Chapter Three

The Z -Transform and Its Application to the Analysis of LTI Systems

Contents
 The z-Transform
 Properties of the z-Transform
 Rational z -Transforms
 Inversion of the z-Transform
 Analysis of linear Time-Invariant Systems in the z-Domain
 The One-sided z-Transform
 Z-Transform

 Transform techniques are an important tool in the analysis of signals and linear time-
invariant (LTI) systems.
 The z-transform plays the same role in the analysis of discrete-time signals and LTI
systems as the Laplace transform does in the analysis of continuous-time signals and
LTI systems.
 In the z-domain (complex z-plane) the convolution of two time-domain signals is
equivalent to multiplication of their corresponding z-transforms.
 This property greatly simplifies the analysis of the response of an LTI system to
various signals.
 The z-transform provides us with a means of characterizing an LTI system, and its
response to various signals, by its pole-zero locations.
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 Cont.…

 The z-transform provides us with a means of characterizing an lti system, and its
response to various signals, by its pole-zero locations.
 The z-transform of a discrete-time signal x(n) is defined as the power series
∞

𝑋 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
Where 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔 is a complex variable.
 The values of 𝑧 for which the sum converges define a region in the z-plane referred
to as the region of convergence (ROC).
 This relation is sometimes called the direct z- transform because it transforms the
time-domain signal x(n) into its complex-plane representation 𝑋 𝑧 .

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 Cont.…
 The inverse procedure [i.e., Obtaining 𝑥(𝑛) from 𝑋 𝑧 ] is called the inverse z-
transform
 The z-transform of a signal 𝑥(𝑛) is denoted by
𝑋 𝑧 ≡ 𝑍{𝑥 𝑛 }
 Whereas the relationship between x 𝑛 and 𝑋 𝑧 is indicated by
𝑧
𝑥(𝑛) ՞ 𝑋(𝑧)
 Since the z-transform is an infinite power series, it exists only for those values of Z
for which this series converges.
 The region of convergence (ROC) of 𝑋(𝑧) is the Set of all values of z for which 𝑋 𝑧
attains a finite value. Thus any time we cite a Z-transform we should also indicate its
ROC.
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 Cont.…
 The ROC of a finite-duration signal is the entire z-plane, except possibly the points
𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑Τ𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = ∞. these points are excluded, because 𝑧 𝑘 (𝑘 > 0) becomes
unbounded for 𝑧 = ∞ and 𝑧 −𝑘 (𝑘 > 0) becomes unbounded for 𝑧 = 0.
 The exponent of z contains the time information we need to identify the samples of
the signal.
 If there is a ROC for an infinite-duration two-sided signal, it is a ring (annular region)
in the z-plane.
 The ROC of a signal depends both on its duration (finite or infinite) and on whether
it is causal, anticausal, or two-sided.
 One special case of a two-sided signal is a signal that has infinite duration on the
right side but not on the left [i.e., 𝑥 𝑛 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 𝑛𝑜 < 0].
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 Cont.…
 A second case is a signal that has infinite duration on the left side but not on the
right [i.e., 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 > 𝑛𝑜 > 0 ].
 A third special case is a signal that has finite duration on both the left and right sides
[i.e., 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 𝑛𝑜 < 0 and 𝑛 > 𝑛1 > 0].
 These types of signals are sometimes called right-sided, left-sided, and finite-duration
two-sided signals, respectively.

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 Properties of region of convergence

 The ROC is a ring or disk in the z plane centered at the origin

 The ROC can not contain any poles
 If 𝑥(𝑛) is a causal sequence then the ROC is the entire z plane except at 𝑧 = 0.
 If 𝑥(𝑛) is a non-causal sequence then the ROC is the entire z plane except at 𝑧 = ∞.
 If 𝑥(𝑛) is a finite duration, two sided sequence the ROC is the entire z plane except at 𝑧 =
0 and 𝑧 = ∞.
 If 𝑥(𝑛) is an infinite duration, two sided sequence the ROC will consists of a ring in the z
plane, bounded on the interior and exterior y a pole, not containing any poles.
 The ROC of a LTI stable system contains the unit circle.
 The ROC must be a connected region.

