Cement & Concrete Composites 57 (2015) 133–141

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Cement & Concrete Composites

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconcomp

Sodium salt admixtures for enhancing the foaming characteristics

of sodium lauryl sulphate
M. Siva a, K. Ramamurthy a,⇑, R. Dhamodharan b
a
Building Technology and Construction Management Division, Department of Civil Engineering, India
b
Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study identifies admixtures to enhance the effectiveness of Sodium Lauryl Sulphate (SLS) as a foam-
Received 29 May 2014 ing agent by increasing the foam density and stability. Sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium
Received in revised form 18 December 2014 chloride were chosen based on common ion effect to increase the viscosity of the foaming solution in
Accepted 29 December 2014
order to achieve ASTM recommended range of foam density. Response surface methodology is used to
Available online 6 January 2015
study the responses like viscosity, foam density and foam stability of all the admixtures. Viscosity is
observed to have a linear relationship with foam density, bubble size distribution and stability. Foam
Keywords:
density increases with the dosage of admixture, irrespective of foam generation pressure (FGP). Use of
Foaming agent
Sodium lauryl sulphate
appropriate dosage of these admixtures with SLS provides the foam density specified by ASTM. Relatively
Viscosity lesser dosage of NaOH is sufficient to achieve ASTM recommended foam density, which is attributed to
Density the fact that mole percent of sodium in NaOH is higher than NaCl and Na2CO3. The stability of the foam
Stability has also been demonstrated through a typical mix of foam concrete.
Admixture Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Foam used for the manufacture of foam concrete requires to be
stable with desired density, which is produced using either natural
or synthetic foaming agents (FAs). Foaming agents are surfactants
which generally produce foam by reducing the surface tension of
water. The synthetic foaming agents can be classified into (i) anio-
nic, (ii) cationic and (iii) non-ionic [1]. Several surfactants are used
in the manufacture of detergents and cosmetics [2]. One of the
common anionic surfactant widely used in various products is
Sodium Lauryl Sulphate (SLS). SLS has also been used for (i) the
intrusion of gas in wet gypsum paste, which reduced the density
between 30% and 35% [3] and (ii) foam concrete production. Foam
density is an important property as it influences the dosage of
foaming agent required to achieve the desired density of foam con-
crete. It has been reported that a stable foam could be obtained
using SLS with a maximum density of 25 kg/m3 [4]. An increase
in dosage of SLS (i.e., dilution ratio up to 1:10) resulted in marginal
increase in viscosity but did not enhance the density of foam due to
more intrusion of gas in foam. ASTM C 796 [5] suggests a foam
⇑ Corresponding author at: Building Technology and Construction Management
Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
Chennai 600 036, India. Tel.: +91 44 22574265; fax: +91 44 22574252.
E-mail address: vivek@iitm.ac.in (K. Ramamurthy).
density range of 32–64 kg/m3 for its use in foam concrete. When
the density of foam is low, the foam volume has to be increased
in order to achieve the desired density of foam concrete [4]. Such
higher dosages will in turn affect the strength of foam concrete.
Hence there is a need to increase the density of foam generated
using SLS. Apart from the need to achieve foam with initial foam
density satisfying ASTM standards, the likely deterioration of foam
density with time has to be considered. This property is repre-
sented in terms of stability of the foam. Stability of the foam is
reduced due to (i) bursting of foam bubbles due to evaporation
and (ii) drainage of water from the interstices of foam films, which
results in the reduction of the mixing time of foam in foam con-
crete production [6–9]. This necessitates identification of suitable
admixture for enhancing the viscosity of SLS, which would in turn
enhance the density as well as the stability of the foam. Earlier
studies concluded that (i) a stable foam could be produced by using
highly viscous foaming solution, and (ii) domestic shampoos could
be thickened by adding salts like sodium chloride [1]. Angarska
et al. [10] have reported that (i) an addition of Mg2+ ions from
MgCl2 enhanced the stability of foam at low concentration of SLS
by bringing the negatively charged head group of SLS together,
which in turn increased the viscosity of the foaming solution,
and (ii) at higher concentration of SLS, Mg2+ destabilizes the SLS,
which was caused by dense adsorption of monolayers. Polymer
admixture like poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), when added to SLS, is

