M AN U A L OF

PHOTOGRAPHY
DEPTH0FFOCUS AN D

EXPOSURE TABLES.
DEVELOPING &
P R IN T IN C
FO R C I V IL IA N
I S E R V IC E U SE.

C O M P IL E D B Y
D O U G L A S T. H E D G E S .
C o lo u r, F i l t e r s ,
F o rm u la e ,
Moving O b jects.
E T C . ^ “'E T C ,

B ERNARDS-
r(PU BU SH ERS,) LTD.
77, THE C R A M P IA N S,
WESTERN CATC, LONDON, W .6.
 IN T R O D U C T IO N .
H E object of this little booklet is to give facts and
T figures which w ill enable everyone possessing a camera
to take good, clear pictures. W h o , at some tim e o r another,
h:is not experienced the disappointment of blurred and
misty snaps, when the opportunity of re-taking may never
co.ne again ?
The information contained in these pages gives clear and
concise guidance from the exposure of the film to the
finished photograph.
* % sjc *
First of all lat us examine the various types of cameras.
Roll-film cameras can be classified into four main groups.
1. The simple B O X C A M E R A , which usually has a fixed
aperture and shutter speed of about f 11 at I/25 sec. It has a
great “ depth of fo cu s," and w ill give fairly sharp pictures at
most distances in good light. The disadvantage of this type
of camera is that there is no adjustment of aperture and
speed to suit the subject you are photographing.
2. The FO L D IN G C A M ER A S vary from the cheaper
models w ith -2 aperture ’.i d speed, to those w ith fast
lenses of th:: r . ; f f2.8 a.id f3.5 and shutters w ith many
speeds. Sc <= ilso have a coupled range-finder which
enables you to focus accurately on any object.
3. The M IN IA T U R ES , which usually take 35 mm. film ,
are the most versatile of all cameras. Usually fully auto­
matic, they have interchangeable lenses for various purposes,
built-in range-fingers, and sometimes built-in filters and
exposure meters.
4. The R E F L E X cameras usually take 2 j in. by in.
pictures, and are also made w ith automatic focussing, which
is done on a ground glass screen. These cameras are ideal
fo r catching “ the right moment ” owing to the very large
and clear image of the subject visible on the screen.
* * * *
These are the various types of camera. The essentials of
every camera are the lens, the shutter, the diaphragm, and
the film . It is the combination of these four in the correct
manner which produces the good picture.
Cam era LEN SES are made of a num ber of lenses of different
kinds of glass glued together. The light rays coming through
the lens produce a sharp image at a distance behind the
lens which varies according to its focal length (which is
marked on it). The nearer the subject approaches the
lens, the fu rth e r back w ill the sharp image appear. T h e re ­
fore, the camera must be focussed correctly or the image
on the film w ill not be sharp.
The D IA PH RA G M is made of v ery fine steel plates mounted
in a metal ring. The plates can be moved in o r out to give
w hatever size of hole (o r aperture as it is called) is desired
 and thus control the amount of light which is let into the
camera. The size of the aperture is marked in f numbers,
f 2, f8, f 16, etc.
The SM A LLER the f numbers the L A R G E R the aperture,
e.g., f2 is larger than f8.
The S H U T T E R is the door which opens and closes and
decides how long the light rays are to remain in contact
w ith the sensitive skin o r emulsion of the film . The speeds
of opening and closing vary from a tim e exposure of any
duration down to about 1/1200 sec. on the more expensive
cameras.
The sensitivity to light of the emulsion on the film varies
greatly and is marked on the packet in degrees H and D ,
D IN . o r S C H E IN E R . The latter is the more popular and
the higher the Scheiner num ber the greater the sensitivity
and the faster the film , e.g., 30 deg. S C H . is faster than 26 deg.
S C H ., etc. To convert S C H . to D IN ., subtract 10 from
S C H ., e.g., 30 deg. SC H . = |§ ° D IN . D IN . is always expressed
w ith denominator of 10. This subject w ill be discussed more
fully later on. The problem is how to get the correct
combination of these four essentials to produce the perfect
picture. For each f number and distance there is a D EPTH
of F O C U S . This means that everything w ithin this depth
w ill be reproduced sharply on the film. This varies for
different focal lengths and the tables are set out here to
cover nearly all cameras. If your camera has a slightly
different focal length to those in the tables it w ill make
hardly any difference. W e w ill take one or tw o examples
from the table for focal length = 10.5 cm.
If the subject is, say, a landscape w ith a cottage or farm ­
house in the foreground, you want everything in the picture
to be sharp. You choose f 16 and focus at 50 ft. Every­
thing is sharp from 16 ft. 9 ins. to infinity o r fl I at 50 ft.,
and the picture is sharp from 21 ft. 6 ins. to infinity.
On the other hand, if you are taking a portrait o r a group
at, say, 12 ft., you do not want the fence or the garage behind
to be sharp. Therefore you choose f 3.5 at 12 ft., and you
are in focus from 10 ft. 10 ins. to 13 ft. 6 ins. This can be
repeated fo r all occasions.
The procedure, then, for taking a picture should be as
follows. First of all set the f number and distance from
the “ Depth of Focus ” taSlles. Then turn to the Exposure
Tables and find the correct exposure for the f number
chosen.
It has not been found possibfe to include all the f numbers
(o r stops as they are called) in the Exposure Tables, so here
is a table giving the relative exposure times compared w ith
f-3. For instance, if you want to use stop f5.6 you find the
correct exposure for f8 and m ultiply by the number in the
second column, which is 5 . So for any stop which is on
your camera and not in the tables, find the correct exposure
for f8 and m ultiply by the number in the second column.
 te P T H o r FOCUS T/H\if fo r f = 7-5 c m =3incJi<Ls
r t tc t 5 T 0 /° , , ;
/ 3S F6-2 f- 1 ?
U -8 U s fa P // f/e
f +
r n f z r ir a 't o S £ itf l'$ t 2' 9 " 2' 8 " 2/ 7"
3 /
0 I 3 ' I* v r 3 ' iV ' 3 ' 2. " 3'Z" 3 ' £ £ 3 ' 3 " 3' S" 3' 7"
<y- / 3' II' 3 ' 10* 3 '9 K ' 3' 9 ' 3 ' 8 >? 3 '$ " 3 ' 7 " 3 ' 5* 3' 3"
r i* 4' a * 4 - 'a v 4 '3 * 4-' 3Vf ¥ <}■* 4/ 6 " S' 5>' 2*
4-'105 4' 9" 4 -W 4-' 7 " 3-' 6 " 4' 4-' a " r
5 { 5 '2 * S' 3 ' s V ' S 'V 5' 6>i 5' 7 " £>' 6' 7'
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6 { 6 '3 " €' S' 6 '6 W 6 ' 7 " 6' S ' 7' 7 ' 3* 9' 3'
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OO OO OO OO OO OO OO oo OO
to c<f» .
D E P T H or FOCUS TABLE Fon f = g f /* /WA«*
STO P
r i- S
fa - 8 r + f* * 5 f 56 f G -3 f 8 f/ f f/ 6 to
2' <i>" £ 11 'u 2' 0 " 2' 105; z'lO'/x 2! 10" z ‘ $ 'ft a ' ■?"
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oo - OO OO OO OO OO 00 OO 00 OO