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 Characteristic Families of Signals with Their Corresponding ROCs

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 Cont.…

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 Some Common z-Transform Pairs

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 Cont.…

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 Properties of the z-Transform
 The z-transform is a very powerful tool for the study of discrete-time signals and
systems.
Linearity:
𝑧 𝑧
If 𝑥1 (𝑛) ՞ 𝑋1 (𝑧) and 𝑥2 (𝑛) ՞ 𝑋2 (𝑧)
then
𝑧
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 𝑛 ՞ 𝑋 𝑧 = 𝑎1 𝑋1 𝑧 + 𝑎2 𝑋2 𝑧
for any constants 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 .
 It implies that the z-transform of a linear combination of signals is the same linear
combination of their z-transforms. Thus the linearity property helps us to find the z-
transform of a signal by expressing the signal as a sum of elementary signals, for each of
which, the z - transform is already known.
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 Cont.…
Time shifting:
𝑧
 If 𝑥(𝑛) ՞ 𝑋(𝑧)
𝑧
then x(𝑛 − 𝑘) ՞ 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑋(𝑧)
The ROC of 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑋(𝑧) is the same as that of 𝑋(𝑧) except for 𝑧 = 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑘 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 =
∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑘 < 0.
 The properties of linearity and time shifting are the key features that make the z-transform
extremely useful for the analysis of discrete-time LTI systems.
 If the linear combination of several signals has finite duration, the ROC of its z-transform is
exclusively dictated by the finite- duration nature of this signal, not by the ROC of the
individual transforms.

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 Cont.…
Scaling in the z-domain(Multiplication by an exponent):
𝑧
 If 𝑥(𝑛) ՞ 𝑋(𝑧), ROC: 𝑟1 < |𝑧| < 𝑟2
𝑧
then 𝑎 𝑥(𝑛) ՞ 𝑋(𝑎−1 𝑧),
𝑛
ROC: |a|𝑟1 < |𝑧| < |𝑎|𝑟2
 For any constant a, real or complex.
Time reversal:
𝑧
 If 𝑥(𝑛) ՞ 𝑋(𝑧), ROC:𝑟1 < |𝑧| < 𝑟2
𝑧 1 1
then 𝑥(−𝑛) ՞ 𝑋(𝑧 −1 ), ROC: |a|𝑟1 < |𝑧| <
𝑟2 𝑟1
 When we fold a signal, the coefficient of 𝑧 −𝑛 becomes the coefficient of 𝑧 𝑛 . Thus, folding a signal is
equivalent to replacing z by 𝑧 −1 in the z-transform formula. In other words, reflection in the time
domain corresponds to inversion in the z-domain.
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 Cont.…
𝑧
Differentiation in the z –domain: If 𝑥(𝑛) ՞ 𝑋(𝑧),
𝑧 𝑑𝑋(𝑧)
then n𝑥 𝑛 ՞ −𝑧 ,
𝑑𝑧
 Both transforms have the same ROC.
𝑧
Convolution of two sequences: If 𝑥1 (𝑛) ՞ 𝑋1 (𝑧)
𝑧
𝑥2 (𝑛) ՞ 𝑋2 (𝑧)
then
𝑧
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑛 ՞ 𝑋 𝑧 = 𝑋1 𝑧 𝑋2 𝑧
 The ROC of 𝑋 𝑧 is ,at least the intersection of that for 𝑋1 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋2 𝑧 .

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 Cont.…
 The convolution property is one of the most powerful properties of the z-trans-
form because it converts the convolution of two signals (time domain) to
multiplication of their transforms.
 Computation of the convolution of two signals, using the z-transform, requires the
following steps:
 Compute the z-transforms of the signals to be convolved.
 Multiply the two z-transforms.
 Find the inverse z -transform of 𝑋(𝑧)
 This procedure is, in many cases, computationally easier than the direct evaluation of
the convolution summation.

