Cement & Concrete Composites 52 (2014) 73–80

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Cement & Concrete Composites

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconcomp

The influence of superabsorbent polymers on strength and durability

properties of blended cement mortars
H. Beushausen ⇑, M. Gillmer, M. Alexander
University of Cape Town, Department of Civil Engineering, Concrete Materials and Structural Integrity Research Unit, South Africa

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effect of different quantities of admixed superabsorbent polymers (SAP) on durability and strength
Received 19 April 2013 properties of normal strength mortars containing various binary cement blends was investigated.
Received in revised form 10 March 2014 Addition of SAP did not significantly affect compressive strength, although a slight retardation of strength
Accepted 28 March 2014
development was observed in mortars with higher w/b ratio. Tensile strength values were generally
Available online 4 April 2014
slightly improved with the use of SAP. Durability was assessed by measuring porosity, oxygen permeabil-
ity, chloride conductivity, accelerated carbonation, and bulk diffusion. The generally improved durability
Keywords:
properties, especially for mortars containing silica fume, indicates the potential to use SAP to design high
Blended cement mortars
Superabsorbent polymers
quality concrete repair mortars.
Strength development Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Durability
Concrete repair

1. Introduction mortar’s penetrability can be employed. Suitable approaches

As a consequence of the large amount of prematurely deterio-
rating infrastructure, concrete repair technologies are increasingly
becoming important in the modern construction technology.
Nearly all repair projects include the application of a repair mortar
subsequent to the removal of damaged or contaminated concrete.
In many cases, repair mortar properties are still specified only in
relation to strength and dimensional stability. However, the most
important function of the majority of patch repairs relates to pro-
tection of the underlying reinforcement, for which strength is not a
relevant material parameter. The success of patch repairs com-
monly rather depends on bond strength to the substrate and mor-
tar material properties such as penetrability, resistivity, and crack
resistance.
Most patch repair mortars used in practice are commercially
available proprietary materials for which little information is avail-
able on mix constituents and composition. Consequently, if mortar
properties need to be optimized for specific performance require-
ments, a ‘‘self-made’’ mortar needs to be developed. With respect
to durability properties, which relate to the mortar’s ability to pro-
tect the embedded steel from corrosion-initiating processes such
as carbonation and chloride ingress, methods for decreasing the
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: University of Cape Town, Department of Civil
Engineering, Private Bag, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa. Tel.: +27 21 650 5181;
fax: +27 21 689 7471.
E-mail address: Hans.Beushausen@uct.ac.za (H. Beushausen).
include the use of supplementary cementitious materials and a
general optimization of the mortar’s microstructure. A promising
and relatively new technology to achieve the latter is the applica-
tion of superabsorbent polymers (SAP) to facilitate internal curing.
SAP has been found to successfully improve the microstructure of
high strength concrete [1,2] and is increasingly applied in real con-
struction projects [3]. The principle of internal curing with SAP
relates to the provision of water-filled cavities in the hardened
cement paste and is for example used to reduce autogeneous
shrinkage in concretes with low water/binder ratios. However, lit-
tle information is available on the use of SAP to improve the micro-
structure and durability-related properties of mortars of normal
strength made with supplementary cementitious materials.
With regards to strength properties, the use of SAP in concrete
can have the effect of reducing strength due to the creation of addi-
tional voids in the hardened cement matrix. However, this effect is
partly offset due to the generally improved microstructure
achieved due to internal curing. The overall effect depends on fac-
tors such as w/b ratio, maturity and amount of SAP addition [3,4].
For normal strength mortars with different binder type combina-
tions, the effect that SAP addition has on compressive and tensile
strength properties needs still to be quantified.
The experimental research discussed in this publication is part
of a project to investigate the use of SAP to improve the overall per-
formance of repair mortars, including strength, durability proper-
ties, and cracking. The main focus of the research was the use of
SAP to improve the cracking behavior of bonded repair mortars