OO - / n £ in i h j
N O TE. — In compiling these tables, the author has taken into account the
degree of sharpness reju ireJ. The small negatives o f the 5 ctn. miniature
cameras are usually enlarged many times, and require a higher slnndaal of
definition than the 10.5 cm. lenses icith 3 ] in. by 2 j in. negatives, which do not
usually require such great enlargement. These tables are therefore accurate and
perfectly safe to uae leith all types o f cameras.
 D ep th o f F ocu s T a b le fo r f = 5cms = 2 in c h e s

FEET STOP
f 1-5 f 2 f 2-5 f3-5 f 4-5 f 6-3 f 9 f 12 5 fJ 8 1
3' 5" 3' 5 " 3’ 4V’ 3' 4",. 3 '3 £ ' 3' 3 ” 3' r 3 ' 0" 2' 9i
3 '6 " { 3 ‘ 7" 3' 7£' .3 -:3% 3 ‘ 9" 3' 10"
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6' 1”
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6 ’ 8"
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COMfAS-FD WITH f01-1EJ':.': >) WHU

f NilM
fitK P 8. FNllMBtfi t' 8 ■
f1 1/64 f7 V ■ '!-
f l-S 1/32 f9 I '/-}
f 18 1/30 f 10 1 i/a
fa 1/16 f 12, 5 2 '/2
f as 1/10 f 1^ 3
f3 1/7 f 22 8
f4 l/f r 32 16
f 5'6 1/2 f €4- 69- ,
C A L C U L A T IO N O F L E N G T H O F E X P O S U R E .
The tim e of exposure of the film varies according to the
following factors :—
1. W h eth er the film is O rtho-, Chrom e-, o r Pan-.
2. The tim e of year and the weathe<_
 3. The time of day.

