results depict that incorporation of basalt fiber in the
mortar reduced the early workability but increased slump loss rate.
The bond strength of BFRM was increased by 10.60%–21.40% com-
pared to the controlled mix and FRM showed lesser drying shrink-
age, better abrasion resistance, freeze-thaw resistance and water
impermeability. The abrasion resistance strength of controlled
mortar was enhanced by around 39% due to BFRM with maximum
fiber content. However, there was no considerable difference in the
compressive strength. Therefore, it was concluded that due to bet-
ter abrasion resistance and bond strength, BFRM can be utilized for
structural repairs.
To design binding materials for restoration of buildings, the
microstructure and physico-mechanical investigations of lime-
based fiber reinforced hydraulic mortars were studied [65]. The
two combinations of mortar mixes were developed using a com-
mercially available hydraulic lime as a binder (SO3  63% and free
CaO  9%) and sand as a siliceous fine aggregate with the addition
of fibers into the mortars. There were two types of fibers namely
(a) basalt fiber (SiO2/Al2O3 – 5.2, strand-chopped, treat – Nil, length
– 4–5 mm, diameter – 8–10 mm, modulus of elasticity – 84 GPa)
and (b) glass fiber (SiO2/Al2O3 – 6.25, strand-chopped, treat-
sizing, length – 10 mm, diameter – 13 mm, modulus of elasticity
– 75 GPa). A reference mortar with no latex and fibers was pre-
pared and tested. Mortar mixtures (lime/sand – 1:3, water/solid
– 0.18–0.22, fibers – 1–2%, latex – 1.5%) were formed. The water
was added to obtain an average consistency and a good workabil-
ity. For improving the workability and the placement of the mor-
tars, polymeric latex was also added. The designed mortar
samples were cured for 28 days. Three-point flexural test was car-
ried out. Young’s modulus and flexural toughness were estimated
by processing flexural test curves. The results obtained confirm
that there was a considerable improvement in toughness of rein-
forced mortars. The best results were obtained for the addition of
2% glass fiber, both for the maximum strength (around 2.41 MPa)
and the toughness (0.08 MPa). As examined the designed rein-
forced mortars indicated a compatibility with existing structures
and concluded it to be a material for repairing the structures.
Li et al. (2012) presented the use of cement mortar containing
basalt fiber as repairing transition layer to improve the crack resis-
tance performance between old and new concrete repaired struc-
ture [66]. Basalt fiber with short cut, random fibers having an
average length, filament diameter, tensile strength, modulus of
elasticity and density as 5 mm, 9 lm, 2322 MP, 129 GPa and
2.80 g/cm3 respectively were used in cement mortar in proportion
of 0.6 wt%. The basalt fiber-defoaming agent, i.e. dispersant
(methylcellulose) was dissolved in water and stirred until the
fibers were mixed uniformly. After that, it was mixed with cement,
silica fume, sand and water. Then, the super plasticizer early
strength agent was added and stirred for 5 min. Experimentally,
it was observed that 30% of the maximum crack width could be
controlled. The deflection was also under control. It was inferred
that, the designed product has practical significance for the struc-
tural repairs.
J. Ma et al. (2013) studied the performance of basalt fiber rein-
forced cementitious composites [67]. The matrix ratio used in this
experiment was of cement (OPC 32.5 MPa):sand (natural) = 1:3
and 0.5 w/c ratio. The basalt fiber (diameter – 18 mm, length –
15 mm, density – 2650 kg/m3, tensile strength = 4150 MPa, E = 9
3 GPa, elongation rate = 3.1%) were added in the mix in proportion
1.0–4.0 kg/m3. In this experiment, the super-plasticizer (liquid and
granular) content was 3, 6 and 15 g for one group of specimen. It
was observed that with the increase in fiber content the fluidity
of reinforced mortar reduced by 18% (Fig. 4). This substantial
reduction in fluidity is due to the formation of spatial network
structure due to random distribution of the mixed chopped fibers
with mortar. At the first elastic stage the basalt fibers do not work
and the reinforced mortar matrix bears the loads. Second stage
indicated more cracks propagating and expanding in a steady state.
In the final state, the specimen finally breaks after development of
cracks. With an increase in proportion of basalt fiber, there was a
decrease in compressive strength of reinforced cement matrix. As
bigger specimens have weaker areas of interfaces than the small
ones, the cubic compressive strength was found to be more than
the axial strength by 0.775 times. There was a prominent improve-
ment of the toughness of reinforced mortar with 2% of basalt fibers.
Vasconcelos et al. studied the performance of composite mate-
rial reinforced with different fibers [68]. Two types of textile fibers
(Length = 10 mm) were chosen, namely natural fibers (banana Ø =
204.64 m, tenacity = 0.31; and sisal Ø = 168.76 m, tenacity = 0.17)
and synthetic fibers (glass Ø = 13 m, tenacity = 0.61; and basalt-Ø
= 10 m, tenacity = 0.66). The raw materials used to prepare the com-
posite material were gypsum as the binder and the granulated cork
as the aggregate. To have a workable material of approximately
150 mm, corresponding to a flow table [69], 80% and 0.1% of the
gypsum mass of water and citric acid was obtained respectively.
To prepare the composite material, the raw materials used were
the gypsum and the granulated cork, which was fixed at 5% of
the mass of gypsum. To have a workable material of approximately
150 mm, corresponding to a flow table [69], the obtained percent-
ages of the gypsum mass of water and the gypsum mass of citric
acid was 80% and 0.1% respectively. Experimentally the elastic
modulus, compressive strength and fracture energy were deter-
mined. The compressive behavior of both reinforced and unrein-
forced composite materials was observed to be the same.
Although, a lower percentage of synthetic fibers were used than
the natural fibers, it resulted in better mechanical properties as
 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602
compared to natural fibers. The natural banana fibers performed
better in terms of compressive and flexural strength, but the basalt
fibers and synthetic glass fibers proved better for ductile behavior.
Basalt fiber was added to cement mortar in different proportion
as 0.5, 1 and 1.5% by weight of cement to evaluate the mechanical
performance of brick masonry [70]. 53 grade ordinary Portland
cement, the natural sand and basalt fiber (Diameter – 0.016 mm,
length – 12.7 mm, tensile strength – 4150 MPa) were used
(cement:sand: 1:6). The optimum mix obtained for reinforced
cement mortar was reported as 1% of basalt fiber with increase
in the compressive strength and Young’s modulus as 1.82 and
1.61 times, respectively.
Choi and Lee [71] studied the reinforced mortar for structural
properties viz., bonding and tensile strength. The mortar matrix
was prepared using alkali-activated slag as a binder, fine silica sand
(100 mm) as an aggregate, super plasticizer, anti foamer and water
in 1:0.4:0.01:0.0002:0.34 proportion by weight. Three types of
fibers, viz. basalt, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyethylene fibers
(Ø – 12 mm, 40 mm, 12 mm; L – 12 mm each; density – 2.65 g/
cm3, 1.3 g/cm3, 0.97 g/cm3; tensile strength – 1773 MPa, 1202
MPa, 2757 MPa; elastic modulus – 89 GPa, 41 GPa, 110 GPa respec-
tively) were used for the experiment. A single fiber pullout test
(Fig. 3) was performed to assess the interface properties. To ensure
complete debonding, the fiber embedment length was set at
approximately 1.0 mm. The results inferred good chemical bonding
between the fiber and mortar matrix. The frictional bond and slip-
hardening coefficient of the basalt fiber was 3% and 24.4% higher
than the PVA fiber respectively. It was observed that the tensile
strength of basalt fiber decreased with an increase in the inclina-
tion angle of fiber. The strength reduction coefficients of the basalt
fiber were higher by three times and nine times than those of the
PE fiber and PVA fiber respectively. The brittle behavior of basalt
fiber could be a limitation in terms of the fiber bridging capacity
as the basalt fiber reinforcing system had a higher cracking
strength till cracking, after which it showed softening behavior.
