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OCB and external–internal social networks: effects on individual performance

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external–internal social networks: effects on individual

performance and adaptation to change S​ ebastián Bruque​a​, José
Moyano​a ​& Ronald Piccolo​b ​a Department
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of Business Administration, Marketing and

Sociology, University
​ of Jaén, Jaén, Spain ​b ​Rollins College, Crummer GSB, Winter Park, FL,

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OCB and external–internal social networks: effects on individual performance and adaptation
to change
Sebastia ́n Bruquea​*​, Jose ́ Moyanoa ​and Ronald Piccolo​b

a​
Department of Business Administration, Marketing and Sociology, University of Jae n,
́ Jae n,
́ Spain; b​Rollins College, Crummer
GSB, Winter Park, FL, USA

In this study, we develop and test a model that links one’s internal and external social network structures to his or her
willingness and ability to adapt in a changing work context. Using a survey data from 371 employees working in 133
different branches of a large financial firm, we find that individual behaviors that explain task performance and
individual adaptation to change are affected by a number of supportive social ties (size of the support network) with
which one receives support inside and, mostly, outside the workplace. The results also show that individual
performance and adaptation to change are affected by the level of workers’ organizational citizenship behavior. We
also identify a mediating effect exerted by the informational network structure (mostly an internal network) on the
relationship between the support network (mostly an external network) and individual task performance.

Keywords: individual adaptation to change; organizational citizenship behavior (OCB); prosocial organizational
behavior; social networks; task performance

Introduction As much of the management literature reveals, an individual’s behavior in the workplace is strongly
influenced by individual differences and by factors that shape the working context. Whether attempting to understand
job performance, citizenship or counter- productive behavior, management scholars rely on individual and contextual
variables to explain meaningful variance (e.g. Grosser, Lo ́pez-Kidwell, & Labianca, 2010​). Among the most valuable
individual differences are relatively stable traits such as cognitive ability (Cote & Miners, ​2006​), personality
(Goldberg, ​1993​) and self-efficacy (Bandura, ​1977​; Gist & Mitchell, ​1992​), while important contextual variables
include factors such as leadership (Piccolo & Colquitt, ​2006​), job design (Fried & Ferris, ​1987​), job stress (LePine,
Podsakoff, & LePine, ​2005​) and organizational rewards (Atwater, Camobreco, Dionne, Avolio, & Lau, ​1997​).
Beyond these individual and contextual elements, some studies have considered the role of social networks in the
provision of favorable work outcomes, including task and citizenship aspects of job performance (e.g. Castilla, ​2005​;
Lin, ​2010​). According to many of these studies, an employee’s ability to develop and leverage effective social
networks leads to a host of favorable organizational outcomes such as group performance (Sparrowe, Liden, Wayne, &
Kraimer, ​2001​) and individual creativity (Perry-Smith, ​2006​).
 However, in several ways, the existing research on the impact of social network structure is a bit limited in its
scope and generalizability. First, most of the existing studies in this domain have focused on an individual’s internal
social network (i.e. social ties that exist within the workplace, a ‘closed’ network perspective) while deemphasizing or

*Corresponding author. Email: ​sbruque@ujaen.es

q ​2015 Taylor & Francis

The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1020441
S. Bruque et al. 2

excluding one’s external social network (i.e. ties that exist outside the workplace, an ‘open’ network perspective).
Chiaburu, Lorinkova, and Van Dyne (​2013​) highlight the value of including predictors across the social context, rather
than limiting research to one source of support (e.g. employees’ directors, leaders or their coworkers). Second,
although the relationship between social networks features (e.g. centrality, density) and individual performance has
been analyzed in prior research (e.g. Podolny & Baron, ​1997​; Sparrowe et al., ​2001​), there is surprisingly little research
that connects the size of internal and external social networks with individual productive behavior.
Thus, the purpose of the current study is to examine the effects of internal and external social networks on
individual’s task performance and ability to adapt to technological changes at work. We provide a comprehensive view
of the role of the social network by examining links that exist inside but above all outside the organization. To do so,
we compare two types of networks: the social supportive network, which is primarily made up by links with people
outside the workplace, and the informational network, which mostly includes links with coworkers.
Furthermore, we examine citizenship behavior as a means by which network effects are realized. While network
effects on individual behavior have been broadly discussed (e.g. Perry-Smith, ​2006​), the mechanisms that underlie
those effects have not been fully explored (O’Boyle, Forsyth, & O’Boyle, ​2011​). In doing so, we draw upon the
arguments provided by the prosocial behavior literature (Batson, ​1998​) as well as by Affective Events Theory (Weiss
& Croponzano, ​1996​), which suggest that individual affective and mood states can be shaped by network indicators.
In the following sections, we describe the theoretical framework for the study’s proposed hypotheses, the methods
used to test our research questions, results of a broad field study and the major implications that can be drawn from the
study’s results.