4. The aperture to be used.

5. The subject to b2 photographed.

S U B J E C T S can be classified as follows :—

N o r m a l S u b je c ts . Landscapes w ith trees, castles or
o th er buildings in foreground, w ell-lit streets.
O u td o o r P o rtra its , close-ups of architecture and dark
objects in foreground require four times the exposure
of a normal subject.

Snaps taken in w o o d s require about tw elve tim es the

exposure for a normal subject.

B rig h t beach scenes require only a th ird to a q u arter

the exposure fo r a normal subject.
The following tables are calculated fo r N O R M A L subjects.
W hen you have found the appropriate month and tim e for
the type of film you are using you can choose your stop, and
the exposure is found in the column below. D on’t forget
to make the adjustment outlined above fo r any subject
other than norm al. A is for clear sky, B is cloudy, and C is
very dull

M in im u m ex p o su r e t a b le s - o r t h o f il m 2 f °scH
A L t T in e R e c k o n ed O n £ t= / v u ic H M a n */

No v e m b e r D e c e m se ^ bn o TnnuHKy
T tM E S to p
F a - 8 P 3* 5 ffe - 3 F 9 p ii P It
a B c A 6 c A B C 6 c 8 C n R C A B C
y y V i^- \s
II r m IoI pm 30Q ISO 'U 200 loo zs IOO & y,o 7S 30 % 30 i s '4 1
y
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9a m ^3pm ioo & — 75 -30 - Vo 15 - k s 10 - To - 5
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F e B ft U P iK y A * to O c T O a E ft secowos.
S T O P
7 7 /We
f 2 '« f 3 - 5 f> - S }*f 6 * 3 f 8 f !l f ie
A B c A B c A B c A B C A B c. A B C A 0 C
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A- _u l i - " L i— J -
t o . *< :„ 300 ISO 3 0 1O0 IOO <2.5 100 50 i o ^75 3 0 ^0 i o 75 4 - i s 8 r 2 T 4- 1
1^. I.. i^. j, J, X i
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1— j_ > x. X 3
3 ‘i ■■100 S o i s 30 JO 7s ZS IO io s 5 3 T *
f M IN IM U M E X P O S U R E TABLES-ORTHOFILM 24-°su ^
M A R C H an o A P R I L t/me i n s e c o n d s
STO P
Ti ME f 2 -8 f 3 *5 f 4 ' 5 f 6-3 f a f 11 ■ft6
A B C A B C A B c A B C A 6 c A BC A Bc
✓ .c » / 1 t / / / t /
600 300 75 ioo 200 50 /oo ioo 15 150 7.5 AS
/ / / / t / / /
75
/ /
s 30 IS A
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t / i
9 ^ 3 " 400 200 50 300 /50 JO /50 75 IS 50 /0 50 ;5 5 10 3 10 5 4
/ / / / / / / / / t / / t / / / t /
8 ^ 4 ., X)p I5Q 30
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/ / / / / t / / / / / / /
7 - * > /SO 75 r IOO 5 0 - 50 zs - JO /5 - /5 8 ■
8 4
-
4- 2
M A Y .J U N & a n d J U LY t im e in seco n d s

S T O P
Tim e f 2 -8 f i - 5 t * '- S f 6 -3 •f 8 •fn f i t
A B c A 8 c A 8 c A & C. A B c A f? c. A R c.
t t / t_ t / /
± L t / t / / t
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1 ! 1 t 1 i f i 1 1 f f 1 t f
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8 ' ^ 4 " 400 zoo 50 300 150 30 150 75 IS too 50 10 50 75 S IS 10 J to 5 »
1 t / t / t / f ( 1 t t 1 JL I t
7^ 5- i50 JO 100 <00 SO 10 V J O 8 JQ /s 4 IS 8 1 $ 4 1
/ 1 JL / L t _/_ t t / t t / i
6 ^ 6 " /To 75 m 50 50 25 JO I S 15 6 8 4- 4 1
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5 ^ 1 " 75 1
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A u g u s t and S e p t e m b e r T,Mj ; nl n^
S T O P
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A 8 c A 8 C A B c A B C A & c A B ( A B c
/ t t / / / t / t / /
lift Mh>|PM m 100 600 300 75 io o ISO }0 2ft? too 75 too To id 50 IS 5 £ To J
10-12 ■■ 600 m 75 u /lo 75 i s 7? to io Ts 4 /?
400 io o 50 200 ioo « r
1 * r / / t t t / t .f t / t
9 " IJ " 400 m t o /J<? JO 7J> t5 50 to 50 ?) to J /O 5 4
t . t / t / / ✓ a>
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7.!> 50 v ; U5 io /!> 15 8 H 4 4 >
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CHROMEFILM AND F I N E GRAIN PAN Z7°SCH(/\pi>^,malely)