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.12.011
0958-9465/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
134 M. Siva et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 57 (2015) 133–141

reported to increase the surface viscosity and steric repulsion by Table 1

positioning itself near the head group of the SLS, thereby enhanc- Parameters and its range for central composite design.

ing the stability of the foam [11]. S. no. Parameter Range for analysis
Porter [1] reported that surfactants with carbon atoms in the Min Max
range of 12–18 have the foaming ability. It has been noted that
1 SLS 0.5% 2.5%
admixtures like alkyl alcohol, which has the same number of car- 2 NaCl 1% 7%
bon atoms as that of SLS (i.e., 12), enhanced the stability of SLS 3 Na2CO3 1% 8%
[12]. Patist et al. [13] have concluded that tetraalkylammonium 4 NaOH 1% 4%
chlorides in SLS increased the micellar stability of SLS due to the 5 FGP 78 kPa 137 kPa

ionic interactions up to a critical concentration, beyond which

the stability gets reduced. Gonzenbach et al. [14] reported that
the use of inorganic colloidal particles enhanced the stability of Table 2
the foam by adsorption at the interface of the bubbles. Foam stabil- Factors in un-coded values for the coded values for SLS and admixtures.
ity is assessed using the variation in foam density and the volume Notation Factor Coded values
of solution drained over time under gravity. Ranjani and Ramamur-
+1 0 1
thy [4] have reported that (i) foam generated using SLS leads to Uncoded values
40% reduction in density after 10 min, which is due to its inability
(i) SLS + NaCl
to retain the liquid in the foam and (ii) the drainage increased with X1 SLS (%) 0.5 1.5 2.5
an increase in dilution ratio of SLS. X2 NaCl (%) 1 4.0 7
The above review indicates that the density and stability of the X3 FGP (kPa) 78 108 137
foam can be increased by adding suitable admixtures, which have (ii) SLS + Na2CO3
the ability to increase the viscosity of the solution. Based on the X1 SLS (%) 0.5 1.5 2.5
above review, three commonly available sodium salts have been X2 Na2CO3 (%) 1 4.5 8
X3 FGP (kPa) 78 108 137
chosen as admixtures for assessing their potential in enhancing
the foam density and foam stability. Statistically designed experi- (iii) SLS + NaOH
X1 SLS (%) 0.5 1.5 2.5
ments have been undertaken to identify a range of factors and their X2 NaOH (%) 1 2.5 4
relative influence on the foam density and stability. X3 FGP (kPa) 78 108 137

2. Experimental design
2.1. Factors and their range considered
The parameters and their range which have been investigated
in this study are:
(i) Surfactant: Sodium Lauryl Sulphate (SLS) has been used in
this study. Preliminary studies indicated that SLS concentra-
tion of less than 0.5% did not produce foam, whereas beyond
a concentration level of 2.5%, there is no significant variation
in the density of the foam (Fig. 1). Hence, the SLS concentra-
tion has been varied between 0.5% and 2.5% (i.e. 0.5% con-
centration refers to 1 part of SLS and 200 parts of water by
weight).
(ii) Admixture and its dosage: To manipulate the association, dis-
sociation equilibrium of the SLS in water, three admixtures
with a common positive sodium ion, namely, sodium chlo-
30
25
Foam Density (kg/m )
ride (NaCl), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and sodium hydrox-
ide (NaOH) were used. Preliminary studies revealed that (a)
the viscosity of the solution increased linearly with an
increase in the sodium admixture dosage and (b) there is
also an upper limit of viscosity beyond which the foam gen-
eration did not occur due to higher turbulence (i.e. foam is
generated by allowing the compressed air to pass into the
foaming liquid. This happens when there is a steady move-
ment of air into the foaming solution. But when the viscosity
of foaming solution is increased beyond optimal range, there
will be unsteady movement of air into the foaming solution
to generate foam. Hence this unsteadiness in air is repre-
sented as turbulence). Hence the maximum dosage of NaCl,
Na2CO3 and NaOH in SLS have been maintained respectively
as 7%, 8% and 4% by the weight of solvent (i.e., water).
(iii) Foam generation pressure: The laboratory based foam gener-
ator, designed and developed at IIT Madras [15] has been
used in this study. The foam generator uses compressed air
at suitable range, i.e., termed as foam generation pressure
(FGP). A pressure regulator fixed in the compressor enables
measurement and control of the foam generation pressure.
The foam did not get generated below 78 kPa, as the com-
pressed air could not penetrate into the foaming solution,
whereas under a pressure level beyond 137 kPa, the com-