Theoretical model and hypotheses The size of an individual’s internal–external supportive network is one of the
network’s most important attributes. Supportive networks are expressive and self-revealing (Bacharach, Bamberger, &
Vashdi, ​2005​; Blau, ​1977​) in the sense that supportive network structures are linked to personal values and to
deep-rooted psychological traits that define an individual’s behavior (e.g. supportive relations with dissimilar peers or
enhancement in positive affect toward dissimilar).
Supportive networks are primarily made of intimate and proximate relationships (Ibarra, ​1993​), which tend to
yield strong, stable links (Monge & Eisenberg, ​1987​). Large supportive networks reflect an individual’s ability to
develop and maintain social realationships (Fineman, ​2006​; Luthans, ​2002​), often by exhibiting citizenship
(organizational citizenship behavior [OCB]) and prosocial behaviors (e.g. caring, sharing, empathy). Individuals with
large supportive networks tend to care for, empathize with and trust their network partners both inside and outside the
workplace (Yija ̈la ̈, Jasinskaja-Lahti, Likki, & Stein, ​2012​). By nurturing a high number of social supportive ties,
individuals demonstrate that they are able to take advantage of the social integration and social support opportunities
provided by wide networks while overcoming their potential drawbacks (e.g. higher emotional effort and higher
conflict exposure; Tennen & Affleck, ​2003​).
Contrarily, individuals who feel they are (or can be) socially excluded tend to reduce their prosocial behavior.
Social rejection may temporarily interfere with emotional responses, thereby impairing the capacity for empathetic
understanding of others, and, as result, any inclination to serve or cooperate with them is undermined (Twenge,
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 3

Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco, & Bartels, ​2007​). Prosocial behavior that an individual exhibits in his or her public and
private environment is related to a greater degree of helpfulness in the workplace. Compassion, loyalty, honesty,
respect and forgiveness (Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, ​2003a​) are related to prosocial behavior and are factors that may
be intimately related to other empathy and helpfulness. Prosocial behavior in the workplace has been labeled as
prosocial organizational behavior, synonymous with OCB (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, ​2002​).
Taking in consideration the above arguments, we propose:

Hypothesis 1: The size of the individual’s supportive network is positively related to

individual OCB.

Supportive network relationships and, in particular, the helping and interpersonal facilitation processes underlying
them generate performance (Bacharach et al., ​2005​; Castilla, ​2005​; Perry-Smith, ​2006​; Sparrowe et al., ​2001​; Wei,
Han, & Hsu, ​2010​) and affective outcomes (e.g. job satisfaction; Carlson & Perrewe ́, ​1999​; psychological well- being;
Albrecht, Burleson, & Sarason, ​1992​; Ryff & Keyes, ​1995​; Uchino, Holt-Lunstad, Smith, & Bloor, ​2004​). Individuals
who experience emotional well-being devote a significant portion of their cognitive resources (cognitive capacity) to
job-related activities. Indeed, emotional well-being, and overall life satisfaction, is related to individual performance
(Cropanzano & Wright, ​1999​; Rode et al., ​2005​). Workers who enjoy emotional well-being are more likely to manage
their work time effectively because they experience fewer cognitive interruptions at work that are common in negative
emotional situations (Williams & Alliger, ​1994​). From a socio-cognitive point of view, a large supportive network,
through the emotional well-being that it reflects, may enhance task performance. These arguments lead to the
hypothesis that an increased social support received through a large supportive network leads to a better individual task
performance:

Hypothesis 2a: The size of the individual’s supportive network is positively related to
individual task performance.

Supportive networks deliver the positive effects of expressive networks by affecting deep-rooted psychological
mechanisms related to emotional and psychological well-being (Ryff & Keyes, ​1995​) involved in the effective
management of the work time. According to Affective Event Theory and the social network literature, supportive
networks are usually not exchange based (i.e. members are not concerned with reciprocation of benefits), and therefore
would require other network structures (e.g. instrumental, informational networks) to complement the emotional
benefits of external social support. For example, informational networks, those developed for provision and exchange
of information and advice, are valuable for the accomplishment of work-related tasks (Ibarra, ​1995​; Morrison, ​2002​).
The informational network is a meaningful source of job-related knowledge and task-oriented resources.
Prior research found that group processes related to positive interpersonal relations improve group performance
(Jehn & Shah, ​1997​). Likewise, interactions with people of the informational network could improve the individual
task performance. The frequency of the contacts in informational network could indicate a mutually beneficial behavior
related to exchange information, such as task support and helping behavior. Frequency of contacts may boost the
positive effect exerted by the exchange of meaningful information through contacts within the informational network;
in such networks, individuals can count on one another in times of need or just for daily, operational purposes, thus
creating a cooperative working group. Cooperative group members share information, pay
S. Bruque et al. 4

attention to others, have few communication difficulties and thus perform better when working on interdependent tasks
(Weldon & Weingart, ​1993​). So, a higher frequency in the individual informational network would translate into a
better individual task performance.
Network scholars emphasized that, in order to quickly obtain the information to master a job, and clarify one’s
role within the group, individuals require highly dense informational networks (Balkundi & Harrison, ​2006​; Morrison,
2002​). In dense informational networks, individuals keep each other informed about the problems they encounter and
the solutions they find by freely trading such information without the fear of being perceived incompetent or punished
for mistakes (Bruque, Moyano, & Eisenberg, ​2008​). Another related benefit of dense informational networks is that
people can avoid duplicating the work of others in obtaining valuable information (Rizoba, ​2006​). Moreover, the
density of the informational network has an impact on information sharing which is defined as making statements to
other group members about the task (Jehn & Shah, ​1997​). Information sharing positively influences task behavior by
offering valuable opinions, suggestions and information about the task, expressing feelings and ideas and freely
exchanging task-related knowledge (Jehn & Shah, ​1997​). Dense informational networks promote the sharing of diverse
opinions and information about task-related skills and strategies. Since task performance is primarily related to
individual skills that allow the individual to fulfill tasks on a daily basis, we anticipate a link between density of
informational network and task performance.
According to the above arguments, there exist theoretical support for an indirect path between the structure (size)
of the supportive network and task performance through the intermediate effect of the frequency and density of the
contacts in the (internal) informational network. The combined effect of the emotional well-being and psychological
stability provided by the set of supportive links, together with the instrumental value of the information and
knowledge-sharing network, should have a joint, positive, effect on task performance. Hence, individuals who enjoy a
large supportive network should achieve higher levels of task performance:

