SUBJECT INDEX

Index Terms Links

Abnormal fluid pressure(s) 231

Acceleration 97 100–101 104–105 108
Active tectonics 599–682
Basin and Range 606 627–628 633 644
656–666 673 675 757
777
Cascadia 601–603 649–656
Central Great Basin 602–603 643 646 647
657–659 661–662 673 681
Eastern California shear zone 601 627–642 649 681
Eastern Great Basin 602 602–603 657–660 662–665
Hurricane fault 674–678
Los Angeles basin 616–627 658
North Anatolian fault zone 46–48 251
Rio Grande Rift 602 606 678–682
San Andreas fault 600–604 606–619 627–628 642–643
657–658
Taiwan 600
Walker Lane 601–602 627–628 642–649
Wasatch Front 666–674
Western Great Basin 601–603 647 656–660
Anisotropy 141 296–297 397 505
524
Apparent dip 369–370 372–373 721–722 731–733
747 758 790
Apophyses 701
Asthenosphere 18–19 102 190 542
Azimuth 270 371–374 712–715 739–742
786–789

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Balanced cross-section 409 452–457 723–726

Bedding 22–23 223 314–316 346–350
405–416 485–492 508 706–708
Beds, facing 487
Bonding 149–157 399
Bonds
covalent 150
ionic 150
metallic 150
Boudinage 394–395 510–511 576 590
Boudins 394 498 511 544–545
barrel-shaped 511
fish-head 511
rectangular 511
rhombic 511
Breccia(s) 149 260 262–265 703
crush breccias 264–265
implosion breccias 264–265
megabreccia 262
microbreccia 148 262 333
Brecciation 264–265
attrition 264
crushing 264
implosion 264
Breccia dike(s) 263
Brittle 12 123 138 260–267
540–543
Brittle–ductile transition 123 188–190 542–545
Brittle failure 126 137 154–155
Brunton compass 696 711–713 715 717
Bulk modulus 126
Byerlee’s law 189–190 299

Cataclasite 261 265–266

ultracataclasite 261 265–266

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Cataclastic rocks 160–161 266

Cleavage, mineral 150
Cleavage, rock, origin 204 205–206 475 478–479
dissolution removal of fossils 484
expression of shortening 476–477
flattening 61 65 85 281
403 489–492 516–517
kinematic significance of offset bedding 485–486
relationship of cleavage to shearing 490
strain response of insoluble beds 484
strain significance of cleavage 475–486
strain significance of crenulation
cleavage 480–481
strain significance of spaced cleavage 481–487
Cleavage, rock, properties
axial plane cleavage 487–488 495
bedding/cleavage relationship 477 485 488
classification of spaced cleavage 486
cleavage domains 466–475
continuous cleavage 468–469 474–475 480–481
crenulation cleavage 469–471 474–475 512–513
discrete crenulation cleavage 469–471 474
disjunctive cleavage 468–470
domainal structure 466–468 473
general outcrop appearance 465–466
microlithons 466–470 475
microlithon domains 466–467
penetrative planar 26–27
relationship of cleavage to folding 487–488
slabby 465
spaced cleavage 469–470 475 481–487
zonal crenulation cleavage 470–471
Clinometer 713–715
Coefficient of internal friction 95 288–289 309
Coefficient of thermal expansion 159 230
Coesite 13 15
Cohesion 95 123 293 399
Comminution 260–261

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Compression 97
axial 132–133
hydrostatic 151
standard compression test 136–138
Confining pressure 131–142
Contact(s)
angular unconformity 699–700
conformable depositional contacts 697–698
disconformity 700
fault contacts 278 703–705
intrusive contacts 700–703
nonconformities 699
shear zone contacts 703–705
unconformities 697–700
Continuum mechanics 417
Contact metamorphism 529 703
skarn 703 705
metasomatic aurole 705
thermal aurole 705
Core and mantle structure 178–179
Coulomb envelope of failure 232 287 293
Coulomb failure 292 312
Coulomb law of failure 95 288–294
Creep 144 158 164–172 613–614
Coble 166
primary 144
secondary 144
tertiary 144
Creep experiments 182–183
Crystal plastic regime 261
Crust 18
continental 18
oceanic 18
Crystal fibers 198 234–235
beards 473
Crystal fiber veins 234–235
Crystal lattice
elastic deformation 129 134–139 150
inelastic deformation 151 239

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Crystalline structure 149–152

Crystallographic preferred orientation 187–188 547

Debris flow 100

Defect(s)
line 156–157
planar 157
point 155–156
Deformation 7–16
brittle 124 158 540–545
coaxial 82–83
crystal-plastic 28 148 261
ductile 540–548
homogeneous 63 67 75–76 549
noncoaxial 83
nonrigid-body 53–54
plastic 127 136–139
pure shear 82 84–85 549 554–555
565 573 588–597
rigid-body 53–54
simple shear 83–86 519
transpressive 21
transtensive 21
Deformation bands 303–305
Deformation field(s) 42 182–183
Deformation map(s) 158 166–167 182–183
Deformation mechanism(s) 148–191
cataclasis 158–162
cataclastic flow 160–162
diffusion 164–165
diffusion creep 164–171
dislocation creep 168–171
dislocation glide 173 175 181
frictional sliding 158–162
granular flow 162
Nabarro-Herring creep 166
pressure dissolution 88 402–403 476

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Deformation mechanism(s) (Cont.)

superplastic creep 166–167
volume diffusion creep 165–166
Deformation path(s) 8 39–43 50–52 81–84
519–520
Deformation rate(s) 31 39
Descriptive analysis 29 683–798
Detachment faults, examples
Catalina 148 262 265
Whipple 161 265 332–333
Detachment faulting, mechanics
normal fault geometries 430–433
tectonic denudation 332
Detachment fault(s) properties
chlorite breccias 332
lower plate 306–307 332–333
lower plate mylonites 332
upper plate
Detachment folding 420–429
area balancing 424 429–430 454–455
balance and depth to detachment 425–426
buckling and amplification 422–423
depth-to-detachment 424–425 429–430
excess area method 426
general character 409–411 414 420 627–628
pin lines 424 455
regional elevation 424–425 429–433
Detachment folds, properties 407
box detachment fold 407
cathedral detachment fold 407
circular-arc fold 421
detached lift-off fold 422
detachment layer 423
detachment planes 421–423
detachment zones 421–423
lift-off fold 422
lower detachment plane 421
mobile detachment layer 423