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.03.008
0958-9465/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
74 H. Beushausen et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 52 (2014) 73–80

subjected to restrained deformations, which was very successful of binder), in order to identify if an optimum replacement level can
and will be discussed in a separate publication. In the experimental be found for the performance of repair mortars.
investigation, which is discussed in the following sections, the gen- A total of 24 mixes were designed, as presented in Table 1. The
eral effect of SAP addition on strength and durability properties of water content was kept constant at 250 l/m3 and superplasticizer
normal strength mortars was investigated. The experimental pro- (SP) was added when necessary. The SP consisted of a sodium salt
gramme included a total of 24 different mortars, including 3 binder of polymerized naphthalene sulfonic acid, supplied in dry powder
combinations, 2 water/binder ratios, and 4 SAP contents. The mor- form by BASF. SP was added to the mix after an initial slump test
tars were tested for strength and durability properties, as detailed had been performed, the amount being adjusted to achieve the
in the following section. desired slump value. The target slump was set at 50 ± 20 mm,
which was achieved for most of the mixes.
The sand used was silicious pit sand with a fineness modulus of
2. Experimental details
2.7 and relative density of 2.65. Table 2 presents the oxide compo-
sition of the various binders.
2.1. Materials, mix design and curing regime
The SAP material used in this research consisted of covalently
cross-linked acrylamide/acrylic acid copolymers. The suspension
The performance requirements for concrete mortars used in the
polymerized spherical particles had an average particle size of
repair of reinforcement corrosion-damaged structures include low
approximately 200 lm. The properties of the SAP material, includ-
penetrability against aggressive agents such as carbon dioxide and
ing absorption characteristics, were previously published by Jensen
chlorides. The superior chloride resistance of blended cements is
and Hansen [10].
well documented in the literature [5–7]. In contrast, the progress
The specimens (cubes with 100 mm side length) were kept in
of carbonation is commonly slower in plain CEM I concrete, com-
the moulds under plastic sheeting for one day and then demoulded
pared to concrete made with blended cements [8]. However, even
and cured for a further 2 days under plastic sheeting to prevent
for carbonation-induced corrosion, overall durability is generally
moisture loss and replicate common site curing conditions for
improved with blended cement concretes, which is due to their
repair work. Subsequently, samples were stored at 23 ± 2 °C and
comparatively higher resistivity and hence slower corrosion prop-
50 ± 5% RH until the age of testing or sample preparation.
agation [7,9]. Consequently, the use of plain CEM I mortars is not
advisable for the repair of reinforcement corrosion damage and
in this research only mortars containing blended cements were Table 2
used. % Oxide composition of binders.
To test the effect of SAP addition on mortars made with com- Oxide CEM I 42.5N GGBS FA
mon supplementary cementitious materials, mixes were designed
CaO 64.12 36.42 4.14
with fly ash (FA), ground granulated blastfurnace slag (BS) and sil- SiO2 20.75 37.06 54.87
ica fume (SF), using cement replacement levels common in indus- Al2O3 4.17 12.83 31.34
try (FA: 30%, BS: 50%, SF: 10%). Mixes were designed with two Fe2O3 3.21 0.72 3.70
different water/binder ratios (0.45 and 0.55) and 3 different SAP SO3 2.30 2.24 0.19
MgO 0.74 8.13 1.00
contents. The literature suggests that optimum performance of K2O 0.73 1.07 0.71
high strength concrete can be obtained when the SAP content, TiO2 0.28 0.59 1.67
measured as a percentage of the total amount of binder, lies at Mn2O3 0.05 0.98 0.06
around 0.3% [4]. In this research, the SAP content was set at 0% (ref- Na2O 0.04 0.50 0.36
P2O5 0.08 0.00 0.49
erence mortar), 0.2%, 0.4% and 0.6% (percentage of the total amount

Table 1
Mix design and workability (slump).