Hypothesis 2b: The structure of the informational network (density and frequency) positively affects the relationship
between the size of the supportive network and task performance.

Several theories (including Socio Cognitive theory) have proposed that individual behavior is shaped by forces
stemming from the individual’s social environment as well as from his/her cognitive abilities and skills (Bandura,
1986​). Recent literature on electronic social networking suggests that there are links that connect the personal
networking sphere with individual behaviors in the work or study setting (i.e. Utz & Beukeboom, ​2011​; Valenzuela,
Park, & Kee, ​2009​). Another theoretical approach, the actor metaphor (Lamb & Kling, ​2003​), confirms that the
individual cognitive structure and the attitudes that the individual develops in his/her social life are strongly influenced
by forces that arise both inside and, no less importantly, outside organizational limits. If we consider the influences that
the individual might receive from the social environment, the network made up of the supportive links might play a key
role (Bruque et al., ​2008​).
As opposed to pure instrumental networks, supportive social networks are expressive networks that provide a
setting that is conductive to sharing feelings, obtaining understanding and curbing frustration and distress (Bruque et
al., ​2008​; Lin, Ye, & Ensel, ​1999​). Supportive networks are usually more related to psychological outcomes than
instrumental networks (Ryff & Keyes, ​1995​). Prior research has found that the number of
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 5

supportive links in the individual network is linked to lower levels of stress, diminished depression and a reduced
likelihood of experimenting distress (Bruque et al., ​2008​; Chan, ​2002​; Uchino et al., ​2004​).
The role of supportive networks has also been studied when individuals are facing substantial technological
changes in the work setting (Bruque et al., ​2008​). Support from colleagues, friends and relatives may play a crucial role
during a major change process, since such a significant change is usually related to higher levels of anxiety and
uncertainty that are also linked to an insecure or unstable perception of future events as the change evolves (e.g.
Schweiger & Denisi, ​1991​). If the individual is exposed to this uncertain perception of his/her environment, several
negative feelings usually arise, such as stress, dissatisfaction, a decreased perceived trust in the company, superiors and
colleagues and recurrent thoughts about leaving the company (Ashford, Lee, & Bobko, ​1989​; Schweiger & Ivancevich,
1985​). Some prior studies have stressed that uncertainty and instability caused by the change can be a significant
predictor of the feelings and emotions that are, in turn, related to adaptation. In other words, it has been proposed that
low levels of uncertainty or, alternatively, high levels of confidence during the change process might be indicators of
good adaptation (Brewster & Haslberger, ​2005​; Bruque et al., ​2008​).
Social support theory also argues that an individual who benefits from greater social support is also better
protected from the negative effects of stress. Two major mechanisms can explain this effect (Heaphy & Dutton, ​2008​).
The first mechanism enables individuals who benefit from greater social support to change the way that they deal with
stressful situations and stimuli. The second mechanism enables individuals with greater social support to effectively
deploy resources that allow them to cope better with stressful situations (Siljanen & La ̈msa ̈, ​2009​; Viswesvaran,
Sanchez, & Fisher, ​1999​). Likewise, social support from a larger open support network is an external coping resource
that plays a critical role within the process of dealing with change-related stress and anxiety (Fugate, Kinicki, &
Scheck, ​2002​).
In sum, we propose that the size of the individual support network will be positively related to the employee’s
adaptation after a major technological change. This discussion leads to the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3: The size of the individual’s supportive network is positively related to

individual adaptation to change.

OCB and task performance are two constructs that may be related to the size of supportive network and to
individual adaptation to change. Social networks and Positive Psychology Theory, as well as recent empirical results
(e.g. Chiaburu et al., ​2013​; Cohen & Keren, ​2008​; Pare ́ & Tremblay, ​2007​) indicate that there may exist a positive
relationship between these two constructs. Interpersonal citizenship behavior directed toward individuals is comprised
of a set of positive emotions and behaviors in the workplace such as helping (Van Dyne & LePine, ​1998​), altruism
(Organ, ​1988​) or interpersonal facilitation (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, ​1996​). From the empirical point of view, it has
been demonstrated that positive emotions at the workplace are related to higher levels of organizational citizenship
(Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, ​2003b​; Diener & Seligman, ​2004​; George & Brief, ​1992​).
Positiveness (Cameron et al., ​2003a​) embraces the assumption that humans have an intrinsic desire to self-realize
(to express their capacities to the fullest extent). Positive scholars seek to ignite and nurture an individual’s potential
for intrinsic, positive valuation, even though the goal may be external to the actor. There are two positive emotions,
elevation and happiness, that are relevant in an organizational setting and which
S. Bruque et al. 6