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Detachment folds, properties (Cont.)

multi-detachment fold 422
upper detachment plane 421
Detailed structural analysis 29–33
Diachronous events 32–33 515
Dike(s) 245 263 494 558
589–591 597 701–705
Dip 273 372–373 382 407–409
713–717 721 731–733 739–742
Dipmeter data 785–786
Dislocation(s)
edge 172–174 176–177
screw 173–174
Dislocation climb 176–177
Displacement(s) 8 36–91 275 328–329
339–341 457–459 567 646–649
662
Displacement field(s) 8 38
Displacement vector(s) 8 37–38 49–51 431
Domain(s) 63 466–467 473–481 549
769–770
Ductile 12 123 188–190
Ductility contrast 402 481
Dynamic analysis 8 31 93–96 286
Dynamic recrystallization 176 580

Earthquake(s) focal mechanisms 620 644–648 793–798

auxillary plane 794–795
beach ball diagrams 603 795
fault plane 794–796
first motions, in 2D 794
first motions, in 3D 794–795
moment magnitude 793
nodal plane 794–795
P-axis 794–795
pull 794–795
push 794–795

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Earthquake(s) focal mechanisms (Cont.)

T-axis 794–795
Earthquake(s)
Borah Peak, Idaho 663–665
Central Nevada Seismic Belt (CNSB) 646 660–662 667
Cedar Mountain, Nevada 660–661
Chalfant, California 638
Chi Chi, Taiwan 600
Dixie Valley, Nevada 660–661 672
Eastern California Seismic Belt (ECSB) 657–658 667
Fairview Peak, Nevada 643 660–661 672
Fort Tejon, California 610 617–618
Gobi-Altay, Mongolia 249
Indian Ocean 100
Intermountain Seismic Belt 657–658 667 674
Izmit, Turkey 7 47–48 251–252
Kobe, Japan 7
Landers, California 629–632
Managua, Nicaragua 46
Northridge, California 616–618 620–621
Owens Valley, California 633–636 638 643 672
Pleasant Valley, Nevada 660–661 672
San Francisco, California 52 385 607–610 615
Eastern California shear zone 627–642
Elastic behavior 124–126
Elastic limit 136–138 150–151
Elastic modulus 125
Elastic shear 151
Elastic tension 151
Enclave(s) 27 702–703
Experimental deformation 132–133 186
Extension
axial 133
finite 84 589–594 597
greatest 646 678
instantaneous 84 555 567 573
580 588 591–595

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Fault-bend folding 404 409 655–656

active axial traces 411–412 414–415
extensional fault-bend folding 429
folding as a guide to faulting 412–413
general character 409–411
inactive axial traces 411–412 415
progressive evolution of fault-bend fold 410 415
Fault-bend folds, properties 404 407 409–413
footwall cutoffs 278 314 410–411 428–432
hanging wall cutoffs 278 314 410–411 432–433
ramp 313–315 328–329 410
Fault-propagation folding 404 407 414–428
axial traces 359–361 407 411–412 414–416
780–781
general character 414
Fault-propagation folds, properties 414–428
snake head folds 416
Fault-related folding 407–409
bed shear 409
dip domain fold theory 407
dip domains 408–409
Fault analysis, Angelier method 778–779
Faulting, mechanics
angle of failure 289
angle of internal friction 287–291
asperities 254 298 606
Byerlee’s law 189–190 299
coefficient of friction 288 325
coefficient of sliding friction 299
conjugate faults 286 289–292 767–769
Coulomb failure envelope 287 290 292
Coulomb law of failure 288–294
critical shear stress 95 229 288–289 293
299 309
compressive strength tests 227–230 286–287
creeping segment 606–607 610–613
fault reactivation 301 443–445
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Faulting, mechanics (Cont.)

faulting of anisotropic rocks 296–297
faulting in three-dimensional strain field 300–301
faulting of pre-fractured rocks 297–300
friction 297–300
grouping of fault displacements 662
interpreting fault orientations 767–768
locked 175 606
physical analogue experiments 220–221
relation to principal stress directions 767–769
relation to principal stretch directions 764–765
relation to principal strain directions 244 290
sandbox experiment 295–296
stick-slip faulting 606
triaxial deformation experiments 133 300
Fault(s) offset
determining slip on a fault 757–759
dip-slip 273
faulted hinge of a fold 759
footwall cutoff 278 314 410–411 428–432
footwall 273
hanging wall 273–277
hanging-wall cutoff 278 314 411
heave 431–433
lateral 630–634
left-handed 51 274–281 336–340 624–625
left-stepping 638 645
net slip 51–53
normal 24 57 321–334 638–639
661–662
normal-slip 274 282–283
oblique-slip 274
offset of curb 612
offset of road and fence 608
offset of row of raspberry bushes 609
omission of strata 268
overlap 284
repetition of strata 268 274

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Fault(s) offset (Cont.)

reverse 277 301–303
reverse-slip 273–274 283–285
right-handed 274
right-stepping 640
separation classification 276–277
separation 272 275–280
shear displacement 249
slip classifaction 273–275 606
slip 272–275
stratigraphic throw 276
strike-slip 24 273–281 285 334–343
447–449
throw 461
thrust 24 305–321
thrust-slip 274 283–285
truncation 267
Fault(s) properties
antithetic 280 296 325 337
572
branches 253
chatter marks 258–259
conjugate 289
crystal-fiber lineations, 198 255
drag 279–281 396
drag folding 260 270 279–281 396
fault scarp(s) 249 251–253
fault-line scarp(s) 252–253
fault surface 253–254 258 703
groove(s) 198 255 278–279 703
imbricate splay faults 457
mullion(s) 255 507–508
reverse drag 280
rupture lengths 671–674
segmentation 328 668–669
segments 328
slickenlines 24 198 254–255
slickensides 254–255