Mix w/b Total binder (kg) CEM I 42.5 (kg) FA (kg) GGBS (kg) SF (kg) Water (kg) Sand 002 (kg) SAP (kg) Slump (mm) SP (kg)
1 0.45 556 389 167 0 0 250 1490 1.11 60 0.25
2 0.45 556 389 167 0 0 250 1490 2.22 50 1.18
3 0.45 556 389 167 0 0 250 1490 3.33 40 1.76
4 0.45 556 278 0 278 0 250 1490 1.11 40 1.25
5 0.45 556 278 0 278 0 250 1490 2.22 40 2.35
6 0.45 556 278 0 278 0 250 1490 3.33 40 3.53
7 0.45 556 500 0 0 56 250 1490 1.11 40 1.00
8 0.45 556 500 0 0 56 250 1490 2.22 50 1.76
9 0.45 556 500 0 0 56 250 1490 3.33 40 2.94
10 0.55 455 318 136 0 0 250 1530 0.91 90 0
11 0.55 455 318 136 0 0 250 1530 1.82 70 0
12 0.55 455 318 136 0 0 250 1530 2.73 80 0.59
13 0.55 455 227 0 227 0 250 1530 0.91 60 0
14 0.55 455 227 0 227 0 250 1530 1.82 60 0.59
15 0.55 455 227 0 227 0 250 1530 2.73 50 2.06
16 0.55 455 409 0 0 45 250 1530 0.91 70 0.25
17 0.55 455 409 0 0 45 250 1530 1.82 50 0.59
18 0.55 455 409 0 0 45 250 1530 2.73 50 2.35
Controls
19 0.45 556 389 167 0 0 250 1490 0 60 0
20 0.45 556 278 0 278 0 250 1490 0 30 1.76
21 0.45 556 500 0 0 56 250 1490 0 80 2.35
22 0.55 455 318 136 0 0 250 1530 0 150 0
23 0.55 455 227 0 227 0 250 1530 0 50 0.59
24 0.55 455 409 0 0 45 250 1530 0 50 0.59
 H. Beushausen et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 52 (2014) 73–80
Due to the fact that the mortars were produced with the same
water content, independent of SAP addition, they can be assumed
to have had different microstructural properties. A rigorous scien-
tific investigation on the influence of SAP addition on cement-
based mortar properties should include experiments on mortars
in which the water content is adjusted to the specific water
absorption kinetics of the SAP particles. This can be done under
consideration of relevant recent literature on the influence of SAP
addition on free water availability in cementitious mixes
[12–14]. The scope of this research project, however, did not
include such a scientific investigation but aimed predominantly
at evaluating how the performance of given cement-based mortar
mixes is affected by the addition of SAP. The justification for this
experimental approach is that it is relevant for practical applica-
tion. In practice, most contractors and engineers rely on commer-
cial repair mortars, or at least on trusted mix designs. If these
mix designs are changed to add SAP, it is unlikely that this will
be done under consideration of how SAP contents affect the inter-
nal water absorption properties and hence the concrete micro-
structure. A change to the mix design would instead be done by
adding a certain amount of SAP to the pre-designed mix propor-
tions. As such, this research aims at showing the potential of SAP
addition to improve the performance of repair mortars in practice.
2.2. Durability Index Testing and porosity
In South Africa, the Durability Index (DI) approach is used to
specify and test durability properties of concrete. This perfor-
mance-based approach is based mainly on two material parame-
ters, namely Oxygen Permeability Index (OPI) and Chloride
Conductivity Index (CCI). The tests and their common applications
in South Africa are briefly discussed in the following sections.
Porosity was measured as total porosity obtained by relating
the weight of a vacuum-saturated sample to the weight of a fully
oven-dried sample.
2.2.1. Oxygen Permeability Index
The Oxygen Permeability Index (OPI) test method consists of
measuring the pressure decay of oxygen passed through an oven-
dried, 30 mm thick slice (representing the cover concrete) of a
(typically) 68 mm diameter core placed in a falling head permeam-
eter. The OPI is defined as the negative log of the coefficient of per-
meability. Common OPI values for South African concrete range
from 8.5 to 10.5, a higher value indicating a lower permeability
and thus a concrete of potentially higher quality. Note that Oxygen
Permeability Index is measured on a log scale; therefore the differ-
ence between 8.5 and 10.5 is substantial, the former being 100
times more permeable than the latter. As a basic guideline, con-
crete with an OPI greater than 9.6 is commonly considered of ade-
quate quality for durability classes XC (according to EN 206-1:
2000 [14]) if the cover depth is at least 40 mm [15,16]. As a general
guideline, a concrete with an OPI greater than 10.0 can be consid-
ered to have very low permeability. Further details on the test
equipment and test procedure can be found in the literature
[17–20].
The OPI test assesses the overall micro- and macrostructure of
the outer surface of cast concrete, and is particularly sensitive to
macro-voids and cracks which act as short-circuits for the perme-
ating gas. Thus the test is useful to assess the state of compaction,
presence of bleed voids and channels, and the degree of intercon-
nectedness of the pore structure. Correlations between OPI values
recorded at 28 days and carbonation depths after natural exposure
have been found to be good [18], which has been the basis of the
South African service life prediction model for concrete structures
in environmental class XC.
75
2.2.2. Chloride Conductivity Index
The Chloride Conductivity Index (CCI) test apparatus consists of
a two-cell conduction rig in which concrete core specimens are
exposed on either side to a 5 M NaCl chloride solution. The speci-
mens (with the same dimensions as those used in the OPI test as
described above) are preconditioned before testing to standardize
the pore water solution (oven-dried at 50 °C followed by 24 h vac-
uum saturation in a 5 M NaCl chloride solution). The movement of
chloride ions occurs due to the application of a 10 V potential dif-
ference. The chloride conductivity is determined by measuring the
current flowing through the concrete specimen. The apparatus
allows for rapid testing under controlled laboratory conditions
and gives instantaneous readings. The test equipment and test pro-
cedures are described in the literature [17–20].
Chloride conductivity commonly decreases with the addition of
fly ash, slag, and silica fume in concrete, extended moist curing and
increasing grade of concrete. While the test is sensitive to con-
struction and material effects that are known to influence durabil-
ity, results are specifically related to chloride ingress into concrete.
Correlations between 28-day chloride conductivity results and dif-
fusion coefficients after several years of marine exposure have
shown to be good over a wide range of concretes [21].
The correlation between CCI value and expected chloride