A L L T I M E REC K O N ED G R E E N W IC H M E A N „ . 1C
N O V E M B E R . D E C E M B E R a n d J A N U A R Y secoH os
STO P
77 m £ f 2■* f - 3 * . i _r_4- • 5 f6 - :J f 8 f 1 - f- t 6
A 8 c A 8 C A & C A 6 C A 6 6 A B C A B C
< / r f < / < » / $ t
Ham IoIpm jOO 75 40<? -?00 50 ^00 too 25 150 75 !5 7 / /f? 30 /J 4 /5 3 z
✓ f / / t / / t / t
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r CHROMEFUM auq FINE GRMN PAN 2 7 ° s c n {A f,/>r o x im a t e l y ) ^
A L L T f M E ~ 7A?
FEBRU ARY a n o O CTO BER. SECO N D S

STO P
Ti m e
f 2 -3 f J- 5“ f 6 3
P 3 5 £ a f 11 Pi 6
A 8 c A 8 C A 6 C- A C e A 8 c A B £ A 6 C
i_
Hi

1 / i £ j_ i l_ L _/

I I '
IlflMloli’ n 400 100 300 75 300 ISO io 200 IQO ?5 100 50 10 50 5 5 IS IC 3
/ I / / f 1 1 f i / / / / / / I 1 /
lO -'Z " -son JOfl 75 400 700 50 200 100 75 /50 75 /5‘ 75 30 a JO /5 4- IS a 2
/ / / / / / / / / / / I /
9 " ‘» 3 " m wo 300 /50 150 75 (00 50 50 25 25 /o /o 5
j_ / / j_ J_ / / L / / I
- - - - - - -
8 H " 200 100 150 75 75 30 5 0 25 25 10 /o 5 5 3
MARCH ah o APRIL . t im e m seco n d s.

STO P
Ti m f 2 *8
e f 3 *5 f 4 -5*f a ^ 6 -.$ f l l f/< s
A B c A B c A B C A B A B C c- A 8 c A e C
/ / / ✓ / / / / // / / / / / / / / /
IOamW w 1200 600 J50 800 400 /50 is
OO400 zoo 50 500 /50 JO is 75 30 8 30 (54
/ / / / / / / i / / / / / / / / /
aoo 400 /OO 600 300 75 JO0 /50 ?0
/OO so ?O0 /0O Z5 IO 50 25 5 2S 3
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8 -*4 - 6(?0 300 75 400 ZO O 50 200 100 25 /50 75 15 75 )0 8 30 /5 154 2 8
/ _/_ / / _/_ J L -Z_ J _
7 ^ 5 ” 300 / 50 - 200 100 “ /OO 50 - 7.5 30 - 30 15
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i5 a - 8 4 -
M AY. JUNE ano J~ (/L y ■ t i m e w s E c o n o s

570P
7/ m C ^2 'a f 3 ■S f4 -5 ■ ^6*3 e Q ^ /r { ( 6
A & c A 6 C A R C A e C A S C A B CA B c
/ / t r t / / f / / / ( t t L
10am (200 800 200 1200 bOO 150 600 300 75 too zoo 50 200 (00 15 10c SO 10 50 25 5
j_ t j_ j L ± . j_ J- t L t !_ X 1 ± j_ f
9 .^ 3 , W0 600 /so 800 400 (06 400 100 50 300 150 To ISO 15 IS 75 JO 8 Jo 15 4
/ t j_ 1 f t j_ / j_ t t__ j_ 1 / 1 / /
8 ^ 4 .. B00 m 100 600 m 15 300 150 30 100 100 25 100 50 10 50 25 5 25 10 3
( < t / t 1/ / / f t 1 ( L /
7^ 5- m m 75 too zoo 50 200 100 25 150 75 /5 75 30 3' 10 15 4 IS 3 1
JL. ±_ J_ J - j_ f / j_
6 ^6 - 300 ISO 200 100 lOO 5 0 IS 30 10 15 15 8 s 4
t t _L L
5^ 7“ 750 7 5 too 50 50 25 30 >5 15 8 4 4 1
A V G V S T ano S E P T E M B E R . t im e m seco n d s