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 Cont.…
Multiplication of two sequences:
𝑧
If 𝑥1 (𝑛) ՞ 𝑋1 (𝑧)
𝑧
𝑥2 (𝑛) ՞ 𝑋2 (𝑧)

Then

Where C is a closed contour that encloses the origin and lies within the region of
1
convergence common to both X1 (v) and X2
𝑣

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 Cont.…
Parseval's relation:
 If 𝑥1 (𝑛) and 𝑥2 (𝑛) are complex-valued sequences, then

Provided that 𝑟1𝑙 𝑟2𝑙 < 1 < 𝑟1𝑢 𝑟2𝑢, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟1𝑙 < 𝑧 < 𝑟1𝑢 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2𝑙 < |𝑧| < 𝑟2𝑢 , are
the ROC of 𝑋1 (𝑧) and 𝑋2 (𝑧).
The Initial Value Theorem:
 If 𝑥 𝑛 is causal [i.e., 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 for 𝑛 < 0], then
𝑥 0 = lim 𝑋(𝑧)
𝑧→∞

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 Summary of Properties of the z -Transform

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 Cont.…

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 Rational z-Transforms
 An important family of z-transforms are those for which 𝑋 𝑧 is a rational function,
that is, a ratio of two polynomials in 𝑍 −1 (𝑜𝑟 𝑧).
Poles and Zeros
 The zeros of a z-transform 𝑋 𝑧 are the values of z for which 𝑋 𝑧 = 0.
 The poles of a z-transform are the values of z for which 𝑋 𝑧 = ∞.
 If 𝑋 𝑧 is a rational function, then

 If 𝑎𝑜 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜 ≠ 0 , we can avoid the negative powers of z by factoring out the

terms 𝑏𝑜 𝑧 −𝑀 and 𝑎𝑜 𝑧 −𝑁 as follows:
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 Cont.…

 Since B(z) and A(z) are polynomials in z, they can be expressed in factored form as

𝑏𝑜
Where 𝐺 = .
𝑎𝑜

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 Cont.…
 Thus 𝑋 𝑧 has
 M finite zeros at 𝑧 = 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … … 𝑧𝑀 (the roots of the numerator polynomial),
 N finite poles at 𝑧 = 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … … , 𝑝𝑁 (the roots of the denominator polynomial),
and |𝑁 − 𝑀| zeros (if 𝑁 > 𝑀) or poles (if 𝑁 < 𝑀) at the origin 𝑧 = 0.
 Poles or zeros may also occur at 𝑧 = ∞.
 A zero exists at 𝑧 = ∞ if x ∞ = 0 and a pole exists at 𝑧 = ∞ if 𝑥 ∞ = ∞ .
 If we count the poles and zeros at zero and infinity, we find that 𝑋 𝑧 has exactly the
same number of poles as zeros.

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 Cont.…
 We can represent 𝑋 𝑧 graphically by a
pole-zero plot ( or pattern) in the
complex plane, which shows the
location of poles by crosses ( x) and
the location of zeros by circles ( 0).
 The multiplicity of multiple-order poles
or zeros is indicated by a number close
to the corresponding cross or circle.
 The ROC of a z-transform should
not contain any poles
Pole-zero plot for the causal exponential
signal 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 , 𝑎 > 0
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 Inverse z-Transform
 The inverse z-transform is formally given by

 where the integral is a contour integral over a closed path C that encloses the
origin and lies within the region of convergence of X (z). For simplicity, C can be
taken as a circle in the ROC of X (z) in the z -plane.
 There are three methods that are often used for the evaluation of the inverse z-
transform in practice:
 Direct evaluation by contour integration.
 Expansion into a series of terms, in the variables z, and 𝑍 −1 .
 Partial-fraction expansion and table lookup.
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 I.The Inverse z-Transform by Contour Integration

 It uses of the Cauchy’s integral theorem to determine the inverse z-transform

directly from the contour integral.
 In the case of the inverse z-transform, we have

 provided that the poles {𝑧𝑖 } are simple. If 𝑋(𝑧)𝑧 𝑛−1 has no poles inside the contour
C for one or more values of n, then 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 for these values.

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 1I.The Inverse z-Transform by Power Series Expansion

 Given a z-transform X (z) with its corresponding ROC, we can expand X(z) into a
power series of the form

 which converges in the given ROC. Then, by the uniqueness of the z-transform,
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛 for all n. When X (z) is rational, the expansion can be performed by long
division.