20
3

pressed gas disrupted the foam formation of viscous solu-

tion. Hence the FGP level taken for the study has been
15
limited between 78 kPa and 137 kPa.

10 In order to study the individual effects and interaction effects of

the parameters investigated (concentration of SLS, type and dosage
5 of sodium admixture and foam generation pressure) on the foam
properties like viscosity, foam density and foam density at various
time intervals (i.e. 5, 15 and 30 min), response surface methodol-
0
ogy [16] with face-centered central composite design (CCD) has
0 2 4 6 8 10
been used. The quadratic model has been adopted using Statistical
Surfactant Dosage (%)
Analysis Software (SAS release 8.02) [17]. The ranges of parameters
Fig. 1. Foam density achieved with a working pressure of 118 kPa. studied (i.e. which has been arrived based on initial experimental
 M. Siva et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 57 (2015) 133–141 135

Table 3
Validation of statistical model of different admixtures with SLS.

Foaming agent Foam property R-squared Adjusted R-squared F value Prob > F
SLS + NaCl Initial foam density 0.8813 0.8121 12.73 0.0001
SLS + Na2CO3 0.9810 0.9640 57.47 <0.0001
SLS + NaOH 0.9666 0.9365 32.15 <0.0001
SLS + NaCl Foam density at 5 min 0.8923 0.8295 14.20 <0.0001
SLS + Na2CO3 0.9738 0.9502 41.28 <0.0001
SLS + NaOH 0.9801 0.9622 54.70 <0.0001
SLS + NaCl Foam density at 15 min 0.91 0.8574 17.32 <0.0001
SLS + Na2CO3 0.9654 0.9342 30.98 <0.0001
SLS + NaOH 0.9816 0.9651 59.29 <0.0001
SLS + NaCl Foam density at 30 min 0.8770 0.8053 12.22 0.0001
SLS + Na2CO3 0.9228 0.8778 20.50 <0.0001
SLS + NaOH 0.9377 0.8924 20.69 <0.0001

between 150 and 200 rpm, based on the manufacturer recom-

100
mended torque range of 10–100%. The speed of rotation of the
spindle has been controlled using a PC connected to the equip-
80 ment through Brookfield Software Rheocalc [18]. Viscosity is
computed using the formula given below.
sec)

60
ViscosityðcPÞ ¼ ð100  TK  SMC  TorqueÞ=RPM ð1Þ
Viscosity ( mPa-

40
20
0 4
0.5
1.0
1.5
2 (%
SL
S(
%) 2.0
2.5 1 to the accumulation of drainable foaming liquid at the interface
Fig. 2. Variation of viscosity with SLS and sodium admixtures.
trials) in the central composite design are summarised in Table 1. A
three-factor response surface design was carried out with 20 dif-
ferent combinations in random order for each admixture (includ-
ing six repetitions for central value of factor) was undertaken.
Table 2 gives the coded and corresponding un-coded values for
the factors considered.
2.2. Characteristics of foaming agent and foam studied
(i) Viscosity of foaming agent: The influence of addition of sodium
admixture on the viscosity of SLS (foaming agent) has been stud-
ied. Viscosity of foaming solution was measured using HA model
and DV-II + Pro type viscometer in which HA1 spindle was used
to find the viscosity. The speed of rotation of spindle was varied
where
TK = viscometer torque constant, which depends on viscometer
model (for HA, TK = 2);
SMC = current spindle multiplier constant, which depends on
spindle type (for HA1, SMC = 1);
RPM = rotation of spindle per minute; torque = dynes-cm.
(ii) Initial foam density: Foam density was calculated by filling
3
)
the container of known volume and the ratio of weigh t of foam
to volume gives the foam density.
OH
Na (iii) Foam stability: Initial foam density may be satisfactory due
of the bubbles and leads to false interpretation about stability.
The instability could be caused by bursting of fragile foam bub-
bles due to evaporation or drainage of liquid from the interface
of the bubbles. The amount of liquid retained in the foam over
time gives the stability of foam. As the production of foam con-
crete requires sufficient time, the stability of the foam over a
reasonable period of time is an important practical aspect.
The foam stability was assessed as per Def Standard 42-40
[19], through the variation in density of foam over time caused
by drainage of solution under gravity. The foam density was
measured at different time intervals i.e., 5, 15 and 30 min
respectively.
3. Precision and reliability of models
In general, for the interpretation of results in a statistical model,
the output data such as R2, probability value (p) and F-values are to