are directly linked to positiveness. Elevation and happiness may eventually exert a positive effect on task performance.
Elevation is a positive emotion that incites helping desires and generates beneficial social effects in the form of
altruism and cooperation (Fredrickson, ​2001​). Elevation is what motivates individuals to perform their own good deeds
(Haidt, ​2000​). The relationship between helping and task performance has been analyzed and supported by recent
studies in the field of human resources (HR) management (Lin, ​2010​).
With regard to happiness, Cropanzano and Wright (​2001​) point out that happy people are helpful and outgoing
with coworkers and tend to be more confident and optimistic in their approaches to work. As such, happier individuals
would be more prone to exhibit prosocial behavior directed toward their coworkers. Given that happy and optimistic
individuals achieve better job performance (Cropanzano & Wright, ​2001​; Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, ​2005​;
Seligman, ​1991​), there may exist a positive relationship between OCB and individual task performance.
The direct relationship that we propose between OCB and task performance through positive emotions can be
supported also by correlation results in prior empirical studies (Hoffman, Blair, Meriac, & Woehr, ​2007​). We therefore
hypothesize:

Hypothesis 4: Individual OCB is positively related to individual task performance.

 OCB may be considered as a positive organizational behavior that involves psychological capacities than can be
measured, developed and managed for performance improvement in the workplace. These positive capacities include
self-efficacy, confidence and optimism (Luthans & Youssef, ​2004​), which are factors related to individual adaptation to
change.
First, self-efficacy may affect individual adaptation to change. Individuals with high self-efficacy choose
challenging tasks and endeavors, extend motivation and effort to successfully accomplish their goals and persevere
when faced with obstacles (Luthans & Youssef, ​2004​). Luthans and Peterson (​2002​) found support for the relationship
between self-efficacy and desirable attitudinal outcomes. This positive effect of self-efficacy may be therefore relevant
when the individual faces a complex and challenging situation such as individual adaptation to change.
Second, optimism implies a positive explanatory style that attributes positive events to internal, permanent and
pervasive causes. This allows individuals to take credit for boosting their self-esteem and morale (Luthans & Youssef,
2004​). Optimistic individuals are more prone to make an effort to internalize the changes that happen in the
organization. This effort may implicitly promote a better change acceptance in the first place and a better individual
adaptation to change in the second place. Therefore,

Hypothesis 5: OCB is positively related to individual adaptation to change.

Individual adaptation is the process by which the individuals learn, negotiate, enact and maintain the behaviors
appropriate to a new organizational environment (Ashford, ​1986​; Ashford & Taylor, ​1990​). When an individual fully
adapts to new organizational environments, he or she will experience good fit between his or her own behavior and the
technological and organizational demands of the workplace. From a socio-technical point of view, technology is one of
the strongest elements affecting one’s behavior in the workplace (Frohlich & Dixon, ​1999​; Ketchum & Trist, ​1992​).
Adaptation between the individual and technology resources is a key driver that explains superior operational
performance once the new technology has been implemented. Individual adaptation includes changes in workers’ roles
and responsibilities, as well as the development of
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 7
skills, experience and knowledge needed to make effective use of new technology (Frohlich & Dixon, ​1999​).
Furthermore, it is more likely that individuals who adequately adapt to change experiment a feeling of well-being
and satisfaction which, according to Cropanzano and Wright (​2001​), may free individuals to behave in more creative,
less defensive ways at work, with consequential benefits for task performance. Hence, it is expected that individuals
who adapt better to the technological change will achieve better task performance:
Hypothesis 6: Individual adaptation to change is positively related to task performance.
Figure 1 ​provides a diagram with our proposed model of relationships among the study’s primary variables.
Method ​Research site ​We developed a survey based on structured, personal, on-site interviews with employees of a
large Spanish financial corporation (see Bruque et al. [​2008​] for further details of the research site description). At
the end of the research period, the firm had 421 employees located across 15 functional and territorial departments
and 133 branches in 108 Spanish towns. Between January 2003 and June 2006, the company made a major change to
its Information System. Prior to the change, the user carried out all the tasks in his/her daily routine using numerical
commands. These commands related to financial and managerial
Organizational Citzenship Behavior
TP1
H2a
TP2
Aver.density
H2b
Task performance
informational
TP3 network
H2b
TP4
IA1
H3
Individual
IA2
 adaptation to change
IA3
IA4
Figure 1. Model of relationships among supportive network, OCB, individual performance and adaptability.
H4
Aver.frequency informational network Size ​
OCB1
H1
open supportive network ​
H2b
OCB2
H6
OCB3
OCB4
H5

S. Bruque et al. 8

transactions which included the array of services as well as institution’s internal procedures. The commands were used
and ordered according to operational and organizational criteria, covering all the departments of the organization as
well as all internal operations and external services provided by the company. The change consisted in the introduction
of a brand new platform based on intuitive interfaces and object- oriented programming. As a result, the list of numeric
commands was removed and the user interface changed to allow the interconnection of software functions and the
company’s intranet and extranet connections, thus enabling the user to intuitively access related data and information
within the company boundaries. This change also enabled the company to build in new information analysis options
and equipped it for new information sharing and knowledge management tools to be added. The change involved the
full restructuring of the Information System architecture and a full upgrade of the hardware at both the central and
peripheral levels. In order to train all the staff on the new Information System, the company designed a pyramid
training system with the technology supplier choosing eight employees in the first phase prior to implementing the new
system. This group of 8 employees (who were named A instructors) subsequently trained a group of 50 staff members
(who were named B instructors), and finally this group of B instructors was put in charge of training the rest of the
company members.