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 III.The Inverse z-Transform by Partial-Fraction Expansion

 We attempt to express the function X (z) as a linear combination

 Where 𝑋1 𝑧 , … 𝑋𝑘 𝑧 , are expressions with inverse transforms 𝑥1 𝑛 , … . 𝑥𝑘 𝑛 ,

Available in a table of z-transform pairs. If such a decomposition is possible, then
𝑥(𝑛), the inverse z-transform of 𝑋(𝑧), can easily be found using the linearity
property as

 This approach is particularly useful if X (z) is a rational function

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 Cont.…
 Without loss of generality, we assume that 𝑎𝑜 = 1, so that it can be expressed as

 A rational function is called proper if 𝑎𝑁 ≠ 0 and 𝑀 < 𝑁.

 This is equivalent to saying that the number of finite zeros is less than the number of
finite poles.
 An improper rational function (𝑀 ≥ 𝑁) can always be written as the sum of a
polynomial and a proper rational function.
 In general, any improper rational function (𝑀 ≥ 𝑁) can be expressed as

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 Cont.…

 The inverse z-transform of the polynomial can easily be found by inspection.

 We carry out the development in two steps.
 First, we perform a partial fraction expansion of the proper rational function and
 then we invert each of the terms.
 Let 𝑋(𝑧) be a proper rational function, that is,

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 Cont.…
 we eliminate negative powers of z by multiplying both the
 numerator and denominator by 𝑍 𝑁 . This results in

 which contains only positive powers of z. Since N > M, the function

 is also always proper.

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 Cont.…
 in performing a partial-fraction expansion is express as a sum of simple fractions.
 For this purpose we first factor the denominator polynomial into factors that
contain the poles 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … 𝑃𝑁 of 𝑋(𝑧). We distinguish two cases.
Distinct poles: Suppose that the poles 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … 𝑃𝑁 are all different (distinct).
 Then we seek an expansion of the form

 The problem is to determine the coefficients 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … 𝐴𝑁

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 Cont.…
Multiple-order poles: If 𝑋(𝑧) has a pole of multiplicity 𝑙, that is, it contains in its
denominator the factor 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑘 𝑙 , then the expansion is no longer true.
 In this case a different expansion is needed.

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 Analysis of Linear Time-Invariant Systems in the z-Domain

 The output y[n] of a discrete-time LTI system equals the convolution of the input
𝑥(𝑛) with the impulse response ℎ(𝑛); that is
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 ∗ ℎ(𝑛)
 Applying the convolution property of the z-transform, we obtain
𝑌 𝑧 = 𝑋 𝑧 ∗ 𝐻(𝑧)
 where 𝑌(𝑧), 𝑋(𝑧), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻(𝑧) are the z-transforms of 𝑦[𝑛], 𝑥[𝑛], and ℎ[𝑛],
respectively
𝑌(𝑧)
𝐻 𝑧 =
𝑋(𝑧)
∞

𝐻 𝑧 = ෍ ℎ(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
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 Cont.…
 The z-transform H(z) of h[n] is referred to as the system function (or the transfer
function) of the system.
 The system function 𝐻(𝑧) can also be defined as the ratio of the z-transforms of the
output y[n] and the input 𝑥(𝑛).
 The system function 𝐻(𝑧) completely characterizes the system.

Fig.Impulse response and system function.

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 Cont.…
 Many properties of discrete-time LTI systems can be closely associated with the
characteristics of H(z) in the z-plane and in particular with the pole locations and
the ROC.
Causality:
 For a causal discrete-time LTI system, we have
ℎ 𝑛 = 0, 𝑛<0
 since h[n] is a right-sided signal, the corresponding requirement on H(z) is that the
ROC of H ( z ) must be of the form
|𝑧| > 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
 That is, the ROC is the exterior of a circle containing all of the poles of H(z) in the
z-plane. Similarly, if the system is anticausal, that is,
ℎ 𝑛 = 0, 𝑛≥0
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 Cont.…
 then h[n] is left-sided and the ROC of H(z) must be of the form
|𝑟| < 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
 That is, the ROC is the interior of a circle containing no poles of H ( z ) in the z-
plane
Stability:
 a discrete-time LTI system is BIB0 stable if and only if
∞

෍ |ℎ(𝑛)| < ∞
𝑛=−∞
 The corresponding requirement on 𝐻(𝑧) is that the ROC of 𝐻(𝑧) contains the unit
circle (that is, |𝑧| = 1)