ingress depends on the chemistry of the pore solution and hence
on the binder type. As a guideline, common durability specifica-
tions in South Africa, for environmental class XS3 (according to
EN 206-1: 2000 [14], marine environment: tidal, slash and spray
zones) and a minimum cover depth of 50 mm, demand CCI values
of no greater than 1.1, 1.25, and 0.35 for concrete containing fly ash
(30% by mass of binder), blastfurnace slag (50%), and silica fume
(10%), respectively [15].
2.3. Carbonation and bulk diffusion testing
Based on the outcome of the DI testing, which was done on all
24 mixes, the mortars containing silica fume were identified to
generally show the most noteworthy improvement in durability
properties resulting from addition of SAP. Therefore, the silica
fume mortars were selected for further investigation involving car-
bonation and bulk diffusion testing. The additional testing was
done to identify if the SAP-related improvement in DI values could
be verified with test procedures that simulate actual deterioration
processes.
The rapid carbonation test involved the placing of specimens in
a carbonation chamber for a period of 6 weeks and subsequently
measuring the carbonation depth with a spray-on phenolphthalein
solution. The conditions in the chamber were set to 4% CO2, 23 °C
and 70% RH. Prior to exposure to the carbonation chamber, the test
specimens (cubes with 100 mm side length) were cured as
described above until they had reached an age of 28 days.
For the bulk diffusion test, concrete cubes (100 mm side length)
were produced and cured under the conditions discussed above. At
an age of 28 days, cores (70 mm diameter) were removed from the
cubes and prepared and tested according to ASTM C1556 (2004)
[22].
2.4. Strength testing
Compressive strength was tested after 3, 7 and 28 days on cubes
with 100 mm side length. A total of 3 cubes were tested for each
parameter at each age. Tensile strength was measured on ‘‘dog
bone’’ samples (Fig. 1) using a Zwick Roell Universal Testing
Machine. Test ages for tensile strength were 3 and 14 days. Two
specimens were tested for each parameter and age.
Compressive strength was tested at 3 different ages to identify
and, if applicable, contrast the influence of SAP on early-age
76
Fig. 1. Geometry of tensile strength specimens (units in mm).
strength and strength development at later ages (up to 28 days
design strength). Tensile strength was tested at ages that were
deemed significant for tensile cracking experiments on bonded
overlays subjected to restrained deformation, which are in detail
discussed in a separate publication.
3. Test results
3.1. Compressive strength
The compressive strength results for the mortars with w/b of
0.45 and 0.55 are presented in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively.
The mortar mixes with a w/b ratio of 0.45 generally showed lit-
tle influence of SAP addition and quantity on compressive strength
values. A slight increase in strength was observed for FA mixes
with SAP addition of 0.2% and 0.4%. The results for the BS mixes
seem to suggest a slight decrease in strength with SAP addition.
The strength of the silica fume mixes was generally unaffected
by the addition of SAP.
Mortars with w/b ratio of 0.55 mostly showed a slight decrease
in compressive strength due to SAP addition, which was more pro-
nounced at early ages. For the silica fume mix, this strength loss
60
Compressive strength (MPa)
50
40
30
20
10
0
FA
0%
H. Beushausen et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 52 (2014) 73–80
was recovered at an age of 28 days, with all SF samples showing
very similar results.
Following the above observations it appears that the addition of
SAP has no significant influence on compressive strength values
of mortars with w/b ratios of about 0.45. For a higher w/b ratio of
0.55, the addition of SAP resulted in a slightly lower strength, espe-
cially at early ages. However, this loss in strength appears to be
partly recovered with time, resulting from ongoing cement hydra-
tion facilitated by the internal curing mechanisms.
3.2. Tensile strength
The tensile strength results for the mortars with w/b of 0.45 and
0.55 are presented in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively.
The results of the mortars with w/b of 0.45 suggest that the
addition of SAP generally has a somewhat positive effect on the
tensile strength of SF and BS mortars, especially at later ages.
The tensile strength of the FA mixes was slightly impaired at
3 days, which was however no longer observed at 14 days.
The FA mortars with w/b of 0.55 showed a reduction in strength
due to addition of SAP, increasing dosages of SAP resulting in
increasingly lower strengths. Similarly, BS and SF mixes showed
a trend of decreasing tensile strength with increasing SAP addition
at 3 days. However, at an age of 14 days, BS and SF mixes contain-
ing SAP generally outperformed the reference mixes.
3.3. Durability Indexes and porosity
Test results are presented as mean values from a total of 4 sam-
ples per specimen type and test parameter. Outlying values were
identified based on statistical analysis and excluded from determi-
nation of mean values. The scatter of data was generally very small
and will not be discussed in detail. Test results for OPI, CCI, and
porosity are presented in Figs. 6–8, respectively.
All samples with w/b = 0.45 had Oxygen Permeability Index val-
ues larger than 10.0, indicating concrete of very low permeability
(note that a higher OPI value indicates lower permeability). For this
lower w/b ratio, the addition of SAP slightly decreased the OPI of mor-
tars made with FA and BS, while the OPI of mortar containing SF was
not affected by SAP addition. For mortars with a higher w/b ratio of
0.55, the addition of SAP was found to commonly slightly improve
permeability values, which was observed for all binder types.
The Chloride Conductivity Index values of specimens with w/b
ratio of 0.45 indicated that the mortars are of adequate quality
for severe marine exposure (at a minimum cover of 50 mm), the
BS samples outperforming the other mortars, as expected (note
that a lower CCI value indicates better chloride resistance). At this
28 d
7d
3d
FA FA FA BS BS BS BS SF SF SF SF
0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6%
Binder type and SAP content
Fig. 2. Compressive strength results, mortars with w/b = 0.45.
 H. Beushausen et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 52 (2014) 73–80 77