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Fault(s) properties (Cont.)

slickolites 257–258
slip-fiber lineation(s) 255–257
striae 254 743
striations 50–51 254 703
synthetic 325
Faulting, recurrence intervals 283 662 671 677
Faulting, slip rates 605–606 661–662
Fault rocks, See also Breccia, Cataclasite
Mylonite, Pseudotachylite
Fault rocks
breccia series 261–264
cataclasite series 261 265–266
gouge 261 263 678 703
Faults, shape(s)
listric 57 280 325 333
430 447
tip 202 326 329 415–419
tip line 202 314
tip line loop 253
tip point 90 253
Faults, types, See Detachment, Normal
Reverse, Strike-Slip, Thrust
Fault zone(s)
boundary zone(s) 263 648
damage zone(s) 263–264 341
fault zone core 263–264
Fissility 495–496
Fissure(s) 250
Flaw(s) 154 203
Flow 54 158 160–162 190
390–391 493–495 706
Fluid pressure 131 141–142 230–236 293–294
311
Fluid pressure ratio 231
Focal mechanism(s) See Earthquakes, focal
mechanisms

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Fold analysis
classifying folds according to layer shape 783–784
determination of axial surface 780–781
describing folds in outcrop 782–783
geologic map symbology 782
plotting fold-orientation data 781–782
Folding before faulting 428
Folds, See also Detachment folds, Fault-
bend folds, Fault-related folds, Fault-propagation
Folding, rates 661–662
Folds, examples
Appalachian fold belt, eastern U.S. 344 354
Comb monocline, Utah 683
East Kaibab monocline, Arizona and Utah 253 274 302 355
357
Kettleman Hills anticline, California 614–616
Nutria monocline, New Mexico 356
Raplee anticline, Utah 25 683
San Rafael Swell, Utah 300–301 357 404 689
San Miguelito anticline, California 2 621–622
Santa Susana Mtns Anticlinorium California 618–621
Ventura Avenue anticline, California 2 621–625
Waterpocket fold, Utah 305 356 418–419
Fold(s) types
anticline 351–357
anticlinorium 354
antiform 318 352–354
asymmetrical 378
box 375 409 421
chevron 25 375 685
class 1 folds 382
class 1a folds 382
class 1b folds 382 408 489
class 1c folds 489 784
class 2 folds 382–383
class 3 folds 382–383
cuspate 375
disharmonic 422

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Fold(s) types (Cont.)

gentle 375
isoclinals 353 377 396 488
491
kink 59 397–400
monocline 25 354–357
non-plunging 373–374
open 377
overturned 352–353
plunging 362 372 723 756
787–789
ptygmatic 32 384 389
reclined 363
recumbent 353–354
regional 354
rollover anticline 280 430 638–639
rootless 377
S-shaped 279–280 347–348
sheath 575–576
similar 381–382
superposed 353–354
symmetrical 378 781
syncline 352
synclinorium 354
synform 352–354
teardrop 375
tight 281 350 492
upright 363
Z-shaped 279–280 347–348
Fold(s) mechanics
bedding-plane slip 347 381
Biot’s equation 387
buckle folding of multilayers 390
buckle folding of single layer 387–388
buckling 247 384–390 422–423
cohesive bonding between layers 399
computer simulations of buckling 388
decollement zone 381

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Fold(s) mechanics (Cont.)

dominant wavelength 384–385 507
ductility contrast 19 402
flexural folding 390–397 492
flexural-flow folding 390
flexural-slip folding 47 390–395
flexural-slip kinematics 391–392
free folding 403
forced folding 403–404
generation of drag folds 396
influence of competency contrast 389
influence of strain rate 389
kink folding 397–400
layer-parallel internal strain 386–387
layer-parallel shortening (LPS) 393–400
layer-parallel stretching 393–395
layer strain associated with flexural-slip 393–395
mean ductility 402
mechanisms of passive folding 403
modes of kink folding 399–400
passive folding 401–403
refolding 63 245 350
rollover anticline 280 638–639
shortening of gum rubber strips 388
simple buckling of single layer 385–386
tangential longitudinal strain 395
Fold(s) orientation analysis
Beta diagram 366
Fleuty diagram 363
pi-axis 366
pi-diagram 366
polar tangent determinations of fold orientations 368–371
polar tangent plot 368
stereographic determination of fold orientations 366–368
Fold(s) properties
amplitude 377
apical angle 365
axial plane 361 487

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Fold(s) properties (Cont.)

axial surface 359–363 409 779–781
axial trace 359–363 411–412 414–416
axis 118 209–210 363 373
back limb 296 352
center-line axis 365
coding system 512–515
concentric 380–381
conical 365
crest 505
crestal surface 361–362
cylindrical 363–364
dip isogons 382–383
fold shape 375
fold shape classification 379
fold train 358 421
front limb 352
hinge 358–359 396–397
hinge line 359–363
hinge point 358
hinge zone 358
inflection point 358
interlimb angle 367 375
limb(s) 296 352 358–359
minor structures 341 347–348 395–396
near-cylindrical 364
neutral surface 242 393
noncylindrical 363–364
normal profile view 358 361 375 723
parallel 380–381
SCAT plot determination of fold properties 269 371–374
shape of folded layers 382
shapes 520–521
single folded surface 358
structural bulk curvature 372
tightness 375–377
vertex 365
visual classification of shapes 379
wavelength 377 384–385 507

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Foliation, origin, See also Cleavage

Gneissic structure, Mylonitic foliation
Phyllitic structure, Schist, Slaty cleavage, Tectonites
compaction 493 495
diagenetic foliation 495–496
flow of magma 493–494
tectonic strain 375 463 704
transposition 490–492
welding 438 465
Foliation, properties
cleavage 492–501 512
coding system 512–515
compositional layering 463–464 470 493 505
eutaxitic structure 494 496
expression in rocks 463–465
flattened-pebble foliation 497
flow banding 493–494
flow foliation(s) 493
magmatic fabric 494
parallel alignment 493
penetrative parallel alignment 26 492
planar fabric element 493
planar fabrics 492–493
primary foliation(s) 27 493–497
schlieren 494–495
secondary foliation(s) 27 493–497
solid-state fabric 494
Force(s)
addition of 98–100
balance of 112
body 100–101
contact 100
electromagnetic 100–101
gravitational 100
intermolecular 150
load(s) 101
normal 99–100
plate tectonic 101–103