Santarelli et al. [72] studied basalt fiber reinforced hydraulic
lime-based mortars for the property and microstructure investiga-
tion. Different combinations consisting of three distinct types of
basalt fibers and aggregates were studied. The first mortar mix
was prepared using commercially available natural hydraulic lime
(NHL 3.5) and siliceous feldspathic aggregate (sand). The second
was prepared using dry premix of NHL 3.5 and inert aggregates.
The third type of matrix was based on a dry premix of NHL 3.5
and inert aggregates with the further addition of crushed tiles
and bricks. Furthermore, three types of basalt fibers viz., milled
basalt fibers (diameter – 10–17 mm), continuous filament roving
(chopped to a 6.35 mm length, filament 10–19 mm diameter and
milled fibers were added. The binder to aggregate ratio for NHL
specimens was fixed as 1:1. Basalt fibers were added at 3% and
10%. Reinforcement of fiber in the chopped form of 6.35 mm length
Fig. 3. Single fiber pullout curve.
595
was effective in imparting toughness (flexural strength) to hydrau-
lic lime-based mortars. However, reinforced mortar resulted in
higher compressive strength as compared to unreinforced mortar.
Lipatov et al. [73] studied basalt fibers and glasses having a con-
tent of zirconia from 0 to 7 wt% range, obtained using ZrSiO4 as a
zirconium source. Fibers, sand and cement were mixed in propor-
tions by volume as 0.5, 1500 kg/m3 and 500 kg/m3 respectively
with 0.6 water to cement ratio. It was observed that basalt fiber
with 5.7% wt ZrO2 had the best alkali resistance properties by
determining loss of tensile strength and weight after refluxing in
alkali solution. The weight loss was found equivalent to the com-
mercially available AR-glass fiber with 18.8% wt ZrO2. The AR-
glass fiber after alkali treatment and Zirconia doped basalt fiber
resulted tensile strength as 1.4 GPa and 1.2 GPa respectively.
Girgin and Yildirim [74] performed the experimental compara-
tive study for fiber reinforced mortar designs for spray-up and pre-
mix techniques. The chopped basalt fibers and glass fibers (L – 24
mm each; Ø – 20 mm each; density – 2.8 g/cm3, 2.68 g/cm3; modu-
lus of elasticity – 89 GPa, 72 GPa; tensile strength – 4840 MPa,
3500 MPa and elongation – 3.15%, 4.5% respectively) were incorpo-
rated by 2% mix volume for the workability in premix design. CEM
II/B-L 42.5R cement (SiO2: 17.5%, CaO: 63.5%, Al2O3: 3.3%, Blaine
fineness 5840 cm2/g), fine silica sand 1300–150 lm in diameter,
4% acrylic copolymer and 1.3% polycarboxylate-based high range
water reducer was used in the mixture with 0.33 water to cement
ratio (w/c). In order to evaluate the brittle behavior in the samples
with basalt fibers, the heat-rain test was performed. The four-point
bending test resulted in reduction of strain capacity of basalt fibers
for the period of curing following 7 days aging. SEM observations
show that the surfaces of basalt as well as glass fibers were smooth
after 50-cycles and did not show any sign of degradation on alka-
line attack. The researcher mentioned the need for further research
to improve the fiber-matrix interface for controlling the strain
reduction. Using mineral additives the bond in the fiber-matrix
interface could be amended that can help mitigating brittleness
behavior caused by calcium hydroxide deposition.
Orlovet et al. [75] studied the basalt fiber reinforced cement
based materials. The tensile strength of basalt fiber reinforced mor-
tar samples was studied with recourse to of different diameters
and dosages of fibers. For the experimentation a composition of
cement (BFC 300) and sand in the ratio of 1:3 and w/c as 0.56
was used. The diameters of fiber used were 15, 20, 25 mm having
length 12 mm. The two-factor (X and Y) experiment was planned
to assess the strength of basalt fiber reinforced mortar. X and Y fac-
tor represented the diameter as 15, 20 and 25 mm and dosage of
fiber range values of 0.7, 1.1 and 1.5 kg/m3 of mortar mix respec-
tively. The results showed that basalt fiber increased the flexural
strength by more than 1.5 times. The study concluded that basalt
fiber could suitably be used for cement based materials having
optimal micro-reinforcement (0.7–1.1 kg/m3 and 20–25 mm diam-
eter range).
Ghazy et al. [76] studied nano-modified reinforced mortar
(NFRM) containing steel, basalt and basalt polypropylene hybrid
fibers (Length = 13 mm, 13 mm, 29 mm; diameter = 0.2 mm, 0.14
 0.80 mm, 0.66  1.34 mm; aspect ratio = 66.5, 16.6, 21.6; speci-
fic gravity = 7.85, 2.60, 0.92; tensile strength = 500 MPa, 3100
MPa, 550 MPa; young’s modulus = 210 MPa, 73 MPa, 8 MPa
respectively), with 1% in proportion by volume and investigated
its mechanical and durability properties [77–82]. Total mortar
mixtures prepared with OPC and slag (confirms to CAN/CSA-
A3001 were eight [83] standard). A commercial nano-silica sol
(Ns) (15% content of SiO2 solid particles) having the mean particle
size, viscosity, specific surface, density and pH as 5 gm, 8 cP, 80
m2/g, 1.1 g/cc and 9.5 respectively, dispersed in water solution.
The dispersing agent was added as 2% by mass of the total binder
in all mixtures. For all mixtures, the proportion of total binding
596 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602
materials (OPC or ternary binder: OPC, GGBS and nano-silica – 700
kg/m3) and water-to-binder ratio (w/b – 0.3) was kept constant.
Fine aggregate with a gradation of 0–600 mm and fineness modulus
of 2.9 was used in mortar preparation. The absorption and specific
gravity of sand were 1.5% and 2.6 respectively. The fibers were
added at a proportion of 1% by volume to the mixtures. The
water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) based on polycarboxylic acid
[84] was added in the range of 2–4% by mass of the binder to retain
a comparable target flow [85]. After 3 days, the increase in com-
pressive strength of NFRM was resulted as 168% and 108% more
with and without slag respectively. Between 7 and 56 days, the
development of compressive strength for the NFRM having steel,
basalt and hybrid fibers with slag was significantly increased by
82%, 133% and 140% respectively. At the age of 14 days, marginal
increase in flexural strength was observed as compared to control
mix. Compared with control specimens (C-S and CG-BP), the
increase in flexural strength for the NFRM with and without slag
was resulted as 7% and 10% respectively. An increase in flexural
strength of the NFRM samples, including basalt fibers was maxi-
mum than that of the samples containing steel and hybrid fibers.
The load carrying capacity was determined for the basalt fibers
prisms (with or without polypropylene). Due to the high tensile
capacity of basalt fibers, it gained stiffness with a reduction in
the prisms’ load carrying capacity. Because of the fiber’s short
length and small aspect ratio, the ultimate fiber reinforced speci-
men failed at lesser deflection value. Related to mortar mix with
OPC, the shrinkage of the NFRM with slag & steel, basalt and hybrid
fibers was reduced by 23%, 25% and 26% respectively. The addition
of fibers to mortar or concrete had also reported in enhancing the
permeability. It was concluded that the strength of the reinforced
NFRM with the addition of nano-silica helped to gain early strength
and improved the salt-frost scaling resistance as well. As compared
to OPC based specimens, the cumulative shrinkage of the NFRM
specimens containing slag and different types of fibers was signif-
icantly decreased. The enhanced mechanical and durability perfor-
mance of the NFRM along with fibers and nano-silica indicates the
promising application of repair and rehabilitation of concrete
structures.
Kencanawati and Shigeishi [86] studied the fracture behavior of
high strength basalt fiber reinforced mortar subjected to compres-
sion. Basalt fibers were used in the mortar mixes in different quan-
tity and length (3–9 mm). The high strength mortar powder was
mixed with water, which was produced for shotcrete material.
The composition was the cement (type I), sand (maximum diame-
ter – 5 mm) and micro-silica (8% by weight of total cement). The
proportion was varied from 1, 3 and 5% by weight. Based on work-
ability, water-cement ratio was ranged from 0.4 to 0.7. The prism
specimens (40 mm  40 mm  160 mm) were tested for compres-
sive and flexural strength [87] at various ages of curing (1–91