STO P
Ti m e 3 ^ 3 -i f 4 -5 f 6 -,3 f 0 f il •f / 6
A B C A B c A 8 c A 6 C A 8 C A B C A &C
/ / / / / 4 / t j t / f / t / • t t f
llAMtolPM m *00 m urn 000 HO m m 73 MU) 100 50 200 (00 2b /M X) 10 50 25 5
/ / / * I t / / / t t / / / > /
10 *2 m 600 /50 800 400 m 400 100 50 m 150 30 /50 7J 15 75 )0 8 JO 15 4
/ j / / ! 1 J _ X j . . JL _L i _L / _L ; /
Q ..« V ^00 m 100 m m 15 tot 150 JOwo 100 25 /00 5^ 10 25 5 7S to 5
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M o vin g O b je c t s . W hen photographing moving objects

the following tables w ill be found most useful. The most
im portant point is the direction of the m otion, w hether
it is towards o r away from the camera, oblique o r directly
across. The exposure tim e also depends on the speed of
the object, its distance from the camera, and also the focal
length of the lens. These Tables are compiled for objects
at a distance of 50 ft. from the camera. If the subject is
tw ice the distance away the exposure tim e must be doubled,
if half the distance give half the exposure and so on. If
yo u r camera does not possess the faster speeds, the only
alternative is to focus on the subject and “ s w in g ” the
camera in the direction of the motion.
D irection of motion ta ble.
M A X IM U M EXPOSURE

O b j e c t f>r 5o Ft T \ /"
i / \
Moving Trees, !/
Running Water, Etc, '-4s ]/Z5 25
People or Animals
Moving Slowly. Vis '/50 /'ioo
CYCUSTS, STR£ETTR/lFfK, '/so I/|00 l/oo
People
Cyc^e Rfttes, G-ymn^st^,
TftOTTINO Hoas£. '/ioo VlOQ '/250
Fa s t C f\R f
Express Troim^ tc, E tc . '/aoo 'A o o 1/fcOO
 TYPES O F F IL M .
There are two types of film , one w ith orthochroniatic
emulsion and one with panchromatic. Ortho-film does not
give a tru e rendering of colours. It is not sensitive to red
light and red appears black on the picture. Also, blue sky
is rendered much too light and comes out almost w hite,
w hilst yellow comes out too dark. Alm ost the only point
in its favour is that ortho-emulsion can stand the light of
the dark room lantern, which pan-film cannot. It is therefore
more convenient for those who do th e ir own developing.
On the other hand, panchromatic film gives a much more
faithful rendering of red, yellow , and blue, and produces a
w ell balanced and much more satisfactory negative. Both
ortho- and panchromatic films are made in various degrees
of sensitivity. Slow films of 23 deg. S C H . and less are the
least sensitive and are suitable only for specialists who do
very big enlarging w o rk w here “ grain ” is the biggest
enemy. The minute grains of silver which make up the
picture are coarser on the faster films and give an unpleasant
appearance on enlargements. These slow films possess
very little latitude and demand great care in exposure and
development.
Medium-fast films of about 25 deg.— 26 deg. S C H . are
fine-grain, have a greater sensitivity and are the finest for
all general purposes. They are also suitable for enlarge­
ments. V ery fast films of 30 deg., 31 deg., and 32 deg. SC H .
are not so fine grained and are useful for photographing
fast-moving objects and also in bad lighting conditions.
It w ill be seen from the above that the most useful all-round
film is a panchromatic of about 26 deg. SC H .
* % * *

F ilte rs . O ne of the most disappointing aspects of

snapshotting is the inco rrect rendering of tone and colour,
especially by orthochrom atic film as outlined above. For
example, on ortho-film , snowy-white clouds, blue sky and
distant hills all merge into a grey-white mass on the print.
The reason is that the rays of blue light, which appear dark
to the eye, are rendered light by the ortho-film em ulsion.
If a yellow-coloured glass or “ filte r ” as it is called, is
placed in front of the le rs a much finer picture w ill be
obtained. The yellow filte r tones down the blue, makes
it a darker shade and brings the clouds out as w hite. Th ere
are also filters for other purposes. Red, Orange, G reen and
Blue.
A filte r, as its name implies, filters the light passing through
it and only allows rays of certain colours to pass through the
lens. Here is a Table which shows the colours which
various filters let pass ■'l'~—u
 Filte r. Allow s to Pass. Absorbs.

