Adaptive Backstepping Control for Linear Induction Motor Drive Using FPGA
Faa-Jeng Lin, Senior Member, IEEE, Li-Tao Teng and Chih-Kai Chang
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Dong Hwa University
Hualien 974, Taiwan
linfj@mail.ndhu.edu.tw
Abstract – An adaptive backstepping controller is proposed to
control the mover position of a linear induction motor (LIM)
drive to compensate the uncertainties including the friction force.
First, the dynamic model of an indirect field-oriented LIM drive
is derived. Next, a backstepping approach is designed to
compensate the uncertainties occurred in the motion control
system. Moreover, the uncertainties are lumped and the upper
bound of the lumped uncertainty is necessary in the design of the
backstepping controller. However, the upper bound of the
lumped uncertainty is difficult to obtain in advance in practical
applications. Therefore, an adaptive law is derived to adapt the
value of the lumped uncertainty in real-time, and an adaptive
backstepping control law is resulted. Then, a Interconnections between logic gates using software are
field-programmable gate array (FPGA) chip is adopted to
implement the indirect field-oriented mechanism and the
developed control algorithms for possible low-cost and
high-performance industrial applications. The effectiveness of
the proposed control scheme is verified by some experimental
results. With the adaptive backstepping controller, the mover
position of the FPGA-based LIM drive possesses the advantages
of good transient control performance and robustness to
uncertainties for the tracking of periodic reference trajectories.
I. INTRODUCTION
A LIM has many desirable performance features including
high-starting thrust force, no need for a gear between motor
and the motion devices, the reduction of mechanical losses
and the size of motion devices, a high-speed operation, silence,
and so on [1]. Due to these advantages LIMs have been used
widely in industrial processes and transportation applications.
The driving principles of a LIM are similar to those of a
traditional rotary induction motor (RIM), but its control
characteristics are more complicated than for a RIM, and the
motor parameters are time-varying due to changes in
operating conditions, such as the speed of the mover,
temperature and rail configuration. Moreover, there are
significant parameter variations in reaction rail resistivity, the
dynamics of the airgap, slip frequency, phase unbalance,
saturation of the magnetizing inductance, and end-effects [2].
Therefore, its mathematical model is difficult to derive
completely. Furthermore, since the operation of a LIM
involves two contacting bodies, a friction force is inevitably
among the forces of motion. In addition, this friction
characteristic may be easily varied due to change in normal
forces in contact, and also the temperature and humidity. In a
closed-loop control system, the friction force results in a
steady-state error, a limit cycle and a low bandwidth [3].
Unfortunately, friction is a natural phenomenon that is quite
difficult to model, and it is not completely understood.
Therefore, it is impossible to obtain a precise friction model
1-4244-0136-4/06/$20.00 '2006 IEEE 1269
for practical applications. On the other hand, the dynamic
model of a LIM can be modified from the dynamic model of
the RIM at certain low speed since a LIM can be visualized as
an unrolled RIM. Thus, field-orientated control [4] can be
adopted to decouple the dynamics of the thrust force and the
flux amplitude of the LIM.
A FPGA incorporates the architecture of gate arrays and the
programmability of a programmable logic device (PLD). It
consists of thousands of logic gates, some of which are
combined together to form a configurable logic block (CLB)
thereby simplifying high-level circuit design.
externally defined through SRAM and ROM, which will
provide flexibility in modifying the designed circuit without
altering the hardware. Moreover, concurrent operation,
simplicity, programmability, a comparatively low cost and
rapid prototyping make it the favorite choice for prototyping
an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) [5, 6].
Furthermore, all the internal logic elements and therefore all
the control procedures of the FPGA are executed continuously
and simultaneously. The circuits and algorithms can be
developed in the VHSIC hardware description language
(VHDL) [5, 6]. This method is as flexible as any software
solution. Another important advantage of VHDL is that it is
technology independent. The same algorithm can be
synthesized into any FPGA and even has a direct path to an
ASIC, opening interesting possibilities in industrial
applications in terms of performance and cost. However, the
major disadvantage of a FPGA-based system for hardware
implementation is the limited capacity of available cells.
Therefore, only research on FPGA-based sliding-mode or
fuzzy controllers can be found in high-performance control
application and some FPGA-based applications of various
motor drives can be found in [7-9].
In the past decade, research about adaptive backstepping
control has been increased [10-12]. Adaptive backstepping is
a systematic and recursive design methodology for nonlinear
feedback control. This approach is based upon a systematic
procedure for the design of feedback control strategies
suitable for the design of a large class of feedback linearizable
nonlinear systems exhibiting constant uncertainty, and
guarantees global regulation and tracking for the class of
nonlinear systems transformable into the parametric-strict
feedback form. The idea of backstepping design is to select
recursively some appropriate functions of state variables as
pseudo-control inputs for lower dimension subsystems of the
overall system. Each backstepping stage results in a new
pseudo-control design, expressed in terms of the
pseudo-control designs from preceding design stages. When
 +
the procedure terminates, a feedback design for the true 3-phase
PWM
220V Rectifier L C LIM
control input results which achieves the original design 60Hz
−
Inverter