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Force(s) (Cont.)
reaction 98
resolution of 98–100
resultant 98–99
shear 99–100
Fractal dimension(s) 266 460–461
Fracture, gash fractures 281
Fracture toughness 203–204
Fracture zone 47 630–631
Fracturing 150 159–160 198–199 572–573
Frictional regime 261

Geologic cross-section(s)
constructing normal profiles 722–723
control points 719 732
down-structure method 723
line of section 719
preparing balanced cross-sections 723–726
profile view 358 718
steps in constructing 719–720
topographic profile 719
Geologic mapping
base maps 689
basic procedures 691–695
components of a geologic map 689–691
field notebooks 695–696
lithologic symbols 689–691
map symbols 771–775
marker units 693
philosophy 687–688
Geologic time scale 33
Geometric analysis 358–383
Geothermal applications 200
Global Position System (GPS) 38 46 599
Gneissic structure, origin 26 497
Gneissic structure, properties
banded gneiss 493

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Gneissic structure, properties (Cont.)

gneissic foliation 498 576
gneissic structure 26 497
Gouge 263 703
Grain boundary migration 179–188
Gravity 100
Griffith cracks 237
Griffith law of failure 229
Groundwater 5 88 200 230
320 327
Growth fault(s) 326
Growth fault sedimentation 324
Growth sequences
forward modeling 451–452
growth-sequence stratigraphy 450
sedimentary growth sequences 449–451

Homocline(s) 726–727
Hooke’s law 124–126
Hotspot(s) 42–43
Hydrofracs 232–234
Hydrogeology 5
Hydrostatic pressure 230
Hydrothermal fluids 200–201 328 705
Hysteresis loop 136

Inclined strata 57
Intrusive contacts, See Contacts
Igneous intrusions
batholiths 701–704
dike swarm 53 558
laccolith 524 701
lopolith 701
phacolith 701
plug 793
radial dikes 53

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Isopach maps 727–728

Joint analysis
circle inventory method 773–774
frequency distribution plots (FDPs) 219–220
fracture spacing indices (FSI) 775
fracture spacing ratio (FSR) 217–219
mapping of joints 770–771
map symbology for joints 771–775
measuring density of joints 774–775
measuring orientations of joints 772–774
preparing fracture-orientation diagrams 776–778
recording the data 775–776
Joint intersections
T-intersections 214–215
X-intersections 214–215
Y-intersections 214–215
Joints, movement
opening-mode 193
pull-apart 22 193–195 327 340
Joints, orientations
histograms 218–219
pole-density diagrams 245 748–751 776
rose diagrams 218 241–245 776–777
Joints, properties
abrupt twist hackles 210–211
bands 212–213 236
butt cleat 241
coal cleats 241
composite joint face 206 214
conchoidal 152 194 209
craquelure 247–248
curving plume axes 209
en echelon cracks 214 631
en echelon fringe cracks 210
en echelon joints 205 216 543
en echelon segmentation 204 210 212 215
246
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Joints, properties (Cont.)

face cleat 241–242
fins 193
fringe joint(s) 210–212
gradual twist hackles 210
hackles 194 210–211 214
joint face 22 193–194 197 204–214
joint fringe 204–214
joint sets 196 198 212–216
joint surface 193–197 204–212
joint system 196
kink 158 162–164 212 397–400
kink angle 212
longitudinal fractures 243
longitudinal joints 243
main joint face 204–206 208–214
nonsystematic joints 196
oblique joints 243
origin 204 206–208
parent joint 210–212
permeability, fracture 196 200 774
planar 193–195 204
plumose features 197 771–772
plumes 204–210
regional jointing 239–247
ribs 194 204–210 246
straight plume 208–209
systematic joints 195 217–222
transverse fractures 243
transverse joints 243–244
twist hackles 210–211
undulations, See ribs above
Joints, shape
disk-shaped 225 232
elliptical 193–194 205–207 225 232
hoodoos 200
quarry expression(s) 194 200 205 283
468 477
rectangular 193–196 205
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Joints, spacing
fracture density 221 243 774–775
fracture spacing index (FSI) 221–222
fracture spacing ratio (FSR) 217–219 775
frequency distribution plots (FDPs) 219–220 775
joint saturation 223–225
log-normal distribution 219–221
negative exponential distribution 219–221
normal distribution 219–221
undersaturated jointing 225
Joints, terminations
hook-shaped 216
Jointing, experiments
compressive strength tests 227–230
gelatin-hydrofrac experiment 232–233
hybrid tensile strength tests 227–230
Mohr circle representation 79 163 226–230 286–287
763–765
tensile strength tests 133 226–227
Jointing, mechanisms
aquathermal pressuring 230
arrest 209 212–213
columnar jointing 13–14 212–213
cooling 13 213
die out 30 215 365 415
effective stress 142 209 231 293
exfoliation jointing 17 246–247
flaw(s) 154 157 203 224
247
fracture front 202 206 209
hydraulic fracturing 235
hydraulic joints 239–240
joint front 208–209
jointing and folding 244
physical analogue experiments 220–221
point of initiation 205
pore fluid pressure 131 141–142 230–236
release joints 240

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Jointing, mechanisms (Cont.)

stress-shadow model 224
stress-transfer model 223–224
stress-transition model 224–225
tectonic joints 239–240
tilt 209–210
twist 209–212
unloading joints 240

Kinematic analysis 8 31 38–40

Kinematics 38–39 42–46 313–315 334–335
391–392
Kink bands 164 397–400 411 451
Kinking 158 162–164

Los Angeles
Big Bend 449 616–618
LA basin 617–620
Landslide(s) 275 307
Lapilli 61 496 498
Lattice 149–158 162–165 171–177
LiDAR 653–654
Lineation 26–28 198 255–257 463–529
See also individual entries
below; Linear structure, Tectonites
Lineation, origin 478–479
Lineation, properties
alignment of elongated features 465
aligned prismatic minerals 465
coding system 512–515
crenulation lineation 505–506
elongate linear fabric elements 501
intersection lineation 504–505
mineral lineation 503–504
parting lineation 502
primary 502 513
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Lineation, properties (Cont.)