45

Compressive strength (MPa)

40
35
28 d
30
25 7d
20
3d
15
10
5
0
FA FA FA FA BS BS BS BS SF SF SF SF
0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6%
Binder type and SAP content

Fig. 3. Compressive strength results, mortars with w/b = 0.55.

4
Tensile strength (MPa)

2
14d

1 3d

0
FA FA FA FA BS BS BS BS SF SF SF SF
0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6%
Binder type and SAP content

Fig. 4. Tensile strength results, mortars with w/b = 0.45.

3
Tensile strength (MPa)

14d
1
3d

0
FA FA FA FA BS BS BS BS SF SF SF SF
0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6%
Binder type and SAP content

Fig. 5. Tensile strength results, mortars with w/b = 0.55.

lower w/b ratio, the addition of SAP was found to have a negligible
effect on CCI values. Note that the CCI value measured for the ref-
erence mortar (0% SAP) containing FA, w/b = 0.45 is unexpectedly
high and is believed to not represent the material quality of this
specimen.
For specimens with w/b = 0.55, only the BS mortars had CCI val-
ues sufficient for environmental class XS3 (at 50 mm cover). At a
w/b of 0.55, the CCI of BS mortars were slightly worsened with
the addition of SAP while the performance of FA mortars was
hardly affected by SAP addition. In contrast, the performance of
the SF mortars showed a noteworthy improvement with increasing
SAP content.
As shown in Fig. 8, the overall porosity was generally not signif-
icantly affected by the addition of SAP, although a slight improve-
ment with SAP addition was found for the SF mixes. Porosity values
were largely on the high side, as anticipated for mortars without
coarse aggregates.
3.4. Carbonation
Fig. 9 shows the carbonation depths for the silica fume mixes,
measured after 6 weeks of exposure in the carbonation chamber.
For the mortars with w/b = 0.55, a significant reduction in carbon-
ation depth with increasing SAP content was measured. Compared
78 H. Beushausen et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 52 (2014) 73–80

10.8

Oxygen Permeability Index (-)

10.6
10.4
10.2
10
9.8
w/b 0.45
9.6
9.4 w/b 0.55

9.2
9
FA FA FA FA BS BS BS BS SF SF SF SF
0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6%
Binder type and SAP content

Fig. 6. Oxygen Permeability Index results.