Table 4
ANOVA for initial Foam Density.

Factor SLS + NaCl SLS + Na2CO3 SLS + NaOH

DF E2 F–S Prob > F DF E2 F–S Prob > F DF E2 F–S Prob > F
SLS (X1) 1 29.39 0.039 0.8467 1 1327.10 12.97 0.0048 1 110.52 1.17 0.3043
Admixture (X2) 1 14323.6 18.96 0.0008 1 25426.8 248.59 <0.0001 1 15604.48 165.57 <0.0001
FGP (X3) 1 59.56 0.079 0.7833 1 252.61 2.47 0.1471 1 2204.48 23.39 0.0007
X21 1 97.14 0.13 0.7257 1 115.88 1.13 0.3122 1 221.39 2.35 0.1564
X22 – – – – 1 4222.82 41.29 <0.0001 1 2834.95 30.08 0.0003
X23 – – – – 1 0.19 1.8E-3 0.9667 1 2.88 0.031 0.8648
X1X2 1 96.54 0.13 0.7265 1 2832.79 27.70 0.0004 1 4.98 0.053 0.8227
X2X3 1 160.83 0.21 0.6521 1 57.14 0.56 0.4720 1 1270.96 13.49 0.0043
X3X1 – – – – 1 132.19 1.29 0.2821 1 533.42 5.66 0.0387
Residual 13 755.47 10 102.28 10 94.24
136 M. Siva et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 57 (2015) 133–141

Fig. 3. Variation of initial foam density with SLS and sodium admixtures.

180 180
2.5% SLS+NaCl
160 2.5% SLS+NaCl 2.5% SLS+Na2CO3
160
2.5% SLS+Na2CO3
2.5% SLS+NaOH
140 2.5% SLS+NaOH 140
Initial Foam density (kg/m )

Initial Foam density (kg/m )

3

120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60
ASTM req ASTM req
40 40

20 20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Sodium admixture dosage (%) Sodium admixture dosage (%)
(a) FGP 78kPa (b) FGP 137kPa
Fig. 4. Variation of foam density using SLS concentration of 2.5% with different dosage of sodium admixtures.

be analysed. R2 value gives an idea about the percentage of varia- experimental runs with predicted values from response surface
tion in a response variable. The adequacy of the models was deter- models. p value is the probability value, which helps in deciding
mined using R2 analysis by comparing the separate set of data from whether the model is significant. F value represents the value
 M. Siva et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 57 (2015) 133–141 137

180
2.5% SLS+NaCl 180 2.5% SLS+NaCl
160 2.5% SLS+ Na2CO3 2.5% SLS+Na2CO3
160
2.5% SLS+NaOH 2.5% SLS+NaOH
140
140
Initial Foam density (kg/m )

Initial Foam density (kg/m )

3

3
120
120
100
100
80
80

60
60
ASTM req ASTM req
40 40

20 20

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Viscosity (mPa-sec) Viscosity (mPa-sec)
(a) FGP 78kPa (b) FGP 137kPa
Fig. 5. Variation of viscosity of solution with foam density using SLS concentration of 2.5% and different sodium admixtures.

Table 5
Relationship between viscosity and ASTM recommended initial foam density.