ridge-in-groove 198
secondary 503
streaky mineral lineation 504
stretched pebbles 506
Lineation(s) types 503–506
Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) 203–204
Linear structure(s) origin 501
Linear structure(s) properties
mullion 507–508
pencil structure 508–509
quartz rods 506
rodding 506
stretched-pebble conglomerate 506–507
Lithification 21 101 501 513
710
Lithology 141
Lithosphere 18–19 102
continental 12 19 43 101
190
oceanic 4 19 101–102 190
Lithostatic pressure 231 434–435
Load(s) 101 133–134
Load–displacement diagram 136–137
Loading
displacement loading 101
gravitational loading 12 101 111
impact loading 13
tectonic loading 12 88 111 403
thermal loading 13 101
Loding modes
mixed mode 202
mode I 201–202 216 226–246
mode II 201–202 210 212 216
228–229
mode III 201–201 210 216

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Magma 12–13 21 27 157

353 493–494 700–706
Magnetic declination 691 711
Mantle 18–19 102 178–179 569
570 617
Map(s)
contour 373–374 726–728
geologic 9 16 267–268 684
687–696
Mapping 114 267–272 687–696
Marcellus Shale 233–234
Marker bed(s) 96 693–694 781–782
Mass 97–98 311
Mechanical stratigraphy 130 426–427
Mechanical twinning 157–158 162–164
Megapascal 104
Mercator projection 604 607
Metamorphic rocks 349 401–402 497–498 526
536 692 699
Mica, slip system 28 151–157
Microbreccia(s) 148 261–262 266–267 332–333
Microcrack(s)
intergranular 159–160 237
intragranular 159–160 237
transgranular 159–160 237
Microfault(s) 198 249
Microfracturing 158–162
Microstructure(s) 148–191
Mineral cleavage 150
Mineralizing solution(s) 195
Model(s) 93–96 123–124 187–188 223–225
311–313 322–325 335 407–408
417–419 451–452
Moho 18–19 190
Mohr circle diagram, strain 79 763–765
Mohr circle diagram, stress 163 227–230
Mohr strain analysis 763–767
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Mountain belts 4 18 24 29
377 403 539 718
Alpine 92–93 266 334 537–538
Appalachian Mountains 86 94 170 241
278 355
Canadian Rockies 30 305–306 308–311 364
426–427 452–459 538
Cape Fold belt 538
Himalayas 12 14 18 148
Ouachita Mountains 538
Mylonite, origin 28 92 499–501
Mylonite, properties
augen 500
lensoidal foliation 466 473–474 499 502
506
mylonite series 261 499
porphyroclasts 499–500 568–571
protomylonite 499–500
ribbons 183–184 499
ultramylonite 148 261 499–500 791
Mylonitic foliation
mylonitic granitic gneiss 498
mylonitic schist 500 526 530 564
S-C mylonites 582
Mylonitic lineation 504

Natural disasters 5–6

Neomineralization 175 254
Newton 97–98 129
Normal faults, examples
Arkitsa, Greece 50–51
Basin and Range, western U.S. 36 322 330–331 539
Black Hills, South Dakota 471
Canyonlands, Utah 196 323 727
Connecticut Valley, Connecticut 330
East African rift valleys, Kenya 322

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Normal faults, examples (Cont.)

Grand Canyon, Arizona 330 357 474 521–525
576 596 674 699–701
708
Hurricane, Arizona 674–678
Lost River, Idaho 662–665
Pajarito, New Mexico 678–680
Paunsaugunt, Utah 254 675
Red Canyon, Utah 252 667 669–671
Rhine graben, Germany 322 330
Rio Grande rift, New Mexico 602 606 678–682
Seven Peaks, Utah 668
Taupo Rift, New Zealand 283
Turtlebacks, California 639–641
Volcanic Tableland, California 633–638
Wasatch fault, Utah 602 659 667–674
Yerington, Nevada 331–333
Normal faulting, mechanics
accommodation space 429 439 445 449
analogue modeling of normal faulting 324–325
antithetic shear 431–433 572
area balancing 424–425 429–430 454–455
behavior of salt 435–437
clay cake simulation 323–324
constant heave 431–433
constructing normal fault geometries 430–433
depth-to-detachment 424–425 429–430 433
dilational normal faulting 327–328
modeling normal faulting 322–325
propagation of normal faults 326 377
strain significance 281–286 475–486
Verrall Method 431
vertical angle of shear 431
Normal fault(s) properties
low-angle normal faulting 330–333
fault segment 328–329 339–340
graben 322 330
hanging-wall growth strata 429

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Normal fault(s) properties (Cont.)

horst(s) 323
keystone grabens 393
listric normal 57–58 333
relay ramp 327–329
segmentation 328
stretching 271 281–285
transfer zone 329 339
younger-on-older 321–322

Octachloropropane 175 178 180 185–186

Olivine, slip system 152 183
Ooids 86–87
Ore deposits, Bushveld 12
Orthographic projection
apparent dip 373 721–722 731–733
dipping planes 730–731
line of intersection 733–734
simple structure profiles 728–729
thickness of a bed 730
three-point problem 735
Overpressured shales 443

Paleoseismology 599–600 654–655 671

Paleoseismological trench sites 628
Pascal 104–106 139
Penetrative 53–54 466–467 501 513
Petroleum exploration 230 268 270 684
Phyllitic structure, origin 468–470 474 497
Phyllitic structure, properties
mica-rich domains (M-domains) 473
phyllite 470–474
quartz-feldspar domains (QF-domains) 473–475 478 480
Physical models 93–96
Pinch-and-swell structure 511
Pitch 743

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Pittsburgh coal 240–242 727–728