Chloride Conductivity Index (mS/cm)

2.5

1.5

w/b 0.55
1
w/b 0.45
0.5

0
FA FA FA FA BS BS BS BS SF SF SF SF
0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6%
Binder type and SAP content

Fig. 7. Chloride Conductivity Index results.

18
17
16
15
Porosity (%)

14
13
12 w/b 0.55
11
w/b 0.45
10
9
8
FA FA FA FA BS BS BS BS SF SF SF SF
0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6%
Binder type and SAP content

Fig. 8. Porosity results.

to the reference mortar, a SAP content of 0.4% nearly halved the
resulting carbonation depth. A higher SAP content of 0.6% did not
result in further improvements. The observed enhancement in car-
bonation resistance with increasing SAP content corresponds to
the measured influence of SAP content on Oxygen Permeability
Index values, as discussed earlier.
The OPI values of mortars with w/b = 0.45 were consistently
very high, indicating good carbonation resistance. This was con-
firmed with the measured carbonation depths after 6 weeks expo-
sure, which reached values of only roughly 1–1.5 mm. Similar to
what was observed at a higher w/b ratio, the measurements indi-
cate improved carbonation resistance with increasing SAP content.
3.5. Bulk diffusion
The bulk diffusion measurements of the silica fume mortars
were analyzed to obtain the diffusion coefficients (Fig. 10). The
measured values generally lie in the range expected for mortar
specimens made with w/b ratios of 0.45 and 0.55. As expected from
the Chloride Conductivity Index results of SF mortars, for both w/b
 H. Beushausen et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 52 (2014) 73–80 79

7 According to Jensen and Hansen [4], the inclusion of a discon-

tinuous phase has a negligible influence on the diffusion properties
Carbonation depth (mm)

6
of a material since the connectivity of the pore structure is gener-
5 ally of higher importance, compared to overall porosity. Therefore,
penetrability properties and conductivity (or its inverse, resistiv-
4 ity) should generally be improved by replacing finer, partly con-
w/b 0.55 nected capillary pores by discrete, spherical inclusions from
3
w/b 0.45
entrained air. In terms of durability properties, the effect of SAP
2 may therefore follow a similar rationality as for strength, i.e.
increased voids may worsen durability properties but the
1
improved microstructure can counteract this effect so that an over-
0 all positive outcome may be achieved, especially at later ages. The
0% 0.20% 0.40% 0.60% test results obtained in this study support this theory, with SAP
SAP content addition generally resulting in similar or improved Durability
Indexes compared to the reference mortars. It should however be
Fig. 9. Carbonation depth results, SF mortars. noted that the research done by Jensen and Hansen [4] cited above
was based on mixes with low w/b ratios, which can be considered
to have a lower degree of pore continuity compared to the mixed
13 used in this research (with w/b of up to 0.55). The influence of
12 SAP addition on the performance of cement-based systems should
Diffusion coefficient (10-12)