Data and procedures ​We used three different data sources. The data used in this study were part of a wider database
used to measure employee behavior before and after a major technological change (Bruque et al., ​2008​). First, we
administered a survey to company employees based on structured interviews in which we gathered social network and
demographic information. Second, we asked departmental directors (15) to rate their employees’ OCB and task
performance. Third, and in the case of individual adaptation to change, we asked B instructors and departmental
directors to complete a questionnaire. Through this process, we obtained two measures for the degree of individual
adaptation (from B instructors on the one hand and from departmental directors on the other). To avoid common
method bias as well as consistency and priming effects, departmental directors completed three different questionnaires
(task performance, individual adaptation and OCB) within a two- month period (see Bruque et al. for further details of
the data gathering procedure).
Data gathering took place eight months after the training period was over. Of the 405 eligible participants to
whom surveys were sent, 371 returned completed questionnaires for a final response rate of 91.6% (see for comparison
a review of response rate levels in the field; Baruch & Holtom, ​2008​). All the departmental directors and all the B
instructors took part in the research. The mean age of the employees was 40.9 years; 63% were men and average
experience in the company was 14.7 years. Almost half (49%) of the staff had a university degree.

Measures ​Prior to survey administration, we pretested our survey material to verify the clarity of the instructions, the
amount of time required to complete the survey instruments and the psychometric properties of the scales that had been
translated into Spanish. The pretest took place over a two-month period in which we surveyed three employees and one
B instructor, as well as two employees of other financial firms (Bruque et al., ​2008​). After the pretest, we held an
interview with pretest participants to find out how they assessed the
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 9

survey items, and items were reworded when required so as not to lose the original meaning of the items in English
during translation. We also performed a scale stability assessment following a test–retest procedure (Marsden, ​1990​). A
total of 30 respondents (26 master students and 4 university researchers) completed the questionnaire with a two- week
time lapse between test and retest, achieving a satisfactory level of reliability (Spearman’s correlation, r ​. ​0.80; Bruque
et al., ​2008​).

Supportive network size Assessment of network attributes was based on existing measures (Carroll & Teo, ​1996​;
Ibarra, ​1993​, ​1995​; Morrison, ​2002​). We followed a standard two-step name generator/ interpreter methodology to
elicit and characterize respondents’ (egos’) relationships with others (alters) (Bruque et al., ​2008​; Scott, ​1990​) during a
period of at least the last three years. To assess supportive network size, we asked participants to provide the initials of
people that ‘you know you can count on; who are dependable in hard times’ (Ibarra, ​1993​). During this assessment, we
emphasized that the people listed do not necessarily have to be members of their own organization (Cross &
Cummings, ​2004​); there were no initial limitations on the number or nature of initials to be elicited. Size of the
supportive network was measured as the number of alters listed (Morrison, ​2002​; Podolny & Baron, ​1997​). The
average number of ties named was 4.44 for the supportive network. On average, 80% of the ties identified by
respondents were links with people who did not belong to the organization. Therefore, most of the links in the
supportive network were external links.

Frequency of contacts in the informational network To assess information network attributes, we asked participants to
provide the initials of people that are a valuable source of information in work-related issues. Following existing
measures of frequency of contacts in social networks (Morrison, ​2002​), we assessed this variable as the average
frequency with which each ego talked to or exchanged information with each alter (1 ​1⁄4 ​‘a few times a year’; 2 ​1⁄4
‘once a month’; 3 ​1⁄4 ​‘two or three times a month’; 4 ​1⁄4 ​‘once a week’; 5 ​1⁄4 ​‘several times a week’; 6 1 ​ ⁄4
‘once a day’; 7 ​1⁄4 ​‘several times a day’). On average, 90% of the links in the informational network were
established with people inside the organization.

Density of the informational network Following existing measures (Bruque et al., ​2008​; Ibarra, ​1995​; Morrison, ​2002​),
density of the informational network was calculated as the sum of the links between the members of the network
(excluding ego) relative to the total number of possible links. The formula used was ​S​T​j​/n (n ​2 1​ ), where T is the

number of links from alter j and n is the total number

​ of alters identified (Bruque et al., ​2008​; Ibarra, ​1995​; Morrison,
2002​).