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 Cont.…
Causal and Stable Systems:
 If the system is both causal and stable, then all of the poles of H(z) must lie inside
the unit circle of the z-plane because the ROC is of the form 𝑧 > 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 , and since
the unit circle is included in the ROC, we must have 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 1.
 a linear time-invariant system is causal if and only if the ROC of the system function
is the exterior of a circle of radius 𝑟 < ∞, including the point 𝑧 = ∞.
 A necessary and sufficient condition for a linear time-invariant system to be BIBO
stable is
∞

෍ |ℎ(𝑛)| < ∞
𝑛=−∞

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 Cont.…
 If the system is BIBO stable, the unit circle is contained in the ROC of 𝐻(𝑧). The
converse is also true.
 Therefore, a linear time-invariant system is BIBO stable if and only if the ROC of the
system function includes the unit circle.
 The conditions for causality and stability are different and that one does not imply
the other.
 A causal system is characterized by a system function 𝐻(𝑧) having as a ROC the
exterior of some circle of radius r.
 For a stable system, the ROC must include the unit circle. Consequently, a causal and
stable system must have a system function that converges for |𝑧| > 𝑟 < 1.

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 Cont.…
 Since the ROC cannot contain any poles of 𝐻(𝑧), it follows that a causa/linear time-
invariant system is BIBO stable if and only if all the poles of 𝐻(𝑧) are inside the unit
circle.
 a necessary and sufficient condition for a causal linear time invariant system to be
BIBO stable is that all its poles lie inside the unit circle.
 a bounded input signal may have poles on the unit circle, it might appear that a stable
system may also have poles on the unit circle.
 This is not the case, however, since such a system produces an unbounded response
when excited by an input signal that also has a pole at the same position on the unit
circle.

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System Function for LTI Systems Described by Linear Constant-Coefficient
Difference Equations:

 The one-sided z -transform is a very efficient tool for the solution of difference
equations with nonzero initial conditions.
 It achieves that by reducing the difference equation relating the two time-domain
signals to an equivalent algebraic equation relating their one-sided z-transforms.
 This equation can be easily solved to obtain the transform of the desired signal. The
signal in the time domain is obtained by inverting the resulting z-transform.
 A discrete-time LTI system for which input x[n] and output y[n] satisfy the general
linear constant-coefficient difference equation of the form
𝑁 𝑀

෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑘 = ෍ 𝑏𝑘 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘)
𝑘=0 𝑘=0

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 Cont.…
 Applying the z-transform and using the time-shift property and the linearity
property of the z-transform, we obtain
𝑁 𝑀

෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑌(𝑧) = ෍ 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑋(𝑧)
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
𝑁 𝑀

𝑌(𝑧) ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 = 𝑋(𝑧) ෍ 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑘=0

𝑌(𝑧) σ𝑀 𝑏
𝑘=0 𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘
𝐻 𝑧 = = 𝑁
𝑋(𝑧) σ𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘

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 Cont.…
 Hence, 𝐻(𝑧) is always rational. Note that the ROC of 𝐻(𝑧) is not specified by the
above equation, but must be inferred with additional requirements on the system
such as the causality or the stability.
Systems Interconnection:
 For two LTI systems (with ℎ1 𝑛 and ℎ2 (𝑛), respectively) in cascade, the overall
impulse response ℎ(𝑛) is given by
ℎ 𝑛 = ℎ1 𝑛 ∗ ℎ2 (𝑛)
 Thus, the corresponding system functions are related by the product
H 𝑧 = 𝐻1 𝑧 ∗ 𝐻2 𝑧 , 𝑅 ⊃ 𝑅1 ∩ 𝑅2

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 Cont.…
 Similarly, the impulse response of a parallel combination of two LTI systems is given
by
ℎ 𝑛 = ℎ1 𝑛 + ℎ2 (𝑛)
 and
H 𝑧 = 𝐻1 𝑧 + 𝐻2 𝑧 , 𝑅 ⊃ 𝑅1 ∩ 𝑅2

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 Unilateral or one-sided z -Transform