11 therefore also consider the prevailing characteristics of the micro-

10
9
8
w/b 0.55
7
6 It was especially noteworthy to observe that the amount of SAP
5 w/b 0.45
4 which confirms that the higher initial void space created by the
3 SAP particles is offset by an improved microstructure due to inter-
2 nal curing mechanisms, even at a relatively high w/b ratio of 0.55.
1
0
0% 0.20% 0.40% 0.60%
SAP content
Fig. 10. Diffusion coefficients, SF mortars.
ratios a significant reduction in diffusion coefficient was observed
with increasing SAP content.
4. Summary and discussion of results
The addition of SAP to concrete is generally considered to
increase the number of voids, which can have a negative effect
on compressive strength [4]. However, the improvement in micro-
structure resulting from internal curing can counteract this effect
[3]. In this research, the addition of SAP was found to have a neg-
ligible influence on compressive strength values of mortars with a
w/b ratio of 0.45. For a higher w/b ratio of 0.55, the addition of SAP
resulted in a slightly lower compressive strength especially at early
ages. However, the difference in strength reduced over time, which
can probably be linked to the influence of internal curing on ongo-
ing cement hydration. Slightly different trends were observed for
tensile strength. The tensile strength of BS and SF mortars was
improved by the addition of SAP, with higher dosages of SAP gen-
erally resulting in more favorable results. For FA mortars, SAP addi-
tion resulted in reduced tensile strength.
The literature contains a considerable amount of information
relating to the effect of SAP on the properties of concrete with
low w/b ratios and, consequently, high strength. The focus of this
research was the potential improvement of concrete repair mor-
tars, for which strength is commonly of minor importance. Most
patch repairs are not subjected to significant stresses under service
conditions and the main function is the protection of the reinforc-
ing steel. The most important aspect of this research was therefore
the effect that the addition of SAP has on durability properties of
normal strength cementitious mortars.
structure. In the scope of this research, it was however considered
noteworthy that diffusion properties of mortars were not nega-
tively affected even at higher w/b ratios.
addition had no significant effect on the porosity of the mortars,
The Durability Indexes of mortars with a w/b ratio of 0.45 were
mostly very good and generally little affected by the addition of
SAP. For mortars with a w/b of 0.55, improved permeability was
observed with SAP addition for all binder types. For mortars con-
taining silica fume (at a w/b of 0.55), a significant improvement
in chloride conductivity was observed. Similarly, the addition of
SAP had the most positive effect on permeability properties of
the SF mortar, compared to mortars made with FA or BS. This indi-
cates that the effect of SAP works especially well in connection
with a general refinement of the pore structure resulting from
the fine silica particles. The positive effect of SAP addition to mor-
tar made with SF was further confirmed with the accelerated car-
bonation and bulk diffusion testing. From the test results it appears
that the optimum SAP content in SF mortar lies at around 0.4%,
with further increases in SAP addition having a negligible effect
on durability properties.
In future work, the combined influence of SAP particle proper-
ties and mass content should be investigated in view of changes
in microstructure and durability performance of repair mortars.
The literature contains information on how to account for the
influence of SAP addition on free water availability in cementitious
mixes [10,11]. For example, Esteves [11] proposes a model based
on Fick’s second law of diffusion to model the water absorption
kinetics of SAP particles in relation to their size, concluding that
larger SAP particles have higher absorption capacity. For ASR-
related durability properties of cement-based materials, Esteves
[11] therefore proposes that SAP particles with larger diameter
are preferable since they result in larger air voids and also in a lar-
ger overall porosity. In this research, no significant change in
porosity in relation to SAP content was observed. In future projects
this aspect should be investigated in more detail, also considering
the influence of SAP particle size.
The experimental work discussed in this publication was part of
a larger project in which also the effect of SAP on the cracking
behavior of mortars subjected to restrained shrinkage was investi-
gated. The results in relation to cracking characteristics, which will
be discussed in another publication, are very promising.
80 H. Beushausen et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 52 (2014) 73–80
In connection with the generally positive effect on durability prop-
erties, the improvement in repair mortar quality resulting from
SAP addition highlights its potential for application in the repair
industry.
5. Conclusions
– The addition of SAP to mortars containing blended cements may
result in a slight retardation of strength development, especially
at higher w/b ratios. However, the long-term strength of mor-