IFD FGP (kPa) NaCl Na2CO3 NaOH

Viscosity (mPa s) Dosage (%) Viscosity (mPa s) Dosage (%) Viscosity (mPa s) Dosage (%)
Min IFD as per ASTM (32 kg/m3) 78 35 4.5 23 3.0 28 2.8
137 22 3.6 22 2.7 19 2.1
Max IFD as per ASTM (64 kg/m3) 78 56 5.5 37 4.9 43 3.6
137 42 4.8 36 5.0 30 3.0

(a) NaOH (2.7%) (b) NaCl (4.5%)

(c) Na2CO3 (4.0%)

Fig. 6. Binarised image of bubble size of all sodium admixtures at 137 kPa.
138 M. Siva et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 57 (2015) 133–141

It is observed that the R2 value is >0.9 for most of the response

100 NaOH (2.7%) models, which shows that the experimental designs are applicable
NaCl (4.5%)
Na2CO3 (4%)
to the predicted model. This shows that the response model can be
80
used for the prediction of responses of required combination of
parameters. The probability value (p-value) is <0.05 for all the
models, which shows that all the models are statistically
60
% under size

significant.

40 4. Discussion of results

4.1. Viscosity of foaming agent

20

Fig. 2 shows the variation in viscosity of SLS with sodium

0 admixtures. The increase in viscosity of SLS due to the addition
of sodium admixture is as per Le-Chatelier’s principle, which states
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 that an increase in the concentration of the common ion decreased
Bubble size (microns) the solubility and increased the aggregation of the reactant in the
solution [20]. SLS when dissolved in water, it dispersed into lauryl
Fig. 7. Bubble size distribution of all sodium admixtures at 50 kg/m3 IFD.
sulphate and sodium ions as shown in Eq. (1). The addition of salt
admixture to solution results in dispersion of ions, i.e., when NaCl,
Na2CO3 and NaOH re dissolved in water, they get ionised as Na+,
resulting from the statistical test, which gives the real effects of a
Cl, CO2 
3 and OH , respectively (Eqs. (2)–(4)).
parameter in influencing the responses (i.e. through calculation
of probability value (p-value) indirectly). Table 3 gives the values LS Naþ þ H2 O ! LS þ Naþ ð1Þ
of R2, p and F-values of all the response surface models obtained

from Statistical Analysis Software (SAS) to validate their LS Naþ þ NaClðsÞ þ H2 O ¢ LS þ NaþðaqÞ þ NaþðaqÞ þ ClðaqÞ ð2Þ
significance.

IFD
5min IFD
150 150 5min
15min
(kg/m )
3
/m )

15min
3
Foam density (kg

100 100
Foam density

30min
30min
50 50

0 0 8
0.5 6 0.5
6
1.0 1.0
4 )
1.5 1.5 4 (%
)
CO
3
SL 2.0 l (% SL
S(% 2
aC S(
%)
2.0 2 Na 2
) N
2.5 2.5

160

140
IFD
120 5min
/m )
3

100 15min
Foam density (kg

80
30min
60

40

20

0
4
0.5
3
1.0
)
1.5 2 (%
SL OH
S (% 2.0 Na
)
2.5 1

Fig. 8. Variation of foam density of SLS concentration with sodium admixture dosage at different time intervals and 137 kPa FGP.
 M. Siva et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 57 (2015) 133–141 139