Task performance Task performance was based on the scale developed by Williams and Anderson (​1991​).
Departmental directors were asked to complete the four items (among the initial seven items), which had higher factor
loadings on the ‘in-role behavior’ construct in the Williams and Anderson’s (​1991​) factorial analysis. The same
reduced four-item scale has been used also in recent research regarding task performance (e.g. Piccolo & Colquitt,
2006​). Departmental directors indicated the extent to which they agreed with statements about their
S. Bruque et al. 10

subordinates’ performance, such as ‘This employee ​... ​adequately completes assigned duties’ and ‘​... ​fulfills
responsibilities specified in his/her job description’. The assessment scope, as indicated in the interview and in the
questionnaire, was the last three years.
OCB OCB regarding individuals was also based on the scale developed by Williams and Anderson (​1991​).
Departmental directors were asked to complete the three items (among the initial seven items) that had higher factor
loadings on the OCB construct in the Williams and Anderson’s (​1991​) factorial analysis. Departmental directors
indicated the extent to which they agreed with statements about their subordinates’ OCB, such as ‘This employee helps
others who have heavy work loads’ and ‘​... ​goes out of way to help new employees’.

Individual adaptation to change Individual adaptation to change was measured using the scale validated by Bruque et
al. (​2008​). The scale had four items in which participants indicated (on a seven-point Likert) the extent to which they
agreed with the following statements: (1) the employee has quickly become familiar with the new technological
platform; (2) it was not difficult for the employee to adjust himself/herself to the new technological platform; (3) the
employee has skillfully used the tools and applications the new technological platform provides; and (4) the employee
has accurately managed all the facilities the new technological platform provides.

Control variables Participants were also asked to indicate their birth dates (age), their education levels (1 ​1⁄4 ​without
studies; 2 ​1⁄4 ​primary school studies; 3 ​1⁄4 ​secondary school studies; 4 ​1⁄4 ​university degree) and their tenure
with the company (in years). Age, education level are tenure are known to influence an individual’s cognitive ability
and coping skill, and, as such, these variables may affect individual adaptation and task performance (Barrick &
Mount, ​1991​; Mento, Steel, & Karren, ​1987​; Mutter, Naylor, & Patterson, 2​ 005​).

Measurement model ​Using EQS (v 6.1), we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis to estimate the fit of a
measurement model, in which the items from each scale were specified to load on their respective factors. Results of
the analysis provided an adequate fit to the data (​x 2​ ​[51] ​1⁄4 ​145.97; ​x 2​​ /df ​1⁄4 ​2.82; CFI ​1⁄4 ​0.96; SRMR ​1⁄4
0.04; RMSEA ​1⁄4 ​0.07). All the items yielded positive and significant loadings on their respective factors, with
values factor loading values greater than 0.80 and with R 2​ ​values in the standardized solution greater than 0.60 for but
one item (OCB3: r ​1⁄4 ​0.56, R 2​ ​1⁄4 ​0.30; Bollen, ​1989​).

Analysis and results ​Baseline structural model ​Table 1 ​provides the descriptive statistics and correlations among the
study’s primary variables. To test our hypotheses, we used structural equations modeling with EQS (v 6.1). We
assessed the fit of the baseline structural model in ​Figure 2 ​by adding the predicted paths to the measurement model.
The structural model provided an adequate fit to the data (​x 2​
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 11
S. Bruque et al. 12
TP1
.92
.92
TP2
.82
.91
TP3
TP4
IA1
IA2
IA3
IA4

Task performance H2a .00​H3 ​.27*

Individual adaptation to change H4 .55*
OCB1
.96 H1 .17*
Organizational Citzenship Behavior
.93
OCB2
H6 .56
.29*
.80
OCB3
OCB4
H5 .42*
Size open supportive network
.96
.94
.93
.89
Figure 2. Baseline structural model.
[60] ​1⁄4 ​155.3; ​x 2​​ /df ​1⁄4 ​2.58; CFI ​1⁄4 ​0.96; SRMR ​1⁄4 ​0.04; RMSEA ​1⁄4 ​0.06), providing an overall
support for the baseline theoretical model and five of the study’s hypotheses (H2a was not supported; see discussion
below on the mediating effect described in hypothesis #2b). The size of the supportive network was significantly
related to OCB (H1) and to individual adaptation (H3); OCB was significantly related to task performance (H4) and
individual adaptation (H5), and adaptation and performance were significantly related (H6).
Test of H2b ​To test H2b, we used a similar method to that of Piccolo and Colquitt (​2006​). Thus, we used linear
regression including as a mediating variable, the multiplicative interaction of frequency and density in the
informational network.
Figure 3 ​shows the relationship between the size of the informational network and task performance when the dataset
is split in two groups: the first including the individuals who showed a low level of the interaction mediating variable
(density x frequency in the informational network) and the second made up by the individuals with high relative
scores in this interaction variable. The plot clearly indicates that the effect of the size of supportive network on task
performance is mediated by the interaction variable. Although structural equations modeling has not been frequently
used to test mediating effects (see Elicker, Levy, & Hall, ​2006​; Michon & Chebat, ​2008 ​for a discussion of
mediating effects in structural models), we also built a model (​Figure 4​; ​x 2​ ​[80] ​1⁄4 ​168.8; ​x 2​​ /df ​1⁄4 ​2.11; CFI
1⁄4 ​0.97; SRMR ​1⁄4 ​0.03; RMSEA ​1⁄4 ​0.05) that includes de-mediating paths. This model has a good fit and
therefore confirms the results obtained through the above regression analysis. It is remarkable that this structural
model has a better fit than the initial baseline model in which
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 13
2 ​e cnamrofrePk sa​ 1 ​
1.5​ T​ 0.5​Supportive Network Size
0
Density x frequency informational network LOW Density x frequency ​