 The unilateral (or one-sided) z-transform X,(z) of a sequence x[n] is defined as

∞

𝑋 + (𝑧) ≡ ෍ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=0
 and differs from the bilateral transform in that the summation is carried over only
𝑛 ≥ 0.Thus, the unilateral z-transform of 𝑥(𝑛) can be thought of as the bilateral
transform of 𝑥 𝑛 𝑢(𝑛).
 Since 𝑥(𝑛)𝑢(𝑛) is a right-sided sequence, the ROC of 𝑋1 (𝑧) is always outside a
circle in the z-plane.
 The unilateral z-transform is useful for calculating the response of a causal system to
a causal input when the system is described by a linear constant-coefficient
difference equation with nonzero initial conditions.
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 Cont.…
 The basic property of the unilateral z-transform that is useful in this application is
the following time-shifting property which is different from that of the bilateral
transform.
 The one-sided z-transform differs from the two-sided transform in the lower limit of
the summation, which is always zero, whether or not the signal x(n) is zero for n < 0
(i.e., causal).

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 Cont.…
 Due to this choice of lower limit, the one-sided z-transform has the following
characteristics:
 It does not contain information about the signal x(n) for negative values of time(i.e., for
n < 0).
 It is unique only for causal signals, because only these signals are zero for 𝑛 < 0.
 The one-sided z -transform 𝑋 + (𝑧) of 𝑥(𝑛) is identical to the two-sided z –transform of
the signal 𝑥(𝑛)𝑢(𝑛). Since x(n)u(n) is causal, the ROC of its transform, and hence the
ROC of 𝑋 + (𝑧), is always the exterior of a circle. Therefore, for one-sided z -transforms,
it is not necessary to refer to their ROC.

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 Cont.…
 Almost all properties we have studied for the two-sided z-transform carryover to
the one-sided z -transform with the exception of the shifting property.
Shifting Property:
Case 1:Time delay If
𝑍+
𝑥(𝑛) 𝑋 + (𝑧)
then
𝑘
𝑍+
𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 [𝑋 + 𝑧 + ෍ 𝑥(−𝑛)𝑧 𝑛 ], 𝑘>0
𝑛=1
𝑍+
 In case x (n) is causal, then 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑋 + 𝑧

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 Cont.…
Case 1I:Time advance: If
𝑍+
𝑥(𝑛) 𝑋 + (𝑧)
then
𝑘−1
𝑍+
𝑥 𝑛+𝑘 𝑧 𝑘 [𝑋 + 𝑧 − ෍ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛 ], 𝑘>0
𝑛=1
 In the case of a time advance, to obtain 𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑘), 𝑘 > 0, we should shift 𝑥(𝑛) by k
samples to the left.
 The importance of the shifting property lies in its application to the solution of difference
equations with constant coefficients and nonzero initial conditions. This makes the one-sided
z -transform a very useful tool for the analysis of recursive LTI discrete-time systems.
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 Cont.…
 Final Value Theorem. If
𝑍+
𝑥(𝑛) 𝑋 + (𝑧)
then
lim 𝑥 𝑛 = lim 𝑧 − 1 𝑋 + (𝑧)
𝑛→∞ 𝑧→1
 The limit exists if the ROC of 𝑧 − 1 𝑋 + (𝑧) includes the unit circle.
 This theorem is useful when we are interested in the asymptotic behavior of a signal
𝑥(𝑛) and we know its z -transform, but not the signal itself.
 Similar to the case of the continuous-time LTI system, with the unilateral z-transform, the
system function H(z) = Y(z)/X(z) is defined under the condition that the system is relaxed,
that is, all initial conditions are zero.

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 Summary
 The z-transform plays the same role in discrete-time signals and systems as the Laplace
transform does in continuous-time signals and systems.
 important properties of the z-transform are extremely useful in the analysis of discrete-time
systems.
 the convolution property, which transforms the convolution of two sequences into a
product of their z-transforms.
 In the context of LTI systems, the convolution property results in the product of the z -
transform X (z) of the input signal with the system function 𝐻(𝑧), where the latter is the z-
transform of the unit sample response of the system.
 A causal system has a system function H(z) with a ROC |𝑟| > 𝑟1 where 0 < 𝑟1 < ∞. In a
stable and causal system, the poles of 𝐻(𝑧) lie inside the unit circle.
 On the other hand, if the system is noncausal, the condition for stability requires that the
unit circle be contained in the ROC of H (z).
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