days). After exceeding the peak load in the samples the cracks were
nucleated. Results indicated that there is no substantial effect
observed in the behavior of the AE hit generation with variation
in basalt fiber reinforced mortar. The First stage was before the
peak load indicating no AE hit and no nucleation of crack. The sec-
ond stage was during peak load, where the cracks were detected
considerably shown by significant AE hits, and the third stage indi-
cated the peak load had exceeded indicating the ductile behavior of
the material.
Funke et al. [88] focused on the durability and performance of
the fibers reinforced alkali-activated binder matrix. At ambient
temperature, the aqueous sodium silicate solution (SiO2/Na2O
molar ratio: 2.1) and sodium hydroxide (2–10 mol/L) were mixed
as an alkali activation process for fly ash and granulated slag.
Basalt, carbon, alkali-resistant glass (AR-glass) and E-glass fibers
(0.5% by volume) were used for the study. The bending tensile
strength results indicated that the concentrations of sodium
hydroxide needs to be controlled to 5.5 mol/L. The basalt fibers
and E-glass indicated same deterioration (weight loss and loss of
strength) under the alkali immersion than the carbon fibers and
AR-glass indicating poor durability.
In order to design the new cement based microwave-absorbing
material the aim was to combine the concept of space wave impe-
dance matching with space electromagnetic wave propagation
principle [89]. Considered materials for the experimentation were
Portland cement (42.5 grade), perlite (average particle size – 0.8–
1.5 mm, bulk density – 88 kg/m3, ball rate – 80%, porosity by closed
pore – 95%, water absorption – 60%), graphite having average vol-
ume size of 38–40 lm and continuous basalt fiber having 9–22 lm
diameter and length of 15 mm. Cement:Perlite:Graphite:Basalt
Fiber: 33:60:5:2 with 0.35 water/binder ratio was the considered
mix proportion by volume. By adopting reflection methods in the
microwave chamber the sample cubes were tested for microwave
absorbing property, reflection attenuation R (Reflectivity) as R = 20
log|(N 1)/(N + 1)|, where N is normalized input wave impedance.
A cement based microwave absorbing material was characterized
with better microwave absorbing properties having the minimum
reflectivity as 11.8 dB with better compressive strength (16.9
MPa) and bending strength (2.27 MPa). Basalt fibers were used as
intensive and toughening constituents of microwave absorbing
material because that holds higher specific strength properties
than glass and metal fibers which results in higher thermo-
chemical and alkaline medium exposure stability. As the basalt
fiber contains less amounts of metal oxides (Fe2O3, TiO2) that is
characterized with magnetic and dielectric loss property which
in turn increases electromagnetic wave losses when used in
cement network.
Asprone et al. [90,91] investigated the natural hydraulic mortar
reinforced with basalt fibers for dynamic performance. The studied
mortar was composed of a natural hydraulic lime (NHL 3.5), sand
and chopped strand fibers (Ø – 8–10 mm, L – 4–5 mm, density –
2.75 g/cm3, Young’s modulus – 84 GPa, tensile strength – 4.84
GPa and failure elongation – 3.15%). Polymeric latex (Mapei) was
added in the proportion of 1.5% (w/w) to improve the workability
of the fiber-reinforced mortars. To attain the similar consistency
(flow value 140 ± 10 mm) the water content for each of the mor-
tars was varied accordingly. Using 1:3 (w/w) a binder to aggregate
ratio, basalt fibers in two weight percentages 1% and 2% were used.
To study the morphology of the mortar reinforced with basalt
fibers mercury intrusion porosimetry and SEM was performed.
Using a hydro-pneumatic machine and a modified Hopkinson bar
apparatus, the dynamic tensile failure tests were carried out for
high and medium strain-rates. The ratio of the dynamic values over
the quasi-static tensile strength defines the dynamic increase fac-
tor and signifies the peak strength. At a high strain rate (100/s), the
dynamic increase factor was increased up to 5 (Fig. 14). Dynamic
fracture energy was also raised with the similar trend of the
strength. The experienced strain-rate sensitivity reported by Chan
and Bindiganavile [93] was more than the experienced. However,
with reference to the other fiber reinforced cementitious mortars
(i.e. steel or inorganic fiber [93,94]), the presented study indicated
higher strain-rate sensitivity.
The dynamic compressive strength of the mortars with basalt
and glass fibers was evaluated and compared experimentally by
Kruszka et al. [95]. Basalt fibers and glass fibers with the same size
(Ø – 14 mm, L – 12 mm) were added 3–5% by weight. Static and
dynamic properties were studied for all specimens. It was con-
cluded that there was a substantial drop of fracture stress in a
dynamic range with 5% for basalt fiber, whereas no considerable
effect due to addition of glass fiber. For both the loading (static
and dynamic) conditions, based on the indicated fractured stress
 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602
the optimal content of the basalt fiber reinforcement was resulted
as 3%. Further increase of the fiber proportion gave a drop of the
fracture stress.
Fenu et al. [96] also studied the dynamic behavior of reinforced
cement based mortars having both basalt and glass fibers of the
same length and diameter (L – 12 mm, diameter – 14 mm) [96].
The reference cement mortar was prepared using Portland cement
(CEM I, 52.5 R – 635 kg/m3) and sand (1270 kg/m3) with water to
cement ratio and binder to aggregate ratio as 0.5 each. The fiber
reinforced specimens were prepared by the addition of a given
fiber content (in weight) of glass (specific gravity – 2.6 g/cm3, mod-
ulus of elasticity – 72 kN/mm2, tensile strength = 1000–1700 N/m
m2, softening point – 860 °C) in proportion of 3% by weight and
basalt fibers (softening point – 1050 °C, specific gravity – 2.6 g/
cm3, tensile strength = 3800–4000 N/mm2, elastic modulus – 89–
93 kN/mm2) in 5% by weight to the cementitious mixture. With
reference to unreinforced mortar, the fracture energy was
increased by 4.6 and 7.2 times, respectively, by the addition of
3% and 5% glass fibers. The post-peak behavior was improved by
the addition of 3% basalt fibers. However, with respect to the refer-
ence mortar the total energy resulted practically unchanged
(slightly) due to the high peak stress. The addition of 5% basalt
fibers resulted an increase in fracture energy by 2.2 times with
respect to the reference mortar, indicating considerable improve-
ment in the post-peak behavior of the mortar. Under the dynamic
conditions at high strain rate, glass fibers performed better than
the basalt fibers.
Lai et al. [97] studied the dynamic properties of ultra-high per-
formance fiber reinforced cement composites (UPFRC) subjected to
repeated impacts. The cement (P
II 52.5) and sand (particle size –
2.5 mm and fineness modulus – 2.6) were blended in a mixer for
3 min. The water and super plasticizer (polycarboxylate based with
more than 40% water-reducing ratio) were mixed together fol-
lowed by the addition of a solution into the mix and mixed for
additional 6 min. Three types of fibers were added in the mix con-
taining (1%) PVA fibers, (3–4%) steel fibers and (1%) basalt fibers. By
using a method of ultrasonic wave velocity, the damage under
dynamic loading to the UPFRC was determined after every impact.
By increasing the fiber volume fraction capacity of the UPFRC to
repel repeated impacts was enriched. With the increase of the first
impact projectile speed the dynamic damage of the UPFRC was
increased much faster and the dynamic strength was decreased.
Results indicated that the maximum stress and modulus of elastic-
ity were decreased. However, the increase in numbers of impacts
increased the peak strain and strain rate.
Zhong and Wei [98] studied the compressive stress-strain rela-
tions and dynamic damage of ultra-high performance cementitious
composites (UPC). Portland cement, blast-furnace slag, silica fume
and fly ash were the cementitious materials used in the prepara-
tion of UPC in the proportion 40:10:25:25. The polycarboxylate
based super plasticizer was used with 41% solids content. The
water (0.15) and super plasticizer (0.02) were mixed together
and then added into the dry mix. The fibers used for the study were