informational network HIGH ​–0.5–1

LOW HIGH
Figure 3. Density and frequency in the informational network as boundary conditions of supportive network size effects on task
performance.
the mediating effect of the informational network was not considered. That means that the theoretical model with the
mediating effect is therefore more robust.
Reverse causality and alternative moderated mediating models ​To control for the potential of reverse causality
between the size of the social supportive network and OCB (i.e. higher levels of OCB might predict supportive
network size),
H2a .01
OCBI
H3 .23*
TP1
.92
H2b
Task performance
.12*
.92
.82
.91
TP2
TP3
TP4
IA1
Individual
IA2
adaptation to change
IA3
IA4
 Figure 4. Density and frequency in the informational network as a mediating path for supportive size effects on task performance.
Aver.density informational network H2b .69* Aver.frequency informational network
H4 .50*
OCBI1 H2b .11* Size open
H1 supportive network
.20*
.96
.93
OCBI2
H6 .56
.31*
.80
OCBI3
OCBI4
H5 .42*
.96
.94
.93
.89

we tested an alternative model reversing the order of these variables. The results of this new model yielded a poorer fit
to the data compared to our proposed model in ​Figure 1 ​(​D​x 2​ ​1⁄4 ​14.97; ​D​df ​1⁄4 ​1; p ​, ​0.01). Next, to ensure that
our proposed model was not concealing moderated mediation (Hayes, ​2013​; Preacher, Rucker, & Hayes, ​2007​), we
tested the model in ​Figure 5​. This particular test examined whether the mediating role of OCB on the path between
supportive network size and task performance is dependent on individual adaptation to change, as well as on the
interaction between individual adaptation to change and size of the supportive network. However, this moderated
mediation model does not fit well for individual adaptation as moderator (​x 2​ ​[58]; ​x 2​​ /df ​1⁄4 ​29,95; CFI ​1⁄4 ​0.67;
RMSEA ​1⁄4 ​0.27) or for the interaction between adaptation and supportive network size (​x 2​ ​[23]; ​x 2​​ /df ​1⁄4 ​3,7;
CFI ​1⁄4 ​0.97; RMSEA ​1⁄4 ​0.09).
Finally, following Fichman and Kemerer (​1997​) and Teo, Wei, and Benbasat (​2003​), we implemented a procedure
to assure robustness of our baseline structural model compared to other alternative models that include control paths.
Further information about these analyses is available upon authors’ request.
S. Bruque et al. 14
Figure 5. Moderated mediation model (Modmed) according to Model 2 in Preacher, Rucker, and Hayes (​2007​).
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 15

Discussion In this study, we tested a model in which the size of one’s social supportive network influences important
work-related behaviors such as task performance and adaptability to change. Much of the prior research in this area has
focused on the effects of an employee’s limited set of relationships at the workplace (i.e. ‘closed’ network). However,
we find that the size of an individuals’ informal support network (i.e. those outside the workplace) shapes job
performance and adaptation to change through citizenship and prosocial behaviors, suggesting that social expressive
mechanisms (e.g. OCB) and rational behaviors (e.g. task performance, adaptation) are interwoven.
These results imply that an individual’s behavior at work may not depend exclusively on the quality of a single,
dyadic relationship, nor one’s informational or professional network within an organization (i.e. supervisor
subordinate), but also on the broad social framework in which the relationship is embedded. This finding is supported
by prior research in the field of HR management that infers that changes external to organizations may alter how
people behave inside organizations (i.e. Burke & Ng, ​2006​). Thus, the external environment, including the size and
nature of one’s supportive network, affects work performance in a meaningful way.
We highlight several conclusions that are relevant for the HR literature. First, individual behaviors that explain
task performance and adaptation to change are affected by the number of social ties from which one receives support.
This argument is supported in the current study by the fact that more than 80% of the supportive social ties identified
had no relationship with people working in the same organization. This outcome is particularly noteworthy, as most of
the existing literature has focused on social network effects within the workplace (Cole, Schaninger, & Harris, ​2002​).
HR managers could broaden their evaluations of potential employees to include the nature and support of his or her
social network.
Second, these results support the notion that firm performance is shaped by the level of interpersonal facilitation,
altruism and helping among members of the firm (Cohen & Keren, ​2008​), not simply the sum of individual abilities
deployed when workers face job- related demands. Although there are some recent findings indicating that citizenship
behavior can have a curvilinear relationship with task performance (Rapp, Bachrach, & Rapp, ​2013​), our findings
support a positive, linear relationship between the concepts, consistent with much of the current literature (i.e.
Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, & Blume, ​2009​).
Third, we found that OCB directed toward individuals underlies the positive effect that external support exerts on
individual adaptation to change, connecting the OCB and network analysis literatures. This is a rather novel finding
that extends the scope of both concepts. We propose that the emotional framework can also be explained by the
individual network structure that has an origin outside the workplace and that this ‘external’ social effect has
implications on job-related behaviors. This is also a new research direction in the field of HR management, expanding
the limits of both, the individual focus and the organizational focus, in explaining adaptation to technological changes
and performance.
Fourth, our results indicate that density and frequency of informational contacts mediate the relationship between
the external support the individual receives from his/her social environment and task performance. This finding also
complements current literature views in both areas: social network analysis and Affective Events Theory. From the
social network point of view, our results did not exhibit that the size of the supportive network
S. Bruque et al. 16