Pizza 9–11
Planar defects
grain boundaries 157–162 166–171
mechanical twins 157–158 162–164
stacking faults 157
subgrains 157 177–180 580
Plastic behavior 127–128
Plasticity 27 142
Plate boundaries
convergence 12 19–20
divergence 20–21
spreading center 101
transform 21
Plates
Aegean 44 60–61
African 43–44 354
Anatolia 44 46–48
Arabian 44
Australian 14 44 92–93 344
Eurasian 12 14 44 344
Indian 50
Indian-Australian 12 92
Juan de Fuca 650–651
North American 354 601–603
Pacific 42–44 601–610 618
Plate force(s)
bending resistance 102
mantle drag 102
ridge push 101–103
slab pull 101–103
slab suction 101
trench suction 102
Plate motions 19–21 604–605
Plate tectonics
absolute motions 20 42
collision 12 20
continental collision 51 531 538–539

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Plate tectonics (Cont.)

continental rifting 538–539
convergence 4 12 19–21
hotspots 42–43
mid-ocean spreading center(s) 322 334
ocean-continent convergence 538
subduction 12 14 20 101–103
335 603
transform faulting 21 538
trench 102 335
Plunge 49 363 370–371 712–713
739 787
Point defect(s)
impurities 155–156 165 168
interstitial 155
vacancies 155–156 165–166
Poisson’s ratio 125–127 385–386
Pore fluid pressure 131 141–142 230–236
Porphyroblasts 59 472 568–571
Porphyroclasts 500 568–571
Power-law creep 183
Pressure shadow(s) 170 473 477 565–567
Primary igneous structures
flow layering 706
pahoehoe structures 501–502 711
pillow structure 708
ropy lava 501–502
Primary sedimentary structures
bedding 706–708
cross bedding 706–707
graded bedding 706–707
intraformational folds 710
mud cracks 706–708
penecontemporaneous folds 709–710
ripple marks 706–708 753–755
soft-sediment deformation 709
Primary volcanic structures 706–709
Process zone 238–239 414

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Pseudotachylite 92–93 261 266–267 545

547
Primary structure(s) 21 706–711
Progressive deformation
finite extension field 589–594
finite shortening field 589–595
finite strain ellipse during pure shear 590–591
finite strain ellipse during simple shear 591–592
finite strain ellipse 586 589–592
finite stretching axes 554–555 589
finite stretching fields 589–590 593–597
instantaneous rotation rates 588
instantaneous shortening field 587–588 591–597
instantaneous strain ellipse 554–555 567 586–588
instantaneous stretching axes 84 554 586–588 590–593
instantaneous extension field 587–588 592–593
lines of no finite stretch 79 589–596
lines of zero stretching rate 586–587 590
progressive pure shear 594–595
progressive simple shear 515–520 595–596
rotation rates of lines 588–589
psi 70 104
Pyrite 473 477–478 566–567

Quadratic elongation 77–79 86 763–764

Quartz flow law 189
Quartz ribbons 499 563 792

Rake 50 52 743–745
Recovery 136 175–177 183–185
Recrystallization
rotation recrystallization 176–178
Reduction spots 476 520–522 761
Reverse fault(s)
fault reactivation 301 443–445
strain significance 281–286

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Reverse faults, examples

Oak Ridge fault, California 618–620 622 624
Rheology 93 122
Rock column 33 133 405 417
435
Rockslide 6 8–9
Ropy lava (pahoehoe) 501–502
Rotation
axis of rotation 56 751–759
clockwise 38 55 280 752
counterclockwise 10 40 55 59
541 565
magnitude of rotation 56 59
sense of rotation 56 565
vertical-axis 60
Rupture 139 206 239 607–611
629–631 671–677
Rupture strength 138–139 164

Saddle reef deposit(s) 349–350

Salt
anhydrite 433
compressional strength 434
creep 434
diapiric salt 436
experimental deformation 434
gypsum 433
flowage 436
halokinetic sequence 439
polydimethslsiloxane 437
Salzburg 435
tensile strength 434
vertical loading of salt 437
viscosity 435
Salt-related structures 433–443
fault welds 437–439
Grand Saline 435

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Salt-related structures (Cont.)

growth of salt diapers 439–440
history of salt diapirism 440
Kuh-i-Namak 440–441
Lateral shear-loading of salt 442–443
physical analogue modeling 419
salt canopies 440–442
salt diapers 436
salt glaciers 440–442
salt sheet extrusion 439
salt walls 436
salt welds 437–439
San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) 613
deformation of casing 613
orientation of hydrofracs 614
SAFOD hole 613–614
Self-similar 266
Scale 148–149
Scaled deformation experiments 148–419
SCAT plots
cross plots 786–790
cross plots and field traverses 790
dipmeter data 785–786
homoclinal dipping beds 788
nonplunging fold 788
plunging fold 788
Schistosity, origin 470–475
Schistosity, properties 472–475
mica schist 472
Otago Schist 26
outcrop expression 470
schist 26
Screw dislocations 173
Secondary structure(s) 21
Seismic refraction 617
Seismic profile(s) 436
Semi-brittle 139
Sense of transport 49

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Serrated grain boundaries 180

Shatter cones 15
Shear fracture(s) 22 198–199 774–775
Shear modulus 126
Shear strain 72–74
Shear zone(s) 28–29
see also Strain
Shear zones, examples
Cadillac Break, Quebec 544
Nordre Stromfjord, Greenland 533
Sa Ferradura, Spain 530
Shylock, Arizona 536
South Armorican shear zone, Brittan 538
Shear zone(s) mechanics 530–598
coaxial shortening 552
coaxial stretching 552
fluid-related softening 548
general shear 555
geometric softening 547
heterogeneous strain 549
homogenous strain 549
hydrolytic weakening 548
kinematic development 548
noncoaxial shearing 552
plane strain 549
pure shear 590–591
reaction softening 547
simple shear 591–592
softening due to grain-size reduction 547
strain compabability 530
strain factorization 552
strain gradient 551
strain hardening 548
strain in shear zones 548–556
strain softening 546
transpression 552
transtension 552
vorticity 555