steel, polyvinyl alcohol and basalt fibers (L = 13 mm, 15 mm, 6
mm; diameter = 0.2 mm, 0.04 mm, 0.017 mm; E = 210 GPa, 40
GPa, 80 GPa; tensile strength = 2000 MPa, 1600 MPa, 3000 MPa,
respectively). The volume fraction of steel fiber was 0–4% and
hybrid fibers comprised of steel and PVA or basalt fiber as 3%
and 1% of volume respectively. The damage was reduced by fiber
reinforcement, which was increased with the impact repetitions.
The dynamic modulus of elasticity and peak stress of UPC
decreased, whereas the peak strain and strain rate was increased
due to increase in repetitions of impact. The fiber (steel and hybrid)
reinforcement resulted in increase of resistance against repeated
impacts of UPC.
597
4. Discussions
Basalt fiber was proposed as better reinforcement to the cement
matrices due to its valuable properties such as better modulus,
high strength, higher strain to failure, better stability and
thermo-chemical resistance. It is easy to process, non-toxic, natu-
ral, eco-friendly and cost effective material. With recourse to the
other competitive glass fibers the properties of basalt fibers are
better and are economical. It was observed that the addition of
basalt fibers increased flexural strength, toughness as well as the
fracture energy of cement matrix composites [17,99]. As the basalt
fibers indicated no chemical reactions when in contact with other
chemicals, they proved to be an ecological friendly material
[100,101]. However, at the earlier stages of hardening, it should
be noted that the high alkalinity of cement matrix causes the cor-
rosion of basalt fibers. In turn, the degradation of the mechanical
properties of basalt fibers and its reinforced cementitious products
was a serious concern. One of the approaches to develop the alkali
resistance of the fibers in cement matrices include modification of
the fiber composition by adding an alkali-resistant component, e.g.
ZrO2 to the raw material, application of alkali-resistant coatings on
the fibers and modification of cement matrices through special
additives [73]. In this case, an alkali-resistant coating is applied
directly to the surface of reinforcing basalt fiber exposed to aggres-
sive media, which appears to be the most sensitive area, owing to
this can limit the access of aggressive alkaline medium to the rein-
forcement, and hence, inhibits dissolution and destruction of the
fiber. Many materials can serve as alkali barrier coatings for basalt
fiber due to this advantageous approach accordingly most suitable
material can be selected.
Basalt is an alternative raw material to be converted as fibers
because of its large-scale availability, relatively homogeneous
chemical structure, freedom from impurities and certainly, ability
to form fibers in the molten state. Basalt rock fibers are non-
combustible and have no toxic reaction with air or water. Further-
more, basalt fibers have more chemical stability [41] and better
resistance to alkaline and acid exposure and weather. The basalt
fibers can be used for comparatively high temperatures as well
for very low temperatures (i.e. in the range of 600–800 °C upto –
200 °C) [102–104]. Basalt is superior to any other reinforcement
materials due to its chemical inertness, very low thermal conduc-
tivity and highly resistant to corrosion. The key factors that govern
the role of fibers in composites are the essential mechanical quality
of the fiber, the volume fraction of fiber in the composite, the ori-
entation, position and layout of fiber in the composite, the physico-
chemical interaction between the resin component and fiber, the
interface interactions, and its recyclability.
Researchers used several raw materials to evaluate the behavior
of chopped basalt fiber reinforced mortar such as ordinary Portland
cement, Portland pozzolanic cement, high alumina cement, Port-
land lime, cement, hydraulic lime, etc. Even partial replacement
of OPC was attempted with silica fumes, fly ash, gypsum, slag,
nano-silica, etc. The source of fine aggregate which were used in
different proportions were natural river sand, cork, bricks and tiles,
perlite, graphite, etc. The range of chopped basalt fibers used for
the study was 3–24 mm in length and 9–25 mm in diameter, which
were added in various proportions with respect to dry weight or
volume of either binding material or dry mix of ingredients. The
various recommended test to design the optimum composition of
reinforced mortar were categorized as fresh (workability/fluidity,
slum-flow prevention, setting time, etc.), mechanical (axial and
cube compressive strength [56,86,95]), ultimate stress-strain rela-
tion (Fig. 6 [74]), bond strength [57]), bending strength, modulus of
elasticity, fracture strength, tensile strength [56], ductility, etc.),
durability (drying shrinkage [57], abrasion resistance [57], water
598
permeability[57], mortar porosity [10,91], carbonation, freeze-
thaw resistance, resistance to salt-frost scaling, heat-rain aging,
alkaline attack [88] etc.), dynamic tests (dynamic tensile strength,
fracture energy, stress rate of uniaxial tension, dynamic increase
factor [90,96]), etc.) and functional like microwave absorbing prop-
erty. The standardization was primarily done using various codes
based on American, Chinese, European, Canadian, Indian, etc.
[51–53,58–64,69,77–79,81,84,85,87,100,101]. It is significant that
based on availability of raw materials suitable dry mix are to be
prepared of desired grade.
Although several combinations of available raw materials were
attempted, workability was a major concern after mixing the
desired ingredients in proper proportions with suitable fiber
dosage. The design mix for water content to the dry mortar mix
can be addressed using fluidity test [54]. Fig. 4 [67] depicts the flu-
idity of basalt fiber reinforced cement composite (BFRCC) with dif-
ferent basalt fiber contents. As the fiber content increases, the
fluidity of cement composite decreases. The reason behind this is
the formation of spatial network structure due to random distribu-
tion of basalt fibers. In addition to this, as the proportion of basalt
fiber increases, more cement paste will be consumed to cover the
fibers that results in a smaller amount of paste for the fluidity. In
order to improve the desired flow property various studies
195
190
185
Fluidity (mm)
180
175
170
165
160
155
150
0 1
Fiber Content (Kg/cum)
Fig. 4. Fluidity vs fiber content pattern.
120
Compressive Strength (MPa)
100
80
60
40
20
R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602
revealed the application of admixtures (super plasticizers) and vis-
cosity agents [48]. Suitable quantity of water along with desired
plasticizer can be added. Role of viscosity agent is more effective
than super plasticizer. However, curing which plays significant role
needs to be done in a controlled manner. The study indicated that
steam curing [48] might not work out a feasible solution for fiber-
reinforced mortar. Beyond the optimum percentage of fiber, the
desired properties of fresh reinforced mortar shall indicate poor
property [51,70,98]. For a higher percentage of fiber in a specific
mortar shall not only increase the porosity but will also reduce
the mechanical strength. The amount of basalt fiber does influence
the strength of mortar. Influence of fiber content on the compres-
sive strength is shown in Fig. 5. Considering the constant flow test
value, specimens with lesser amount of basalt fiber requires the
minimum water content. Subsequently, the compressive strength
increases. The 1% of basalt fiber from cement weight has the high-
est compressive strength [56,86]. Moreover, under static and
dynamic loading conditions, the optimum content of fiber rein-
forcement for fracture stress is equal to 3%. Further increase of
the fiber content decreases the fracture stress [95]. However, as
the content of basalt fiber increases, bond strength (Fig. 7)
increases, as use of basalt fiber in the mortar reduces shrinkage
cracking in the interfacial transition zone and bleeding at the
12
Spray/Pre-mix (0, BF)
11
Ultimate Stress (MPa)
Heat Rain (0, BF)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
2 3 4 5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Ultimate-Strain
Fig. 6. Ultimate stress vs ultimate strain.
Fiber Content
Fig. 5. Compressive strength vs fiber content.
 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602 599