directly enhances task performance, at least they do not at first glance. This lack of significant and direct association
may be related to the mainly instrumental and applied character of the individual task performance construct, especially
when it is assessed by supervisors (i.e. task performance). Our results point out that the connection between a primarily
emotional, external, network, such as the supportive network is, needs the coexistence of a primarily instrumental,
internal network, to produce a measurable effect on task performance, suggesting that social support needs to be
upgraded by instrumental links (i.e. informational links).
Interestingly enough, this mediating effect is not found when adaptive behavior is chosen as the individual
outcome, suggesting that there exist a clear connection between the emotional state shaped by the external supportive
network and adaptive behavior. This effect again connects both theoretical frameworks (network analysis and Affective
Events Theory) by which the state of emotions ruled by the supportive external situation may modulate the individual
creative, innovative and flexible abilities that the individual deploys to cope with a major organizational change and to
therefore successfully adapt to it.
From a managerial point of view, in the field of HR management, our study suggests that managers must be
sensitive to the implications of employees’ psychological capacities (prosocial attitudes, self-efficacy, confidence,
optimism) when a major organizational change is taking place or is planned to take place in the future. For that, these
capacities should be evaluated during the process of hiring of new employees. In a similar way, positive socialization
processes could turn out relevant to promote positive attitudes and behaviors that may reveal useful to raise individual
performance.
This study also reveals that the HR manager should take into account also workers’ external boundaries and
network structure, particularly when the staff face drastic changes in the workplace. In a technology-intensive world,
HR managers could therefore foresee individual adaptability to technological changes by looking not just at the
individual skills and psychological traits but also at his/her internal and external (informational and supportive) social
network structures.
This study also offers managers (particularly HR managers) some insights about how to facilitate OCB in order to
achieve better individual outcomes. For instance, managers may want to implement practices that promote social
support from outside (i.e. promoting work–life balance) and from inside (i.e. strengthening social support among
employees) in order to increase OCB. For example, managers may foster workers’ involvement in problem-solving
groups, consider the opinions and ideas of the workers before taking a decision, rotating managers and employees
through introductory job assignments may also provide opportunities (Bowler & Brass, ​2006​) or directly fostering the
organization to select proactive employees (Grant & Ashford, ​2008​) for building relationship that may facilitate OCB.
This may subsequently lead to increased individual adaptation and enhancement of individual performance.
Organizations may also consider the need to find ways to get OCB to and from the right employees. Those with
high informal influence are less likely to perform OCB for those with less influence (Bowler & Brass, ​2006​). This is
the opposite of what managers would desire from powerful employees in an organization. Employees with little power
are likely in need of OCB support, but influential employees may not be willing to help them. Influential employees
will likely serve as role models and set the environmental tone through the behaviors that they do, or do not, perform.
Organizations may wish to consider incentives to encourage influential employees to exhibit OCBs toward less
influential others.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17

Limitations and future directions ​The implications of our results must be considered in light of the limitations of our
research design. One limitation is the cross-sectional nature of our data. A longitudinal research design might have
allowed us to broaden the number of dimensions analyzed, potentially eliminating alternative explanatory mechanisms.
Such a design would have provided a more complete, evolutionary picture of adaptation processes, rather than a single
assessment of adaptive capacity, while minimizing the threat of common method variance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Lee, & Podsakoff, ​2003​). Although we can introduce causal mechanisms in the proposed model and support those
relationships with theoretically grounded arguments, given the nature of these data, we cannot fully assert causality.
A second limitation is in our examination of the link between OCB and task performance. We found (consistent
with much of the current research) a positive, linear relationship between the concepts, perhaps fueled in this case by
an employee’s willingness to engage in organizational changes (Love & Dustin, ​2014​). However, our data did not yield
a curvilinear link between the variables as recently reported by Rapp et al. (​2013​). Future research should seek to
specify the potential for a nonlinear link between task and citizenship aspects of performance.
Lastly, even though we report a positive, linear association between the size of one’s social supportive network
and job-related behavior, we recognize the possibility that this relationship has a more complex shape. For example, it
is certainly possible that the size of one’s social network would have a U-shaped effect on performance and willingness
to adapt, similar to the relationship between task conflict and team performance (De Dreu, ​2006​), with some midrange,
optimal network size and little utility of very small or large social networks. Future research could attempt to seek
tipping points in the value of network breadth.
Our results highlight the potential value of one’s social supportive network. Given that one’s external social
network might be an explicative factor of adaptation and performance, future studies could identify tools developed by
HR managers that assess social networking variables in addition to the current array of personnel selection criteria. One
could imagine a ‘social networking’ audit, in which one’s support network is factored into an assessment of human
social capital (Lin et al., ​1999​), a concept that is predictive of valuable work outcomes (e.g. career success; Seibert,
Kraimer, & Liden, ​2001​).

Conclusion ​This study links two traditionally distinct areas in HR management, external social network analysis and
individual behavior in the workplace. We found that external social supportive networks affect OCB, adaptation to
change and in-role task performance. We highlight how these results have both theoretical and practical implications
for HR management.

Disclosure statement ​No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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