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Shear zone(s) properties

curviplanar 535
en echelon folds 544
en echelon joints 543
en echelon stylolites 543
en echelon veins 543
general characteristics 532–534
geometries 534–535
pressure shadows 565–566
nature of shear zones 530–540
planar 553
shear zone margins 535
shear zone sets 535
strain-insensitive shape fabrics 580–581
strain-sensitive shape fabrics 577–580
Shear zone(s) shear sense indicators 530–598
boudinaged layers 576
C prime (C’) 586
composite shape fabrics 581–586
deflection of markers 535–537
delta-type porphyroclasts 569
en echelon folds 544
en echelon veins 543
extensional shear bands 585–586
fish-flash method 563
foliation fish 571–572
foliation patterns 559–560
fractured and offset grains 572–573
frame of reference 556–557
geometry of fibers 566–567
inclusion trails 569
line of transport 556
mica fish 563–564
oblique microscopic foliations 560–563
oblique subgrains 582
offset and deflection of markers 535–537
phi-type porphyroclasts 569
porphyroblasts 568–569

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Shear zone(s) shear sense indicators (Cont.)

porphyroclasts 568–569
rotation of inclusions 565
S-C fabrics 560–563 581–585
S-C mylonites 585
sense-of-shear plane (SOS) 557
shear bands 560 585–586
sheath folds 575
sigma-type porphyroclasts 569
studying shear zones in field 790–793
theta-type porphyroclasts 569
winged porphyroclasts 569–571
Shear zone(s) types 540–546
brittle 541–542
brittle-ductile shear zone 544–546
brittle-ductile transition 542–543
continuous 533
discontinous 533
ductile shear zone 542–543
low-angle shear zone 540
normal-slip shear zone 536
reverse-slip shear zone 537
semi-brittle shear zones 543–544
strike-slip shear zone 536
thrust-slip shear zone 537
Shortening 90–91
Instantaneous 84 593
Finite 84 593
Sign convention(s) 70 77 108
Sill(s) 494
Silly Putty 143 148
Slaty cleavage, origin 26 468
estimates of volume loss 480
pressure solution origin 478–479
Slaty cleavage, properties 26 468 472–473
alignment of mica 479–480
domainal microfabric 473–474
mica-rich domains (M-domains) 473

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Slaty cleavage, properties (Cont.)

overgrowths 473
quartz-feldspar domains (QF-domains) 473
slate 476
splitting capacity 468 472
Slickenline(s) 24 198 254–255
Slip plane(s) 151
Slip system(s) 151–157
Solid-state diffusion 155
Static equilibrium 106
Stereographic projection 735–751
angle between two lines 745–746
angle between two planes 746
example of rotational faulting 751–752
example of rotation of layers 752
geometry of projection 736–738
line in plane 742–745
multiple rotations 75–757
orientation of intersection of two planes 746–747
pole-density diagrams 751
preferred orientations 747–751
Schmidt net 738
statistical tool 747
stereonet 738–739
strike and dip 739–742
trend and plunge 739
unfolding of layers 753–755
Stiffness 125 385
Strain 36–91 122–130
angular shear 70–72
coaxial 80–86
changes in angles between lines 70–72
changes in line length 68
coaxial deformation 82–83
dilation 36
distortion 36
finite 75
finite strain axes 554

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Strain (Cont.)
finite stretching axes 554
flattening 74
fundamental strain equations 77–79
general shear 555
incremental 84
infinitesimal 84
instantaneous 84
instantaneous shortening 84 554
instantaneous strain axes 554
instantaneous strain ellipses 84 587–588
instantaneous stretching 554
kinematic vorticity number 555
lateral 125
lengthening 66
longitudinal 125
noncoaxial 80–86
noncoaxial deformation 86
plane strain 80–81
pure shear 82
shear strain 72–76
simple shear 83
subsimple shear 555
vorticity 555
Strain analysis
estimating strain 520–525
field-based strain analysis 760–763
Fry method 523
map of bed-parallel strain 763
map of restored deformation 762
retrodeforming regional strain 765–767
using asymmetric magnetic susceptibility (AMS) 524
using center-to-center technique 523
using deformed shapes 520–522
using Rf/Φ method 522
using thinning of layers 522–523
Strain ellipse 75–76
Finite strain ellipse 76 84–85 589–590

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Strain ellipse (Cont.)

Incremental strain ellipse 84
Instantaneous strain ellipse 84 586–587
Strain ellipsoid 86–88
Finite strain ellipsoid 86
Strain hardening 138 174–175
Strain softening 128 138 239 546
548
Strain rate(s) 134–135 618–320
Basin and Range 656–666
Los Angeles basin 616–627
Strata-bound ore deposits 349
Strength 92–149
coefficient of internal friction 288
cohesive strength 288
compressive strength test(s) 286–287
Coulomb criterion 289–291
envelope of failure 286
Mohr circle diagram 286
relation to confining pressure 286 290
relation to fluid pressure 293–294
relation to lithology 141
relation to strain rate 134–135
relation to temperature 131
rupture strength 139
tensile strength 150
tensile strength test(s) 133 226–227
ultimate strength 139
von Mises criterion 291
yield strength 136 153
Strength envelope(s) 190
Stress 92–149
amplification 237–238
axis of greatest principal stress 118
axis of intermediate principal stress 118
axis of least principal stress 118
compressive 107
definition 103–104

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Stress (Cont.)
deviatoric 122
differential 122
engineering 106
far-field 202
fundamental stress equations 119
greatest principal effective stress 231
greatest principal stress 118
hydrostatic 118–119
least principal effective stress 231
least principal stress 118
local 202–203
mean 122
nominal 106
normal 107
principal stress directions 116–117
shear 107
subcritical
surface 107
tensile 107
trajectories 302
transpressive 21
transtensile 21
yield 128
Stress analysis 110
Stress concentrators 236
Stress ellipse 117–118
Stress ellipsoid 117–118
Stress field(s) 110
Stress fracture(s) 144
Stress intensity 203
Stress/strain curve(s) 124 134
Stretch 66
minimum instantaneous stretch 281
principal stretch directions 85
Strike
Strike-and-dip 713–717
dip 717