3.2 0.09
Control BF-0.6
0.08 BF-1.6 BF-2.6
3
Bond Strength (MPa)

Drying Shrinkage (%)

0.07
2.8
0.06
2.6
0.05
2.4
0.04
2.2
0.03
2 0.02
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fiber Content Curing Time (Days)

Fig. 7. Bond strength vs fiber content. Fig. 9. Drying shrinkage vs fiber content.

interface [57]. In addition, it increases the tensile bending strength

(Fig. 8) owing to its better tensile strength [56].
8.5
Addition of basalt fiber to the repair mortar leads to lower dry-

Abrasion Resistance Strength

8
ing shrinkage (Fig. 9), superior abrasion resistance (Fig. 10), water 7.5
impermeability (Fig. 11), and freeze-thaw resistance [57]. Intro- 7

(h/Kg/sqm)
ducing BF into mortar effectively reduces the formation of cracks 6.5
and its tendency in mortar, resulting in less capillary and water 6
5.5
penetration of the mortar. In addition, BF in the mortar shows
5
exceptional resistance against the damage caused by freeze-thaw 4.5
cycles. This may be due to the fact that randomly dispersed basalt 4
fibers in the mortar retrain the expansion of the mortar, which is 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
caused by pore water volume changes during freeze-thaw cycles Fiber Contents (Kg/cum)
and then decrease the damage. Presence of fibers leads to higher Fig. 10. Abrasion resistance vs fiber content.
porosity of the mortar with larger pores [10,91]. The fibers affect
pore size distribution along with open porosity as shown in
Fig. 12. For fiber reinforced alkali activated binder, basalt fiber
loses weight under alkaline condition (Fig. 13). This is due to the
reaction between SiO2 in basalt fibers, and the alkaline solution 14
Water penetration depth (mm)

0, 13.5
13
[88]. Furthermore, basalt fibers, recently widely investigated in
12
structural applications, are also expected to present good perfor- 11
mance in case of high strain-rate dynamic conditions. Dynamic 10 0.6, 10
Increase Factor (DIF), i.e. ratio of the dynamic values over the 9
8
quasi-static tensile strength was evaluated and shown in Fig. 14
7 1.6, 7
with maximum value 5.1 at a high strain rate (100/s) [90]. Average 6 2.6, 6
tensile strength values have been elaborated in terms of DIF that 5
signifies the peak strength [96]. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Basalt fiber reinforced mortar could significantly control the Fiber Content (Kg/cum)
crack width, cracking load and deflection [66]. The chopped basalt Fig. 11. Water penetration vs fiber content.
fibers showed good bond with mortar, reduced drying shrinkage,

3.5
Tensile Bending Strength (MPa)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
6mm(0,0.2,0.4,0.6,0.8,1.2) 12mm(0,0.2,0.4,0.6,1)
Fiber Content
Fig. 8. Tensile bending strength vs fiber content.
600 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602

Porosity (%)

Mean Diameter (µm)

Fig. 12. Pore size distribution of reference mix, B1 (1% BF) and B2 (2% BF).

but it proved better strain rate sensitivity than steel. However, in

16 combination with cement, silica and super plasticizer, basalt fibers
14 showed improved compressive and bending strength, better resis-
Weight Loss (%)

12 tance to heat rain aging with respect to glass fibers. A hybrid com-
10 bination of basalt and polypropylene fibers (60:40) in nano-
8 modified fiber reinforced mortar showed better compressive, flex-
6 ural and tensile strength along with shrinkage control and
4 improved resistance to salt frost scaling with respect to basalt
2 fibers only. PVA fibers showed significant higher chemical and fric-
0 tional bonding along with estimated slip hardening coefficient
0 7 14 21 28
with respect to brittle basalt fibers [71,97]. Under dynamic loading
Time (Days) condition, the rate of damage of steel fibers was much less than the
Fig. 13. Weight loss (due to alkaline attack) of the fibers vs time duration.
hybrid combination of PVA and basalt fibers, however improved
resistance against repeated impacts of ultra-high performance
cementitious composites were observed [98].
5.1

4.4 5. Conclusion

Chopped basalt fiber was studied in detail and desired physical,

DIF

mechanical property investigation method of the same was dis-

2.2
cussed. Its application for the reinforced mortar design with vari-
1.6 1.7 ous raw materials was briefly studied. Following are the
1 conclusions drawn from the extensive literature review:

 Basalt fiber was proposed as better reinforcement to the cement

0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Stress rate (GPa/s)
Fig. 14. Dynamic increase factor (DIF) vs stress rate.
greater flexural and compressive strength in the early hydration
period, improved toughness [55], having better alkali resistance
[72], microwave absorption [89], dynamic fracture energy [92],
ability to resist repeated impact [98]. Certain studies recommend
the use of fiber reinforced mortar specifically for repair of hydrau-
lic structures, historic structures and repair between old and new
concrete structures [57,65,66].
Several studies were attempted to compare the performance of
various mortar reinforced with (chemically treated/untreated)
chopped basalt fibers along with other available synthetic fibers
like glass [65,68,74,88,95,96,100], steel [76,93,97,98], polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA) [71,98], polyethylene (PE) [71], carbon [88] and nat-
ural fibers like banana, sisal [68], etc. In combination with lime,
sand, water and super plasticizer, mortar reinforced with glass
fibers proved to have better modulus of elasticity, flexural tough-
ness and compressive strength [65,74,95,96] than the basalt fibers,
100 1000
matrices due to its valuable properties such as, better modulus,
high strength, higher strain to failure, better stability, reduced
drying shrinkage, improved toughness, ability to resist repeated
impact, thermo-chemical resistance.
 With respect to commercially available synthetic fibers, the
chopped basalt fibers were found to be good in performance
of the evaluated properties. Production of basalt fiber consumes
less energy and is cost effective.
 Addition of basalt fiber has the negative effect on the fluidity of
fresh mix, whereas it improves the flexural strength, toughness,
ductility as well as the fracture energy of cement matrix
composites.
 In order to improve its performance suitable treatments were
studied and elaborated. Corrosion of basalt fiber in the high
alkaline cement matrix can be reduced by application of
alkali-resistant coatings on the fibers and modification of
cement matrices through special additives. It was observed that
basalt fiber with 5–6% wt. ZrO2 had the best alkali resistance
properties.
 The fresh and hardened properties of reinforced mortar greatly
influenced by the volume percentage, length and diameter of
 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602
the basalt fiber. The range of chopped basalt fibers used for the
literature study was 3–24 mm in length and 9–25 mm in diam-
eter, which were added in various proportions with respect to
dry weight or volume of either binding material or dry mix of
ingredients.
 It can be concluded from the studied literature that reasonably,
1–3% wt by the mass of the binder is an optimum dosage of the
chopped basalt fiber. It gives satisfactory results of physico-
mechanical, durability, and strength properties of reinforced
matrix.
 The improved performance of the CBF reinforced mortar with
different raw material compositions signifies its potential use
for the application and standardization for reinforced mortar
design process.
 The various proportions of raw materials, necessary test meth-
ods and compliance with the desired standards for various
properties like fresh, mechanical, durability and dynamic prop-
erties of fiber reinforced mortar helps to conclude its practical
applicability in civil engineering applications.
Acknowledgements
The first author gratefully acknowledges the support of Indo-US
Science & Technology Forum, Department of Science and Technol-
ogy, India for kind financial support to undertake this study.
Author is also thankful to the University of Texas, Arlington, USA
and Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur, India
for kindly extending desired facilities to carry out the work.
References
[1] N. Banthia, C. Zanotti, M. Sappakittipakorn, Sustainable fiber reinforced
concrete for repair applications, Constr. Build. Mater. 67 (2014) 405–412.
[2] A. Mallat, A. Alliche, Mechanical investigation of two fiber-reinforced repair
mortars and the repaired system, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2011) 1587–1595.
[3] A. Bentur, S. Mindess, Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites, second ed.,
E and FN SPON, New York, 2007.
[4] E.T. Dawood, M. Ramli, The effect of using high strength flow able system as
repair material, Compos. B: Eng. 57 (2014) 91–95.
[5] M. Hsie, C. Tu, P.S. Song, Mechanical properties of polypropylene hybrid fiber-
reinforced concrete, Mater. Sci. Eng. Part A 494 (1–2) (2008) 153–157.
[6] N. Banthia, K. Chokri, Y. Ohama, S. Mindess, Fiber-reinforced cement based
composites under tensile impact, Adv. Ceram. Based Mater. 1 (1994) 131–
141.
[7] C. Zanotti, N. Banthia, G. Plizzari, A study of some factors affecting bond in
cementitious fiber reinforced repairs, Cem. Concr. Res. 63 (2014) 117–126.
[8] J. Luo, Q. Li, T. Zhao, S. Gao, S. Sun, Bonding and toughness properties of PVA
fiber reinforced aqueous epoxy resin cement repair mortar, Constr. Build.
Mater. 49 (2013) 766–771.
[9] E.T. Dawood, M. Ramli, High strength characteristics of cement mortar
reinforced with hybrid fibers, Constr. Build. Mater. 25–5 (2011) 2240–2247.
[10] F. Iucolano, B. Liguori, C. Colella, Fiber-reinforced lime based mortars: a
possible resource for ancient masonry restoration, Constr. Build. Mater. 38
(2013) 785–789.
[11] S. Spadea, I. Farina, A. Carrafiello, F. Fraternali, Recycled nylon fibers as
cement mortar reinforcement, Constr. Build. Mater. 80 (2015) 200–209.
[12] A. Izaguirre, J. Lanas, J.I. Alvarez, Effect of a polypropylene fiber on the
behavior of aerial lime-based mortars, Constr. Build. Mater. 25–2 (2011) 992–
1000.
[13] Z.J. Grdic, G.A.T. Curcic, N.S. Ristic, I.M. Despotovic, Abrasion resistance of
concrete micro-reinforced with polypropylene fibers, Constr. Build. Mater.
27–1 (2012) 305–312.
[14] A.C. Avdar, Investigation of freeze-thaw effects on mechanical properties of
fiber reinforced cement mortars, Compos. B 58 (2014) 463–472.
[15] S. Kamiya, Tanaka, Imamura, Sasaki, Nakagawa, Basalt fiber material, US
Patent US 7,767,603 B2, Aug. 3, 2010.
[16] S.G. Ivanitskii, G.F. Gorbachev, Continuous basalt fibers: production aspects
and simulation of forming processes. I. State of the art in continuous basalt
fiber technologies, Powder Metall. Metal Ceram. 50 (3–4) (2011), https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11106-011-9309-x.
[17] L. Jian-jun, M. Ying, L. Yan-chun, The performance of green basalt fiber and its
application in the civil engineering field, Appl. Mech. Mater. 193–194 (2012)
548–552, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.193-194.548.
[18] V. Fiore, T. Scalici, G.D. Bella, A. Valenza, A review on basalt fiber and its
composites, Compos. B 74 (2015) 74–94.
601
[19] F.M. Kogan, O.V. Nikitina, Solubility of chrysotile asbestos and basalt fibers in
relation to their fibrogenic and carcinogenic action, Environ. Health Perspect.
102 (1994) 205–206.
[20] E.E. McConnell, O. Kamstrup, R. Musselman, T.W. Hesterberg, J. Chevalier, W.
C. Miller, Chronic inhalation study of size-separated rock and slag wool
insulation fibers in Fischer 344/N rats, Inhalation Toxicol. 6 (1994) 571–
614.
[21] V. Dhand, G. Mittal, K.Y. Rhee, S.J. Park, D. Hui, A short review on basalt fiber
reinforced polymer composites, Compos. B 73 (2015) 166–180.
[22] M. Cerny, P. Glogar, V. Golias, J. Hhruska, P. Jakes, Z. Sucharda, I. Vavrova,
Comparison of mechanical properties and structural changes of continuous