Red Red Green

G reen G reen Red
Blue Blue Ye llo w
Ye llo w Yellow Blue

A red filte r can only be used w ith panchromatic film

because ortho-emulsion is not sensitive to red rays. The
red and orange filters are used to produce clear pictures of
distant snowy mountains and hills, etc., which w ithout a
filter would be lost on the snap in mist or haze.
As filters absorb light which would otherw ise get through
to the film a longer exposure must be given (o r a larger
aperture).
The longer exposures necessary are fo r Light Ye llo w
filte rs, 2 tim es normal exposure.
Medium yellow and green filters, 3 tim es normal exposure.
For Orange filters, 6 tim es normal exposure.
For Red filters, 8 tim es normal exposure.
O r correspondingly larger apertures.
* * * *

T h e L e n s H o o d . Pictures taken w ith the sun at the

photographer's back are usually devoid of light and shadow
effect and are rather dull. Most pleasing effects and pictures
full of life are obtained by taking photographs against the
light, i.e ., w ith sun in fro nt and a little to one side of the
camera. Th is is achieved by using a le n s h o e d , a device
which clips on to the lens and shields it from the sun. As
the hood hides some of the light from the lens, the normal
exposure tim e must be doubled.
* * ifc *

P ic tu re s a t N ig h t . Some very interesting pictures can

be obtained at night even by very poor street lighting or
even by car headlamps. Railway scenes and flood-lit buildings
make excellent subjects, but they are, of course, not available
to the photographer to-day. For best results pan-film must
be used, but any camera w ill do because the exposure can be
lengthened according to aperture. Using pan-film of
approxim ately 30 deg. S C H . the following are the exposure
times fo r various lighting.
It should be noted that only about half the exposure
quoted here should be given if ground is w et o r covered
in snow.
 STO P
L ig h t in g
f-'a-s T3-5 f * - S f 6-3 Fs f II
Normal S't^e e t S<LCS Sccc, Mfns H»ns Mms Mins
L ig h t i n g . 20 ^0 1'/a 3 6 Vz 13
W e n L it S rn trc T Sec.«. ‘Sc-ts, S ic s , Mias Mins Mtns
o r Ra iiw a v St a t io n 10 £0 40 1^ 3 6 '4
T h k o t r e an d St r e e t s St S S<L< S (.He! So.cS Mins Mins
Wit h e l e c t r ic S igns G 1O 2o qo 1 'U 3
F l o o d l it Sacs S e ts S*cs Scct S«.ct
B u il d in g s 3/ ^ \'/z 3 7 13 25

