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Structural Design
Chapter 1
• Requirements:
Introduction • Determination of the overall proportions and dimensions of the supporting framework
• Selection of the cross sections of individual members
• Process:
• Architect decides how the building looks
• Engineer ensures that the building does not collapse
• Priorities:
• Safety
• Serviceability
• Economy
• Good Practice: Prepare several framing plans

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Structural Members Structural Members

• Various types of structural members
A exist
• Figure A
• Truss
• Pinned connections and loads applied only at the
joints
• Components are two-force members
• Subjected to axial compression or tension
B • Figure B
• Rigid frame
• Members connected by welding and can be
assumed to form a continuous structure
• Typically treat the frame as two-dimensional due
to plane of symmetry
• Typically assume deformations are very small
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whole or in part.
• Loading must be determined after
determining the geometry and
support conditions
• An example of a loading condition
and its exaggerated deformation is
shown to the left
• Beams: Members AB & BC
• Horizontal and subjected to bending
• Column: Member BD
• Vertical and subjected to axial compression
• Beam-Columns: Members AE & CF
• Vertical and subjected to both axial compression
and bending
• In reality, all members are subjected
to both axial loading and bending,
but for beams and columns one of
the effects is minor
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Loads Building Codes

• Loads: Forces that act on a structure
• Dead Load: Loads that are permanent • Building Code: Legal document containing requirements related to such
• Also called “self-weight” things as structural and fire safety, plumbing, ventilation, and accessibility.
• Examples: weight of a structure, weight of nonstructural components (floor coverings, partitions, etc.) • Does not give design procedures
Specifies the design requirements and constraints
• Live Load: Loads that vary based upon time and location •
• Prescribes the minimum live loads for a building
• Examples: furniture, equipment, occupants of a building
• If applied slowly and seldom removed – analyze as static loading (typical)
If applied suddenly – analyze effects of impact (rare)
•
• Model Codes: Building codes written by nonprofit organizations that are
• If applied and removed many times – analyze effects of fatigue stress (rare)
• Typically, treat live loads as static modified and applied by municipalities.
• Uniform Building Code
• Load Types: • Standard Building Code
• Gravity Loads: Forces which result from gravity • BOCA National Building Code
• Wind Loading: A live load, though it is usually considered a separate category of loading • International Building Code
• Earthquake Loading: A live load that is considered only in certain geographical locations • ASCE 7, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
• Snow Loading: A live load that is also geographically dependent and varies with accumulation

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Design Specifications Structural Steel

• Given a steel specimen subjected to
• Design Specifications: Give more specific guidance for the design of an axial load P
structural members and their connections
• Provide guidelines and criteria to achieve objectives mandated by the building code
• Stress:
• Represent what is considered good engineering practices based upon the latest research
• Written in a legal format by nonprofit organizations guidance for the design of structural
• Periodically revised and updated members and their connections

• Organizations: • Strain:
• American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
• American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) • Where:
• American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA)
• American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

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Mild Structural Steel Mild Structural Steel

• A typical stress-strain curve for mild • An idealized stress-strain diagram is
steel is shown to the right shown to the left
• Hooke’s Law: the relationship • Fy – the stress corresponding to the
between the stress and strain is yield point (onset of plastic
linear up to the proportional limit deformation)
• Fu – the ultimate tensile strength (the
• Ductility: a material’s ability to maximum value of stress that can be
undergo large deformations before attained)
fracturing. It is measured as • E – Young’s modulus (or the modulus
of elasticity) is the ratio of stress to
strain within the elastic range
• E = 29,000,000 psi (or 29,000 ksi)
for all structural steels

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High-Strength Structural Steel Properties of Structural Steel

• Plain Carbon Steel: Mostly iron and carbon (with less than 1% carbon)
• A typical stress-strain diagram for high- • Low-Alloy Steel: Iron, carbon, plus other components (usually less than 5%)
strength steels is shown on the left • Additional components are used for increasing strength, which reduces ductility as a consequence

• Fy – for high-strength steels, this is the • High-Alloy Steel: Similar to low-alloy steel, only with a higher percentage of
yield strength at the point of unloading the components added to the iron and carbon.
which corresponds to typically a 0.2% • Higher in strength with some special quality such as resistance to corrosion
permanent strain • A comparison of commonly used steels is presented below:
• Fu – for high-strength steels, this is
referred to as the “tensile strength” and
is still defined as the maximum value of
stress attained by the specimen

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Cross-Sectional Shapes (Hot-Rolled) Cross-Sectional Shapes (Hot-Rolled)

• W-Shape: • C-Shape:
• Also called “wide-flange shape” • Also called “American Standard Channel”
• Two parallel flanges separated by a single • Two parallel flanges
web • A single web
• Cross section has two axes of symmetry • One axis of symmetry
• Flanges wider in relation to the web than the • Inside faces of the flanges slope
S-shape

• S-Shape:
• Also called “American Standard” (formerly “I- • Structural Tee:
beam”) • Also called “Split-Tee”
• Two parallel flanges
• Formed by splitting an I-shaped member at
• A single web middepth
• Two axes of symmetry
• Inside faces of the flanges slope with respect
to the outside faces

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Cross-Sectional Shapes (Hot-Rolled) Cross-Sectional Shapes (Hot-Rolled)

• Angle Shapes:
• Available as equal-leg or unequal-leg
• In the case of the unequal-leg angle, the
longer leg dimension is always given first

• Miscellaneous Shapes:
• Bars
• Plates • Built-up Sections
• Pipes • Used only when requirements are especially severe
• Hollow Structural Sections • Often involves augmenting the standard shapes previously discussed
• An effective way of strengthening an existing structure that is being rehabilitated or modified
• Occasionally, these are used if standard shapes are not large enough
• Components are typically welded together

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Cross-Sectional Shapes (Hot-Rolled) Cross-Sectional Shapes (Cold-Formed)

• Recommended steel for a given shape is summarized below: • Hot-rolled steel involves casting molten steel and then rolling it into
the desired shape while preventing it from cooling completely.
• Cold-formed steel, on the other hand, involves bending thin sheets
of steel into the desired shape without heating.
• Advantages:
• It is very versatile, as almost any conceivable cross-sectional shape can be easily formed
• The yield point of the steel is increased
• Disadvantages:
• It is only applicable for light applications
• There is a reduction in ductility
• Typical cross sections of cold-formed
steel are shown to the right:

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Summary Summary
• The priorities of structural design are safety, serviceability, and • Structural steel follows Hooke's Law within the elastic region of
economy operation, allowing for stress and strain to be calculated as follows:
• It is good practice to develop several framing plans
• Important members in a structure to consider are beams, columns,
and beam-columns • Ductility is a material’s ability to undergo large deformations before
• One must consider dead loads and live loads, which can be a fracturing and is measured as
combination of gravity, wind, earthquake, and snow loading
• Building codes specify the design requirements and constraints as
well as prescribe the minimum live loads for a building • The yield strength (F y) and the tensile strength (F u) are two of the
• Design specifications provide guidance for the design of structural most important properties of steel for the structural engineer
members and their connections • The Young’s Modulus (E) for steel is 29,000 ksi
• A variety of cross-sectional shapes are available for the structural
engineer and are chosen based upon the design requirements
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