basalt and glass fibers at elevated temperatures, Ceramics – Silikaty 51 (2)
(2007) 82–88.
[23] R. Parnas, M. Shaw, Q. Liu, Basalt fiber reinforced polymer composites
NETCR63 Project No. 03-7, The New England Transportation Consortium,
2007. http://www.netc.umassd.edu/netcr63_03-7.pdf.
[24] L.C. Hao, W.D. Yu, Evaluation of thermal protective performance of basalt
fiber nonwoven fabrics, J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 100–2 (2010) 551–555.
[25] E.A. Moiseev, S.I. Gutnikov, A.P. Malakho, B.I. Lazoryak, Effect of iron oxides on
the fabrication and properties of continuous glass fibers, Inorg. Mater. 44–9
(2008) 1026–1030.
[26] S.I. Gutnikov, A.P. Malakho, B.I. Lazoryak, V.S. Loginov, Influence of alumina
on the properties of continuous basalt fibers, Russ. J. Inorg. Chem. 54–2
(2009) 191–196.
[27] Y.V. Lipatov, I.V. Arkhangelsky, A.V. Dunaev, S.I. Gutnikov, M.S. Manylov, B.I.
Lazoryak, Crystallization of zirconia doped basalt fibers, Thermochim. Acta
575 (2014) 238–243.
[28] H. Kim, Thermal characteristics of basalt fiber reinforced epoxy-benzoxazine
composites, Fibers Polym. 13–6 (2012) 762–768.
[29] H. Kim, Enhancement of thermal and physical properties of epoxy composite
reinforced with basalt fiber, Fibers Polym. 14–8 (2013) 1311–1316.
[30] T. Tabi, P. Tamas, J.G. Kovacs, Chopped basalt fibers: a new perspective in
reinforcing poly (lactic acid) to produce injection molded engineering
composites from renewable and natural resources, eXPRESS, Polym. Lett. 7–
2 (2013) 107–119.
[31] A.Z. Egerhazi, T. Tabi, P. Tamas, T. Czigany, J.G. Kovacs, Investigation of
injection molded poly (lactic acid) reinforced with long basalt fibers, Compos.
A 64 (2014) 99–106.
[32] L. Jian-jun, M. Ying, L. Yan-chun, The performance of green basalt fiber and its
application in the civil engineering field, Appl. Mech. Mater. 193–194 (2012)
548–552, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.193-194.548.
[33] R. Eslami-Farsani, S.M. Reza Khalili, Z. Hedayatnasab, N. Soleimani, Influence
of thermal conditions on the tensile properties of basalt fiber reinforced
polypropylene clay nano composites, Mater. Des. 53 (2014) 540–549.
[34] M. Botev, H. Betchev, D. Bikiaris, C. Panayiotou, Mechanical properties and
visco elastic behavior of basalt fiber-reinforced polypropylene, J. Appl. Polym.
Sci. 74–3 (1999) 523–531.
[35] M.T. Kim, K.Y. Rhee, Flexural behavior of carbon nanotube-modified epoxy/
basalt composites, Carbon Lett. 12–3 (2011) 177–179.
[36] M.T. Kim, K.Y. Rhee, H.J. Kim, D.H. Jung, Effect of moisture absorption on the
flexural properties of basalt/CNT/epoxy composites, Carbon Lett. 13–3 (2012)
187–189.
[37] B.E. Ramachandran, V. Velpari, N. Balasubramanian, Chemical durability
studies on basalt fibers, J. Mater. Sci. 16 (1981) 3393–3397.
[38] V. Nasir, H. Karimipour, F. TBehrooz, M. MShokrieh, Corrosion behavior and
crack formation mechanism of basalt fiber in sulphuric acid, Corros. Sci. 64
(2012) 1–7.
[39] H. Myadaraboina, D. Law, I. Patnaikuni, Durability of basalt fibers in concrete
medium, sustainable solutions in structural engineering and construction,
The Second Australasia and South-East AsiaStructural Engineering and
Construction Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, November 3–7, ISEC Press,
2014. Copyright Ó 2014, ISBN: 978-0-9960437-0-0.
[40] B. Wei, H. Cao, S. Song, Degradation of basalt fibre and glass fibre/epoxy resin
composites in seawater, Corros. Sci. 53 (2011) 426–431.
[41] B. Wei, H. Cao, S. Song, Tensile behavior contrast of basalt and glass fibers
after chemical treatment, Mater. Des. 31 (2010) 4244–4250.
[42] A.V. Utkin, V.A. Rybin, N.I. Baklanova, Alkali resistance, micro-structural and
mechanical performance of zirconia-coated basalt fibers, Cem. Concr. Res. 53
(2013) 1–8.
[43] V.A. Rybin, A.V. Utkin, N.I. Baklanova, Corrosion of uncoated and oxide-coated
basalt fiber in different alkaline media, Corros. Sci. 102 (2016) 503–509.
[44] V. Fiore, G.D. Bella, A. Valenza, Glass—basalt/epoxy hybrid composites for
marine applications, Mater. Des. 32 (2011) 2091–2099.
[45] T. Deak, T. Czigany, Chemical composition and mechanical properties of
basalt and glass fibers: a comparison, Text. Res. J. 79 (2009) 645–651.
[46] L. Stupishin, S. Emelyanov, D. Boluzhitcev, A.M. Kuzmenko, V. Rodionov,
Retain of fine dispersed basalt fiber reinforcement in the cement matrix, Appl.
Mech. Mater. 584–586 (2014) 584–586.
[47] J. Chatterji, R.S. Cromwell, D. CBrenneis, Methods of cementing using cement
compositions comprising basalt fibers, United States Patent US 7,174,961 B2,
Feb. 13, 2007.
[48] M.T. Palou, L. Bagel, V. Zivica, M. Kuliffayova, J. Kozankova, Influence of
hydrothermal curing regimes on the hydration of fiber-reinforced cement
composites, J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 113 (2013) 219–229.
[49] V.A. Gurieva, T.C. Belova, Structural features of the cement-sand mortar
reinforced with a modified basalt microfiber, International conference on
602 R. Ralegaonkar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 164 (2018) 589–602
industrial engineering (ICIE 2016), Proc. Eng. 150 (2016) 2163–2167, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.07.258.
[50] G. Quattrociocchi, M. Albe, J. Tirillo, F. Sarasini, M. Valente, M.L. Santarelli,
Basalt fibers as a sustainable reinforcement for cement based mortars:
preliminary study, materials characterization VII 109, WIT Trans. Eng. Sci. 90
(2015) 109–120.
[51] EN 197-1, Cement – Part 1, Composition, Specifications and Conformity
Criteria for Common Cements, 2000.
[52] UNI EN 1015-11, Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry – Determination of
Resistance to Bending and Compression of the Hardened Mortar, 2007.
[53] UNI EN 1015-18, Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry – Determination of
Water Absorption Coefficient Due to Capillary Action of Hardened Mortar,
2004.
[54] Yun-Wang, C. Sung-Rok, O. Man-Seok, P.B. Choi, The experimentalstudy on
the fluidity properties of mortar using basalt fiber and high volume fly ash, J.
Recycl. Constr. Resour. Inst. 2–4 (2014) 345–353, https://doi.org/10.14190/
JRCR.2014.2.4.345.
[55] Q.Q. Dong, C.H. Jiang, T.J. McCarthy, D. Chen, Influence of basalt fiber on
performance of cement mortar, Key Eng. Mater. 426–427 (2010) 93–96.
[56] S. Vyacheslava, R. Tamaraa, G. Aleksandra, G. Rozalinaa, Effective light-weight
masonry mortars with dispersed reinforcement, XXV Polish – Russian –
Slovak Seminar, Theoretical Foundation of Civil Engineering, Proc. Eng. 153
(2016) 630–637.
[57] C. Jiang, S. Huang, Y. Zhu, Y. Lin, D. Chen, Effect of polypropylene and basalt
fiber on the behavior of mortars for repair applications, Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng.
2016 (2016) 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5927609.
[58] EN 1015-3, Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry – Determination of
Consistence of Fresh Mortar (by Flow Table), 2006.
[59] EN- 480-2, Admixtures for Concrete, Mortar and Grout. Test Methods, 2006.
[60] EN 1015-11, Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry – Part 11:
Determination of Flexural and Compressive Strength of Hardened Mortar,
2006.
[61] DL/T5150, Test Code for Hydraulic Concrete, 2001.
[62] ASTM-C1148-92 a, Standard Test Method for Measuring the Drying
Shrinkage of Masonry, 2014.
[63] ASTM C1138/97, Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete
(Underwater Method), 1997.
[64] ASTMC666/C666M, Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid
Freezing and Thawing, 2016.
[65] F. Iucolano, B. Liguori, C. Colella, Fiber-reinforced lime-based mortars: a