tars is probably not negatively affected by the addition of SAP.
– The overall porosity of the tested mortars was not affected by
the amount of SAP added, highlighting the dual and counteract-
ing effect of SAP on increased porosity in combination with an
improved microstructure.
– The durability properties of mortars at a relatively low w/b ratio
of 0.45 were not significantly affected by the addition of SAP. In
contrast, mortars with a w/b ratio of 0.55 generally showed
improved durability properties as a result of SAP addition. The
reason for this is probably that an improvement in microstruc-
ture through SAP addition has a more significant effect in mor-
tars of originally comparatively lower quality. In mortars that
already have good durability properties, e.g. a relatively dense
and impermeable microstructure, further improvements by
SAP addition are negligible.
– The combination of SAP and silica fume shows very promising
effects with regards to mortar durability properties, indicating
a high potential for application in repair projects.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge with gratitude the Concrete
Institute (TCI) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) for
financial support of this work. In addition, support was given by
Afrisam, PPC, and Sika (SA) Pty. Ltd. The authors further thank
Ole Jensen for contributing a suitable SAP material for this
research.
References
[1] Jensen OM. Use of superabsorbent materials in construction materials. In: 1st
International conference on microstructure related durability of cementitious
composites, RILEM Pro 061; 2008. p. 757–64.
[2] Kolver K, Jensen OM, editors. RILEM TC 196-ICC: internal curing of concrete,
state-of-the-art report, France; 2007. 161pp.
[3] Jensen OM. Use of superabsorbent polymers in concrete. Concrete
International, January 2013. p. 48–52.
[4] Jensen OM, Hansen PF. Water-entrained cement-based materials. I. Principles
and theoretical background. Cem Concr Res 2001;31(4):647–54.
[5] Mangat PS, El-Khatib JM, Molloy BT. Microstructure, chloride diffusion and
reinforcement corrosion in blended cement paste and concrete. Cem Concr
Compos 1994;16(2):73–81.
[6] Song HW, Saraswathy V. Studies on the corrosion resistance of reinforced steel
in concrete with ground granulated blast-furnace slag – an overview. J Hazard
Mater 2006;B138:226–33.
[7] Scott AN, Alexander MG. The influence of binder type, cracking and cover on
corrosion rates of steel in chloride-contaminated concrete. Mag Concr Res
2007;59(7):495–505.
[8] Papadakis VG. Effect of supplementary cementing materials on concrete
resistance against carbonation and chloride ingress. Cem Concr Res
2000;30(2):291–9.
[9] Otieno MB, Alexander MG, Beushausen H-D. Corrosion in cracked and
uncracked concrete – influence of crack width, concrete quality and crack
re-opening. Mag Concr Res 2010;62(6):393–404.
[10] Jensen OM, Hansen PF. Water-entrained cement-based materials – II.
Experimental observations. Cem Concr Res 2002;32(6):973–8.
[11] Esteves LP. Superabsorbent polymers: on their interaction with water and pore
fluid. Cement Concr Compos 2011;33:717–24.
[12] Esteves LP. An ongoing investigation on modeling the strength properties of
water-entrained cement-based materials. In: Concrete repair, rehabilitation
and retrofitting III, proceedings (ICCRRR2012). CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group; 2012. p. 521–4.
[13] Jensen OM. Water absorption of superabsorbent polymers in a cementitious
environment. In: Leung C, Wan KT, editors. Advances in construction materials
through science and engineering, September 5–7 2011 (Hong Kong, China),
RILEM PRO 79, 2011. p. 22–35.
[14] Beushausen H, Alexander M. Performance-based service life design of
reinforced concrete structures using durability indicators. In: Concrete
Life’09, 7–9 September 2009, Haifa, Israel. p. 408–15.
[15] BS EN 206-1: 2000, Concrete – part 1: specification, performance, production
and conformity.
[16] Nganga G, Alexander MG, Beushausen H. Practical implementation of the
durability index performance-based design approach. Constr Build Mater
2013;45:251–61.
[17] Alexander MG, Mackechnie JR, Ballim Y. Use of durability indexes to achieve
durable cover concrete in reinforced concrete structures. In: Skalny JP,
Mindess S, editors. Materials science of concrete, vol. VI. American Ceramic
Society; 2001. p. 483–511.
[18] Mackechnie JR, Alexander MG. Durability predictions using early age
durability index testing. In: Proceedings, 9th durability and building
materials conference. Brisbane: Australian Corrosion Association; 2002. 11p.
[19] Beushausen H, Alexander MG, Mackechnie J. Concrete durability aspects in an
international context. Concrete plant and precast technology BFT, vol. 7,
Germany; 2003. p. 22–32.
[20] Torrent R, Fernández Luco L, editors. State of The Art Report (STAR): RILEM TC
189-NEC: non-destructive evaluation of the covercrete. Zurich, Switzerland;
2007. 223 pp.
[21] Mackechnie JR. Predictions of reinforced concrete durability in the marine
environment. Research Monograph No. 1, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Cape Town; 2001. 28pp.
[22] ASTM C1556. 2004: Standard test method for determining the apparent
chloride diffusion coefficient of cementitious mixtures by bulk diffusion.