objective by virtue of a final Lyapunov function, which is Ta Tb Tc

Encoder

formed by summing up the Lyapunov functions associated Ramp ia

Encoder
with each individual design stage [11]. Co mparison
Current
ib
Signal
Control
The motivation of this study is to propose a new adaptive
backstepping controller due to its robustness and easy to be ia* ib* ic*

implemented nature to confront the uncertainties that exist in a

Coordinate
field-oriented control LIM drive including the friction force. Limiter
Translator

Moreover, the FPGA chip is adopted to implement the iqs

* * *
d + Position v Speed
∑ ∑
*
iqs cosθe + ids
*
sinθ e
Controller + Controller
proposed controller in order to allow possible low-cost and d
−
v
−
1 3
high-performance industrial applications. The proposed − ( iq*s cosθe + i*d s sinθe ) − ( −i*q s sin θ e + i*d s cosθe )
2 2

control algorithms are realized on a 24MHz FPGA −

1
(i q s cos θ e + id s sin θ e ) +
* * 3
( −i q s sin θ e + i d s cos θ e )
* *

(XC2V1000) with 1 million gate counts and 10240 flip-flops

2 2

sinθ e
from Xilinx, Inc using VHDL. The design and θ e Generator
cosθ e

implementation of the FPGA-based control IC will be Lm vsl

ids*
+ ve π ωe θe
described in detail. Compared with a DSP or a PC-based Tr λ dr +
∑
h Integrator sin/cos
Table
adaptive backstepping controller, the merits of the
FPGA-based adaptive backstepping controller are parallel np
np v sinθ e & cosθ e
Generator
processing and small size in addition to low-cost. Moreover,
v
the developed VHDL code can be easily modified and Encoder
Interface
implemented to control any type of AC motors as well. d
Fig. 1. System configuration of LIM drive

II. INDIRECT FIELD-ORIENTED LINEAR INDUCTION

MOTOR DRIVE
The primary (mover) of the adopted three-phase LIM is
simply a cut open and rolled flat rotary-motor primary. The
secondary usually consists of a sheet conductor using
aluminum with an iron back for the return path of magnetic
flux. The primary and secondary form a single-sided LIM.
Moreover, a simple linear encoder is adopted for the feedback
of the mover position. The adopted LIM in this drive system is
a three-phase Y-connected two-pole 3kW 60Hz 180V/14.2A
type. The block diagram of an indirect field-oriented LIM
system is shown in Fig. 1, where d is the position of mover;
d * is the reference trajectory; v is the velocity of mover; v *
is the derivative of reference trajectory; the d-axis primary
command current ids* is the command of flux current; the
q-axis primary command current iqs* is the control effort. The
indirect field-oriented LIM system consists of a LIM, a ramp
comparison current-controlled pulse-width-modulation
(PWM) voltage source inverter (VSI), an indirect
field-oriented mechanism, a coordinate translator, cosθ e and
sin θ e generator, where θ e is the position of the secondary
flux, a speed control loop, and a position control loop.
Three-phase current commands, ia* , ib* and ic* are generated
from the coordinate translator for the ramp comparison
current controller. By use of the indirect field-oriented control
technique [4], the electromagnetic force shown in can be
simplified as follows:
Fe = K F iqs (1)
3 π L2m
KF = np ids . (2)
2 h Lr
The curve fitting technique based on step response is applied
to find the drive model off line at the nominal case ( FL = 0 ).
Moreover, the scaling is necessary for the digital
implementation of the proposed FPGA-based LIM drive. The
resolution of the encoder is 1.6104m/s = 22 digital, and the
conversion range of the adopted D/A converter is +2047 to
-2048 digital = +5V to -5V, i.e., 1V = 409 digital. Therefore,
by 1.6104/22 = X/409, the scaling X is 29.9388 (m/s)/V. Then
the results are:
K F = 33.73N A , M = 2.78Kg = 83.2298Ns/V ,
D = 36.0455Kg s = 1079.1590 N V . (3)
The “—” symbol represents the system parameters in the
nominal condition. Though the electromagnetic force can be
simplified as (1) via the field-oriented control, considering the
variations of system parameters and external nonlinear and
time-varying disturbance including friction force, the LIM
drive system is a nonlinear time-varying system in practical
applications.
III. PROPOSED CONTROL SYSTEM
Consider a drive system with parameter variations, external
force disturbance and friction force for the actual LIM drive
system, then
d& = v (4)
v& = ( Am + ∆A)v + ( B m + ∆B)U p + C[ FL + f (v)] , (5)
where Am = − D M , Bm = K F M > 0 , C = −1 M ; ∆A and
∆B denote the uncertainties introduced by system parameters
M and D ; U p = iqs is the control input to the motor drive