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Strike-and-dip (Cont.)
measuring 713
recording measurements 717–718
strike 715
Strike-slip faults, examples 24 273 285 334
Alpine, New Zealand 93 266
Calaveras, California 612
Death Valley, California 532
Denali, Alaska 53
Emerson fault, California 629
Fish Springs, California 633
Furnace Creek, California 639
Hamblin Bay, Nevada 53
Hayward, California 610
Homestead Valley fault, California 630
Laguna Salada, Mexico 299
North Anatolian, Turkey 334
Owens Valley, California 633
Pyramid Lake fault, Nevada 645
San Andreas, California 52 251 537 607
Upper Johnson Valley fault, California 630
White Mountains, California 632
Strike-slip fault(s) mechanics 24 273 334–343
modeling strike-slip faults 335–337
Riedel shearing 337–338
strain associated 336
strain significance 285
Strike-slip faults, properties
bends 338–339
en echelon folds 337
flower structures 342
horsetailsplay 341
left-handed 274 276
pop-ups 340
pull-apart basins 340
releasing bends 339
restraining bends 339
Riedel shears 337–338

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Strike-slip faults, properties (Cont.)

right-handed 274
stepovers 339
strike-slip duplexes 341–343
wedges 339
wing cracks 341
Stishovite 15
Structural balance 452–459
area balancing 454
consistency of displacement 457–459
estimating strain from balanced sections 456–457
inconsistency of displacement 457
introducing the concept 452
last-in, first-out 455–456
linked system of structures 459
one-step line length balance 454–455
pin lines 455
replacement 457
restorable to undeformed state 453
transfer zones 458
Structural elements 514–515 685–686
geometric elements 685
physical elements 685
Structure contour map 726
preparing subsurface contour maps 726–727
Structural geology 2–33
definition 39
field work 7
practical applications 5–7
Structural inversion 443–447
fault reactivation 443–445
footwall shortcut 447
inversion structures 443–445
negative inversion structures 443
null point(s) 445–446
positive inversion structures 443
postrift sediments 444
prerift sediments 443

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Structural inversion (Cont.)

syninversion structures 444
synrift sediments 443
Structural system 29 686
Structure(s)
Stylobedding 89
Stylolite(s) 169
Stylolitic surface(s) 481–484
Subgrain(s) 157
Subgrain boundaries 178
Surface energy 180
Sutured grains 184
Silva compass 711–717 717

Tectonites 515–516 542

constriction 516–517
flattening 516–517
Flinn diagram 518
identifying deformation paths 520
logarithmic Flinn diagram 518
L-tectonites 516–517
LS-tectonites 516–517
S-tectonites 516
strain significance of tectonites 516–520
Temperature 142–143
Tensile failure 151
Tensile strength 150
Tension 97
Tensor 110
Tensor analysis 110–111
Tip line 202 314
Torque 97 508
Thrust belts 311
Alps 308
Appalachians 309
Canadian Rockies 305–306
Taiwan 313

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Thrust faults, examples 24

Canyon Range thrust, Utah 40
Lykaion thrust, Peloponessos 307
McConnell thrust, Alberta 305 457
Moine thrust, Scotland 30 320–321
Muddy Mountains thrust, Nevada 306
Pavant thrust, Utah 456
Pico fault, California 620
Santa Monica Mountains thrust California 619
Sawtooth Mountains, Montana 314
Seattle fault, Washington 652
Sulfur Mountain thrust, Alberta 457
Tacoma fault, Washington 654
Toe Jam fault, Washington 451
Thrust faults, mechanics 24 305–321
beer can experiment 310–311
critical taper 311–313
paradox of overthrusting 309–311
strain significance 281–286
thrust-wedge deformation apparatus 313
wedge model 311–313
Thrust fault(s) properties
active roof duplex 319
allochthonous 306
antiformal duplex
autochthonous 306
blind thrust 347
conjugate thrust faulting 394
cutoff angles 314
cutoff lengths 314
cutoff lines 314
decollement 308
duplex(es) 456
flat 315
floor thrust 655
footwall cutoff 314
footwall ramp 315
forward-dipping duplex 347

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Thrust fault(s) properties (Cont.)

hanging-wall cutoff 314
horse(s)
imbricate fan(s) 457
klippe 306
lateral ramp 315
lower plate 791
nappe(s) 308
normal duplex 431
older-on-younger 322
passive roof duplex 655
ramp-flat geometry 413
roof thrust 655
splay faults 457
tear fault(s) 316
thin-skinned 308
triangle zone 655
upper plate 641
wedge tip 655
window 306
Traction(s) 103–108
definition 103–104
external 106–108
internal 106–108
normal 107
shear 107
surface 107
resolution 98–100
resolving 114–115
Transform fault(s)
ridge-ridge transform 101
ridge-trench transform 102
trench-trench transform 102
Transformation(s) 36–37
reversible 61–62
Translation 36 46–54
direction of transport 49
distance of transport 49
sense of transport 49

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Trend-and-plunge 49 370–371 712–713

azimuth 712
bearing 712
inclination 712
measuring 712
recording measurements 712
trend 712
plunge 712
Trishear folding 417–419
forward model 451–452
P (propagation) 418
P/S (propagation/slip) 419
S (slip) 418
Trishear model 417
TRISHEAR program 418
Trishear folds, properties
apical angle 417
triangular wedge 415 417
trishear zone 417
Tsunami 793
Twinning 162–171

Ultracataclasite 261 265–266

Ultramylonite 499–500
Unconformities, see Contacts
Uplift, rates
South Island, New Zealand 89 92 96
Ventura, California 2

Vector 43–44 98
Vein(s) 195 573–574
antitaxial veins 235
calcite 573
crack-and-seal mechanism 574
crack-and-seal veins 235
crystal fiber veins 234

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Vein(s) (Cont.)
en echelon 210
fluid pressure and veins 203
gash 23
neomineral coatings 175 198
stilpnomelane 6
syntaxial veins 235
veinlets 236
Velocity vectors, GPS-derived 38 43–44
Viscosity 129
Viscosity coefficients 385
Viscosity contrast 32 435
Viscous behavior 124 128–130
Volcanoes
Crater Lake 12
Hamblin-Cleopatra 53
Mount Mazama 12
Volume diffusion creep 165–166

Weight 97–98

Xenoliths 701

Yield strength 136 153

Young’s modulus 124 237 385

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