P o r t r a it s . Th e best portraits are secured by capturing

the subject unawares. Instead of the conventional “ smile
please ” type, much better portraits are obtained by taking
an unsuspecting person in a natural pose.
The following points should be observed.
1. The best close-ups can be obtained w ith a twin-lens
reflex o r a m iniature.
2. Do not come closer than 10 o r 12 ft. w ith a box
camera o r you w ill get distortion. Take a picture at about
15 ft. and enlarge a portion of the negative.
3. See that the background is pleasing and use a filte r
if it is against the sky.
4. For portraits use 4 tim es the exposure fo r a normal
subject.
5. Use pan-film for correct tones.
6. A reflector (a sheet of w hite paper w ill do) w ill be
found useful especially indoors in daylight.
* * * *
IN D O O R S .
A n y camera can take reasonably good pictures indoors.
In daylight the exposure tim e varies enorm ously w ith the
amount of light available in the room. Here are some
useful hints.
1. W ith a slow lens (say fl 1) w o rk near the w indow and
tr y sh o rt tim e exposures using a stand. (T he arm of a
chair w ill do.) W ith a fast lens up to a ^ sec. o r even
ji, sec. can be used.
2. Use a reflector of w hite paper or a m irro r for greater
effect.
3. Use pan-film.
4. W atch the background. Ugly walls or furnitu re may
spoil the picture.
5. V ary the exposure tim e according to distance from
the w indow .
A rtificia l Lig hting .
One o r tw o sec. exposures at f3.5 are usually sufficient
in ordinary electric light. Longer exposure fo r smaller
stops.
 2. Keep dose to the light. If the distance from the
lamp is doubled, the exposure must be increased 4 times.
3. For best results tr y one or even tw o special “ Photo­
lam ps.”
4. Use one lamp on the subject and one for indirect
lighting of shadows o r background. There are no hard and
fast rules, and many interesting experim ents can be made.
C o lo u r . There are now 3 types of colour film : Agfa-
color, Kodachrome and Dufaycolor. V ery beautiful trans­
parencies in brilliant colours can be obtained, but as yet,
paper prints are very costly, and not entirely satisfactory.
It is not possible as yet for most amateurs to process colour
film s, and they therefore have to be returned to the makers.
H ow ever, it is w ell w o rth w hile trying colour. W h eth er
at the seaside, in the garden o r of the children, very pleasant
results can be obtained. Special films are also made for
indoors with electric light.
H ere are the points to remember.
1. The speeds are : Agfacolor, 23 deg. S C H . ; Koda­
chrom e, 20 deg. SC H . ; and Dufaycolor, 17 deg. SC H .
2. C olour film .emulsion has very little latitude. Th ere­
fore accurate exposure is essential and an exposure m eter
is recommended. Makers exposure tables are supplied
w ith the film .
3. A ll other rules as to depth of focus, etc., as for ordinary
films.
4. The subject, must be taken w ith the sun behind the
camera.
5. Leave out blue sky unless clouds are present— it looks
artificial.
6. Once started use up and have the film developed
quickly. C olour deteriorates w ith age.
7. Do not expose transparencies to the sun fo r long or
they w ill fade.
D E V E L O P IN G A N D P R IN T IN G .
Remember that developing is a skilled process and this
sk ill can only be obtained by experience. Therefore we
would recommend that the beginner should have his films
developed by an exp ert at first and then experim ent w ith
contact printing, which is easier. W hen the necessary
dark-room experience has been acquired, developing w ill
be found much sim pler. Here are the necessary instructions
fo r developing, contact printing, and enlarging.
D e v e lo p in g . Tank developing is most suitable for roll
film .
P ro c e d u re .
1. Fill tank w ith developer at IS deg. C . (64 deg. F.).
2. Open spool (o r cassette) in dark-room and remove
backing paper. Do N O T T O U C H emulsion side of film.
3. Load film into tank and close tank. Light can now
be switched on.
 4. G ently shake tank everv tew minutes to guard against
air bubbles and uneven development.
5. W hen development is completed (tim e required is
given by makerV empty from the tank and rinse tw ice w ith
clean watei
6. Fill tank w ith hypo solution for fixing fo r 15 m inutes.
7. Pr.ur the fix e r away, and run clean w ater through for
30 minutes.
s . C arefully remove film and wipe off w ater w ith chamois
■gather.
9. Hang up in a d ry place which is free from dust.
C o n ta c t P rin tin g fro m N eg ative. Either w o rk w ith
a yellow dark-room bulb o r cover the developer and fixing
trays w ith cardboard and w o rk in a dim light and one’s own
shadow.
A p p a ra tu s re q u ire d . Printing frame, 100 c.c. measuring
ja r, 3 dishes, some paper developer, and hypo.
P ro ce d u re .
1. Fill the three dishes w ith 100 c.c. developer (in stru c­
tions on bottle), clean w ater and fixe r.
2. Put negative in the frame dull side up.
3. Take sheet of gaslight paper and place on dull side
of negative.
4. Close the frame, and cover w ith cardboard.
5. Take over to light, and remove cardboard. Expose
the frame to light fo r 10 seconds by watch.
6. C o v e r up the frame again and return to dishes.
Remove the paper and place in the developer w ith emulsion
side up.
7. Remove any air bubbles from paper and rock to and
fro . If not in your own shadow cover w ith cardboard.
Leave fo r 2 minutes maximum.
8. Rinse in covered w ater dish, and place in covered
fixing bath for 10 minutes.
9. W ash thoroughly in running w ate r, o r by continually