possible resource for ancient masonry restoration, Constr. Build. Mater. 38
(2013) 785–789.
[66] Z. Li, N. Bu, X. Cong, Contrast experiment of common crack repair method and
comprehensive new repair technology research, Appl. Mech. Mater. 166–169
(2012) 1587–1591.
[67] J. Ma, M. Zhang, G. Zhao, Experimental research on basalt fiber reinforced
cementitious composites, Appl. Mech. Mater. 253–255 (2013) 533–536,
https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.253-255.533.
[68] G. Vasconcelos, A. Martins, S. Cunha, A. Camoes, P.B. Lourenco, Mechanical
behavior of gypsum and cork based composite material, Mater. Sci. Forum
730–732 (2013) 361–366.
[69] EN 13279-2, Gypsum Binders and Gypsum Plasters – Test Methods, 2004.
[70] P. Jagadeesan, T. Palanisamy, Strengthening of brick masonry using basalt
fiber reinforced cement mortar, Int. J. ChemTech Res. 8–10 (2015) 102–108.
[71] J. Choi, B.Y. Lee, Bonding properties of basalt fiber and strength reduction
according to fiber orientation, Materials 8 (2015) 6719–6727, https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma8105335.
[72] M.L. Santarelli, F. Sbardella, M. Zuena, J. Tirillo, F. Sarasini, Basalt fiber
reinforced natural hydraulic lime mortars: a potential bio-based material for
restoration, Mater. Des. 63 (2014) 398–406.
[73] Y.V. Lipatov, S.I. Gutnikov, M.S. Manylov, E.S. Zhukovskaya, B.I. Lazoryak, High
alkali-resistant basalt fiber for reinforcing concrete, Mater. Des. 73 (2015)
60–66, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.02.022.
[74] Z.C. Girgin, M.T. Yıldırım, Usability of basalt fibers in fiber reinforced cement
composites, Mater. Struct. 49 (2016) 3309–3319, https://doi.org/10.1617/
s11527-015-0721-4.
[75] A.A. Orlov, T.N. Chernykh, A.V. Sashina, D.V. Bogusevich, Study on basalt fiber
parameters affecting fiber-reinforced mortar, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng.
71 (2015) 012015, https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/71/1/012015.
TSUAB2014 IOP Publishing, International Scientific Conference of Young
Scientists: Advanced Materials in Construction and Engineering 15–17
October 2014, Tomsk, Russia.
[76] A. Ghazy, M.T. Bassuoni, E. Maguire, M. O’loan, M. Reda Taha, Properties of
fiber-reinforced mortars incorporating nano-silica, Fibers 4-1-6 (2016) 1–16,
https://doi.org/10.3390/fib4010006.
[77] ASTM C109, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic
Cement Mortars, 2002.
[78] ASTM C348, Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Hydraulic Cement
Mortars, 2002.
[79] ASTM C1018, Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness and First Crack
Strength of Fiber-reinforced Concrete, 2002.
[80] P.A.M. Basheer, R.J. Andrews, D.J. Robinson, A.E. Long, PERMIT- ion migration
test for measuring the chloride ion transport of concrete on site, NDT and E
Int. 38–3 (2005) 219–229.
[81] ASTM C1202, Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s
Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration, 2012.
[82] M.J. Setzer, G. Fagerlund, D.J. Janssen, TC 117-FDC/CDF—Test method for the
freeze-thaw resistance of concrete – tests with sodium chloride (CDF), Mater.
Struct. 29 (1996) 523–528.
[83] CSA A3001, Cementitious Materials for Use in Concrete, Canadian Standards
Association (CSA), Mississauga, ON, Canada, 2008.
[84] ASTM C494/C494 M-13, Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for
Concrete, 2013.
[85] ASTM C 230/C230 M-14, Standard Specification for Flow Table for Use in
Tests of Hydraulic Cement, 2014.
[86] N. NKencanawati, M. Shigeishi,, Acoustic mission hit generation behavior of
basalt fiber high strength mortar under compression, Appl. Mech. Mater. 493
(2014) 678–683, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.493.678.
[87] ASTM C349 – 14, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
Hydraulic-cement Mortars, 2014.
[88] H. Funke, S. Gelbrich, L. Kroll, The durability and performance of short fibers
for a newly developed alkali-activated binder, Fibers 4-1-11 (2016) 1–8,
https://doi.org/10.3390/fib4010011.
[89] S.G. Hu, K. Tian, Q.J. Ding, Design and test of new cement based microwave
absorbing materials, in: International Symposium on Antennas, Propagation
and EM Theory, 2008, ISAPE 2008 IEEE, China 2–5 Nov, 2008, Doi: http://doi.
org/10.1109/ISAPE.2008.4735378.
[90] D. Asprone, F. Iucolano, E. Cadoni, A. Prota, Analysis of the strain-rate
behavior of a basalt fiber reinforced mortar, Appl. Mech. Mater. 82 (2011)
196–201, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.82.196.
[91] D. Asprone, E. Cadoni, F. Iucolano, A. Prota, Analysis of the strain-rate
behavior of a basalt fiber reinforced natural hydraulic mortar, Cem. Concr.
Compos. 53 (2014) 52–58.
[92] EN 1015-3, Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry – Determination of
Consistence of Fresh Mortar (by Flow Table), 1999.
[93] R. Chan, V. Bindiganavile, Toughness of fibre reinforced hydraulic lime mortar
– Part-1: Quasi-static response, Mater. Struct. 43–10 (2010) 1435–1444.
[94] V. Mechtcherine, F.D. ASilva, M. Butler, D. Zhu, B. Mobasher, S.L. Gao,
Behaviour of strain-hardening cement-based composites under high strain
rates, J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 9–1 (2011) 51–62.
[95] L. Kruszka, W. Mocko, L. Fenu, E. Cadoni, Comparative experimental study of
dynamic compressive strength of mortar with glass and basalt fibers, in: EPJ
Web of Conferences 94, 2015, 05008. Doi: http://doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/
20159405008, Published by EDP Sciences, 2015 Open-access proceedings in
physics and related sciences, ISSN (Electronic Edition): 2100-014X The
European Physical Journal (EPJ) DYMAT 2015 – 11th International Conference
on the Mechanical and Physical Behaviour of Materials under Dynamic
Loading, Lugano, Switzerland, September 7–11, 2015, E. Cadoni (Ed.), ISBN:
978-2-7598-1817-4
[96] L. Fenu, D. Forni, E. Cadoni, Dynamic behaviour of cement mortars reinforced
with glass and basalt fibers, Compos. B 92 (2016) 142–150.
[97] J. Lai, W. Sun, S. Xu, C. Yang, Dynamic properties and damage model of ultra-
high performance fiber reinforced cement composites subjected to repeated
impacts, high performance fiber reinforced cement composites, RILEM 6
(2012) 389–396.
[98] L.J. Zhong, S. Wei, Dynamic damage and stress-strain relations of ultra-high
performance cementitious composites subjected to repeated impact, Sci.
China Technol. Sci. 53–6 (2010) 1520–1525, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-
010-3133-2.
[99] T.M. Borhan, Properties of glass-concrete reinforced with short basalt fiber,
Mater. Des. 42 (2012) 265–271, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.matdes.2012.05.062.
[100] V.P. Kumbhar, An overview: basalt rock fibers – new construction material,
Acta Eng. Int. 2–1 (2014) 11–18.
[101] M. Francis, L. King, V. Srinivasan, T. Purushothaman, Basalt fiber: an ancient
material for innovative and modern application, Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 22–2
(2014) 308–312, https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2014.22.02.21872.
[102] C. Scheffler, T. Forster, E. Mader, G. Heinrich, S. Hempel, V. Mechtcherine,
Aging of alkali-resistant glass and basalt fibers in alkaline solutions:
evaluation of the failure stress by Weibull distribution function, J. Non-
Cryst. Solids 355 (2009) 2588–2595.
[103] L. Zhu, B. Sun, BGu, Frequency features of basalt filament tows under
quasistatic and high strain rate tension, J. Compos. Mater. 46 (2012) 1285–
1293.
[104] N. NMorozov, V.S. Bakunov, E.N. Morozov, Materials based on basalt from the
European North of Russia, Glass Ceram. 58 (2001) 100–104.