LS Naþ þ Na2 CO3 þ H2 O ¢ LS þ NaþðaqÞ þ NaþðaqÞ þ CO2

3ðaqÞ ð3Þ
LS Naþ þ NaOH þ H2 O ¢ LS þ NaþðaqÞ þ NaþðaqÞ þ OHðaqÞ ð4Þ
When the concentration of admixture increases, the dynamic
equilibrium is disturbed and results in partial precipitation of reac-
tant (SLS), due to which the equilibrium will be shifted to the reac-
tant side. This precipitation will make the solution turbid and
increases its viscosity. At lower concentration of SLS (with lower
quantity of sodium ions present in the solution), an increase in
the admixture dosage does not result in enhancement in viscosity
of foaming solution. At 2.5% concentration of SLS, an increase in
dosage of admixture enhanced the viscosity of the solution. It is
observed that for a given dosage of admixture, say at 4%, use of
NaOH resulted in relatively higher viscosity as compared to NaCl
and Na2CO3, which is due to the difference in weight percentage
when converted into mole percentage (i.e. for the same weight per-
centage, the number of Na+ ions is higher in the case of NaOH com-
pared to NaCl and Na2CO3). NaOH weight percentage is equal to 1.5
times of NaCl and 2.5 times weight percentage of Na2CO3 respec-
tively. At the maximum dosage fixed for each admixture, the vis-
cosity is highest for NaCl (i.e. at 7.0% dosage).
4.2. Initial foam density (IFD)
Table 4 shows the ANOVA for the initial foam density of the
foaming agent (SLS and sodium admixtures). In the three cases of
sodium admixture tried, the dosage of sodium admixture is the
common factor significantly influencing IFD, with SLS concentra-
tion and FGP also influencing IFD when Na2CO3 and NaOH respec-
to NaOH and Na2CO3 which is due to lower mole percentage of
sodium in its compound.
Table 5 summarises the dosage of sodium admixture required
to produce the ASTM foam density requirements for two FGPs.
(which is extracted from Figs. 4 to 5). At higher FGP (i.e.
137 kPa), the required IFD could be achieved with lower dosage
of admixture, i.e., the viscosity of the foaming agent required to
achieve the desired IFD reduces with an increase in FGP. Alter-
nately, at a given FGP, IFD could be increased with an increase in
viscosity of the FA by increasing admixture dosage. Sodium admix-
ture dosage required to achieve ASTM recommended IFD is the
lowest in the case of NaOH.
3.2.2. Effect of viscosity on bubble size distribution
Bubble size distribution was measured for average IFD of ASTM
recommendation, viz., 50 kg/m3 for all the admixtures. Viscosities
of the foaming solution required to attain this foam density are
25 mPa s, 30 mPa s and 34 mPa s (Fig. 5). The dosages of sodium
admixtures (i.e. NaOH, NaCl and Na2CO3) corresponding to the vis-
cosities were 2.7%, 4.5% and 4%, respectively (Fig. 2). Foam was
generated with the above dosage of admixture with SLS concentra-
tion of 2.5% and 137 kPa FGP. The generated foam was taken in a
glass plate within few seconds without disturbing the top layer
and placed in Optical Microscope of 40 magnification. The cap-
tured bubble images were binarised with image analysis software
(Fig. 6). The diameter of all the bubbles (i.e. dark spots) and bubble
180
2.5% SLS+NaCl
Foam density at 15 minutes (kg/m )

137 kPa
3

160 2.5% SLS+Na2CO3 137 kPa

tively are used. The interaction effects affecting IFD are (i) FGP and
140 2.5% SLS+NaOH
NaOH dosage, and (ii) SLS concentration and Na2CO3 dosage, in the 78 kPa 78 kPa
respective designs. 120
Fig. 3 shows the variation of foam density with concentration of 100 137 kPa
SLS and dosage of sodium admixtures for two FGPs. For a given SLS
80 78 kPa
concentration and admixture dosage, an increase in FGP resulted in
higher IFD due to intrusion of more liquid in the foam. Also, the 60 ASTM req
increase in initial foam density with an increase in the viscosity 40
of the foaming solution may be attributed to reduction in size dis-
20
tribution of foam bubble. In the case of Na2CO3, an increase in FGP
does not contribute to much variation in the foam density. In all the 0

cases, the initial foam density (IFD) is observed to increase steeply 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

with an increase in the dosage of admixture at various SLS concen- Admixture dosage (%)
trations, which is attributed to the increase in the viscosity of the (a) at the end of 15 minutes
foaming solution. The type of admixture also affects the variation
in IFD achieved with different FGP. In case of NaCl and NaOH, at 180
their higher dosages (i.e. 7% and 4%), there is a marginal variation 2.5% SLS+NaCl
160
of IFD with SLS concentration, but in case of Na2CO3 (i.e. 8%), there 2.5% SLS+Na2CO3
Foam density at 30minutes (kg/m )
3