changing w ater in dish. Remove w ater by means of blotting
paper, and leave on a blo tter overnight to dry.
10. Press in between th ick heavy book to flatten.
E N L A R G IN G .
For enlarging you w ill need a red, or light green filtered
light. The green gives a better light, but must be used
ind irectly, e.g., reflected from a w all o r ceiling.
P ro ce d u re .
1. Place film in enlarger and switch on light.
2. Lay a sheet of w hite paper on the board, decide the
size of enlargement required and focus accurately to get a
sharp image on the paper.
 3. Switch off light, and replace ordinary papei by enlarging
paper. F ix firm ly.
4. Switch on lamp and expose.
Procedure is then exactly as fo r contact printing as outlined
previously.
W ith regard to the tim e of exposure, 20 secs, is the normal
tim e, but this may have to be increased, or decreased
according to the negative. O nly experience w ill tell the
exact tim e of exposure for the various types of negatives.
N o te s on N e g a tiv e s .
Negatives have various degrees of hardness or gradation.
A hard negative is one w ith great contrast between the lights
and shades. A flat o r soft negative is one w ith little con­
trast. The co rrect negative midway between these tw o
is norm al. Hard and soft negatives can be influenced by
methods of development, and are printed on the opposite
paper, i.e ., soft negatives on hard paper, flat negatives on
extra hard, hard negatives on soft, and normal negatives on
normal paper.
U SEFU L D A R K -R O O M H IN T S .
W e ar old clothes— chemical stains are hard to remove.
Don’t keep a developer in a half-filled bottle. The air
causes it to deteriorate.
A 5 per cent, solution of hydrochloric acid removes stains
and deposits from dishes.
W hen m ixing developer, warm to about 70 deg. F. and
then pour in dish, o r tank, and allow to cool to 64 deg. F.
If you m ix at 64 deg. F. it w ill cool below this tem perature
when you pour it into a cold bath.
A few drops of acetic acid in the rinsing dish prevents
developer from reaching the fixing bath.
“ Resistol ” removes scratches from negatives.
FO R M U LA E.
N o rm a l T a n k D e v e lo p e r.
Anhydrous Sodium Sulphite I gm.
,, ,, Carbonate I
Pyrocatechin ................................................................... 0.4 „
W a te r, added to make ... .................... 100 c.c.
Developing tim e 30 to 40 minutes.
C o n t r a s t D e v e lo p e r.
1. Dissolve 2-j gms. caustic stick in w ater
to make .................................... 100 c.c.
2. Hydroquinone ... gm.
Potassium B ro m id e ... 2Jr „
Anhydrous Sodium Sulphite .................... 5 ,,
Add w ater to make ................................... 100 c.c.
M ix ( I ) and (2) in equal parts just before use.
Tim e, 4 minutes maximum. PvUBBER G LO V E S must be
w o rn.
 So ft Developer.
M e to l................................................................................... |.5 gm.
Anhydrous Sodium Sulphite .................... 5.0 „
Potassium B ro m id e ................................................... 0.1 „
Anhydrous Sodium Carbonate .................... 5.0 „
Add w ater to make ... ... .. . 100 c.c.
D ilute w ith tw ice its own volume for fast film, and four
times its own volume for fine grain film .
K o d a k F in e G r a in D e v e lo p e r D .K .2 0 .
W a te r at 125 deg. F. .................................... 750 c.c.
(a) Elon ................................................................... 5 gm.
(b) Anhydrous Sodium S u lp h ite .................... 100 „
(c) Kodalk ................................................................... 2 „
(d) Potassium Sulphocyanide (Thiocyanate) I „
(e) Potassium Bromide .................................... 0.5 „
Cold w ater to make up to .................... 1,000 c.c.
Dissolve chemicals in alphabetical o rder. Tim e 18 minutes
at 65 deg. F.
F a r m a r ’s R e d u ce r fo r D e n se N e g a tiv e s .
(1) Potassium Ferricyanide .................... 5 gm.
W a te r ................................................................... 100 c.c.
(2) Hypo crystals ................................................... 25 gm.
W a te r ................................................................... 500 c.c.
M ix immediately before use one volume of ( I ) to five
volumes of (2). Reduction continues in the washing w ater
and negative should be removed from reducer before fully
reduced. W A S H T H O R O U G H L Y .
In t e n s ifie r .
Solution A —
Potassium bichromate ... ... ... 10 gm.
W a te r ................................................................... 100 c.c.
Make up solution as above, then bleach negatives in one
of the following liquids, wash, and then blacken in an ordinary
in k developer in strong lighting. USE R U B B E R G LO V E S .
F o r S tro n g in t e n s ific a tio n .
Solution A 12.5 e x .
Concentrated H ydrochloric acid ... 0.3 „
W a ts r ................................................... 100 „
F o r M e d iu m In te n s ific a tio n .
Solution A ................................................... 12.5 c.c.
Concentrated H ydrochloric acid ... 1.5 „
W a te r ................................................... 100 „
F o r S lig h t In te n s ific a tio n .
Solution A ................................................... 12.5 c.c.
Concentrated H ydrochloric acid .. . 12.5 „
W a te r ................................................... 100 „
F ix e r .
Hypo crystals .................................... ... 25 gm.
Potassium m e ta b isu lp h ite .................... 2 „
Add w ater to bring up to 100 c.c.