is an appreciable increase in IFD with SLS concentration. 140 2.5% SLS+NaOH

As the maximum IFD is achieved at 2.5% concentration of SLS,
120
the relative influence of different admixtures is compared at this
concentration in Fig. 4. It is observed that the ASTM C796 require- 100 137 kPa
137 kPa
ment of IFD (i.e., 32–64 kg/m3) could be achieved by varying the 78 kPa
80
FGP and the dosage of sodium admixtures. 137 kPa
60
78 kPa
4.2.1. Influence of viscosity on IFD ASTM req
40 78 kPa
Fig. 5 shows the variation of foam density based on viscosity of
the foaming solution. It is observed that there is a linear relation- 20
ship between IFD and viscosity in all sodium admixtures beyond
0
a threshold value of 20 mPa s. At 50 mPa s viscosity, the slope of
the lines representing their relationship is different, i.e., the IFD 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
achieved with NaCl, NaOH and Na2CO3 admixtures are 50 kg/m3, Admixture dosage (%)
80 kg/m3 and 110 kg/m3 respectively. Hence, the viscosity of foam-
ing solution required to achieve a particular IFD varies with the
(b) at the end of 30 minutes
type of sodium admixture used. It is observed that the effective- Fig. 9. Variation of foam density using SLS concentration of 2.5% with different
ness of NaCl in increasing IFD is relatively low when compared sodium admixture and FGP at different time interval.
140 M. Siva et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 57 (2015) 133–141

180
180 Initial FD
Initial FD 160 FD at 15 minutes
160
FD at 15 minutes FD at 30 minutes
140 140
FD at 30 minutes
Foam density (kg/m )

Foam density (kg/m )

3

3
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60
ASTM req
40 40 ASTM req
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
NaCl dosage (%) Na2CO3 dosage (%)

180

160 Initial FD
FD at 15 minutes
140 FD at 30minutes
Foam density (kg/m )

120
3

100

80

60
ASTM req
40

20

-20
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
NaOH dosage (%)

Fig. 10. Variation of foam density with admixture dosage.

size distribution were calculated using image analysis software the stability of foam though SLS concentration is not a significant
‘‘Image J’’ [21]. factor in meeting the requirement of IFD. At a given time, foam
Fig. 7 shows the bubble size distribution of all sodium admix- density is maximum at 2.5% concentration of SLS with various
tures at constant IFD. It is observed that D50 size (i.e. bubble diam- admixture dosages. Hence, further discussions are focused only
eter below which 50% of the other smaller bubble sizes are on 2.5% SLS concentration.
present) of the NaOH is 240 microns whereas it is 335 lm and Fig. 9 shows the variation of foam density at various time inter-
345 lm for NaCl and Na2CO3. vals for different dosage of sodium admixtures at SLS concentra-
Use of NaOH resulted in relatively smaller bubble size and tion of 2.5%. At the end of 5 min, it is observed that the drainage
hence a denser foam. The bubble size distribution is noted to be is very less, such that the foam density is nearly equivalent to ini-
relatively uniform in case of NaOH. tial foam density in all sodium admixtures. Hence, the drainage at
the end of 15 and 30 min was considered for further discussion.
4.3. Foam stability The required dosage of sodium admixture to satisfy the ASTM
recommended foam density increases for different time intervals.
To assess the foam stability, the foam density was measured at Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dosage of 4% with SLS (2.5%) results in
different time intervals, i.e., at the end of 5, 15 and 30 min, which denser foam at different time intervals than the other two admix-
are presented in Fig. 8. At lower dosage of admixtures, the drainage tures, viz., Na2CO3 and NaCl respectively at different time intervals
is observed to increase significantly with time. This trend can be at the same dosage. This shows that sodium hydroxide is more
attributed to (i) the permeation of solution through the walls of effective in achieving the ASTM standard IFD at lower dosage. After
the bubble due to gravity as well as subsequent collapse of the 30 min, use of NaOH as admixture, does not satisfy the IFD at an
bubbles occurring when liquid around the bubble gets drained operating FGP of 78 kPa, whereas the minimum required IFD was
out, and (ii) the collapsing of bubbles also happen when all the achieved with a FGP of 137 kPa, i.e. at this FGP (i.e. 137 kPa), rela-
liquid around the bubbles gets drained out under gravity. An tively more foaming solution will be forced into the interstices of
increase in the dosage of sodium admixture reduced the drainage, foam bubbles as compared to that occurring at a FGP of 78 kPa
which can be attributed to the formation of a firm layer around the (Fig. 9b). FGP of 137 kPa results in lower dosage of sodium admix-
bubble and preventing it from collapsing and retaining the solution ture as well as relatively lower drainage. Hence, further discussion
intact in the foam. This results in the increased stability of the foam will be based on 137 kPa. Fig. 10 shows the variation of foam den-
for longer periods. At lower concentration of SLS, irrespective of the sity for different time intervals at 137 kPa. As the requirement of
dosage of admixture, the reduction in foam density is steeper at foam density at the end of different time interval (i.e. stability)
various time intervals indicating higher drainage. Hence, the SLS increases, the dosage of sodium admixture increases and hence
concentration and admixture dosage play an important role in the viscosity of the foaming solution increases. At 30th minute,
 M. Siva et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 57 (2015) 133–141 141

Table 6  ASTM recommended foam density is achieved at lower dosage

Properties of foam concrete of density 1200 kg/m3. in sodium hydroxide (NaOH) with SLS concentration of 2.5%
Foam concrete properties 1200 kg/m3 when compared to Na2CO3 and NaCl due to the presence of rel-
SLS + NaOH SLS + NaCl SLS + Na2CO3 atively higher mole percent of sodium in its compound.
 During the production of foam concrete, the foam produced by
Foam volume (%) 35.01 35.09 33.80
w/s ratio 0.415 0.415 0.445
SLS with sodium salt admixtures remained stable and produces
Fresh density (kg/m3) 1229 1215 1225 the desired dry densities.
Dry density (kg/m3) 1025 1012 1018
Compressive strength (MPa) 5.14 5.30 4.76
Water absorption (%) 27.15 26.83 21.7
Acknowledgment

NaCl with dosage of less than 4% at 78 kPa and 3% at 137 kPa results
in zero foam density as all the liquid drains off. In case of Na2CO3
and NaOH, zero density is reached at 2% and 1%, respectively.
Highly stable foam satisfying ASTM standards for different
admixtures up to 30 min can be achieved by using appropriate dos-
age. It is observed that depending on the period of stability and
required density range, the admixture dosage can be decided.
4.4. Stability of foam in concrete
Having established the stability of foam generated using SLS
with the sodium salt admixtures, stability of the foam in concrete
is investigated as the next logical step. A cement–sand mix of 1:1
by weight, with pulverized sand passing 2.36 mm sieve was used.
Foam was generated using SLS with appropriate dosage of each of
the sodium admixtures arrived at from Fig. 10, with a criteria that
the foam density at the end of 15 min does not fall below a density
of 32 kg/m3 (minimum foam density required as per ASTM stan-
dards). After identifying the water content that will provide a
mix with required consistency, the foam volume required to be
added to achieve a fresh foam concrete density of 1200 kg/m3
has been arrived at as per the method described in ASTM C 796
[5]. The fresh and hardened densities, 28 day compressive strength
and water absorption of foam concrete presented in Table 6 indi-
cate the effectiveness of these foaming agents.
5. Conclusions
From the studies on the SLS and sodium admixtures, the follow-
ing conclusions were arrived at. They are:
 Initial foam density of foam and foam stability of SLS is
improved by the addition of sodium admixtures: NaCl, Na2CO3
and NaOH.
 It is observed that viscosity has a linear relationship with foam
density and bubble size. Foam generated with viscous solution
has high initial foam density and stability over time. Due to
common ion effect, the viscosity increases with the addition
of sodium admixtures in SLS.
 Increase in foam generation pressure (i.e., 137 kPa) resulted in
increased initial foam density due to the intrusion of more
foaming liquid in foam and it leads to the use of low dosage
of admixture to achieve the required density and relatively less
drainage.
The authors thank Prof. J. Murali Krishnan, Transportation Divi-
sion, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, for his help in
viscosity measurements.
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