1270
system; FL is the external disturbance; f (v ) is the friction = −c1e12 − c 2 e22 − e2 F + e2 F
force. Considering Coulomb friction, viscous friction and
Stribeck effect, the friction force can be formulated as follows ≤ −c1e12 − c2 e22 − e2 F + e2 F
[3]:
f (v) = FC sgn (v) + ( FS − FC )e − ( v / v ) sgn (v) + K v v , = −c1 e12 − c 2 e 22 − e 2 ( F − F ) ≤ 0 . (17)
2
s
(6)
where FC is the Coulomb friction; FS is the static friction;
Adaptive Backstepping Control System

s2
vS is the Stribeck velocity parameter; K v is the coefficient of • s
γ
&
Fˆ
1 F̂

s
viscous friction; sgn ( ⋅ ) is a sign function. Reformulate (5), d∗ •
s − −
− + ∗
iqs
− e1
• c1 •
+ e2
c2 − d
Σ Σ • Σ Bm−1 Field-Oriented Control LIM •
then +
− α1
+ −
−
d
v& = Am v + BmU p + F , (7) • Am

v s •

where F is the lumped uncertainty defined by

F ≡ ∆Av + ∆BU P + C[ FL + f (v)] . (8) Fig. 2. Adaptive backstepping control system

First, the position tracking error is defined as follows: Therefore, the backstepping control system is asymptotically
stable even if parametric uncertainty, external force
e1 = d − d ∗
(9)
disturbance and friction force exist.
Since the lumped uncertainty F is unknown in practical
and e&1 = v − d& ∗ . Next, define the stabilizing function:
applications, the upper bound F is difficult to be determined.
α 1 = −c1 e1 , (10) Therefore, an adaptive law is proposed to adapt the value of
the lumped uncertainty F̂ . A Lyapunov function is chosen as
where c1 is a positive constant. Define e2 = v − α 1 − d& ∗ , then
1 ~2
the derivative of e2 is V2 = V1 + F , (18)
2γ
e&2 = v& + c1 e&1 − d&&∗ . (11) ~
where F = F − Fˆ and γ is a positive constant.
Rewrite the position tracking error dynamics as Consider the LIM servo drive system represented by (7). If
e&1 = −c1 e1 + e 2 (12) the adaptive backstepping control law U p is designed as (19)
and the adaptation law is designed as (20), then the stability of
and the proposed adaptive backstepping control system can be
e&2 = Am v + BmU p + F + c1e&1 − d&&∗ . (13) guaranteed.

To design the backstepping control system, the lumped U p = Bm−1 [− Am v − Fˆ − c1 e&1 + d&&∗ − e1 − c 2 e 2 ] . (19)
uncertainty is assumed to be bounded, i.e. F ≤ F , and
&
define the following Lyapunov function: Fˆ = γ e 2 . (20)

1 2 1 2 The detailed proof is omitted in this paper. The designed

V1 = e1 + e2 , (14) adaptive backstepping control system is shown in Fig. 2.
2 2
Using the adaptive backstepping control design, the velocity
the derivative of V1 can be derived as and acceleration of the reference trajectory feedforward
naturally and results in superior tracking performance.
V&1 = e1 e&1 + e2 e&2
IV. CIRCUITS DESIGN ON FPGA CHIP
= −c1 e12 + e1 e2 + e2 e&2
The block diagram of the FPGA-based control system for a
= −c1 e12 + e 2 [ Am v + B mU p + F + c1 e&1 − d&&∗ + e1 ] . (15) LIM drive using current-controlled technique is shown in Fig.
3. The current-controlled PWM voltage source inverter (VSI)
A backstepping control law U p is designed as is implemented by an intelligent power module (IPM)
switching component (MUBW30-06A7) manufactured by
U p = Bm−1 [− Am v − c1 e&1 + d&&∗ − e1 − c 2 e 2 − F sgn(e2 )] , (16) IXYS Co. with a switching frequency of 15KHz. The timing

where c2 is a positive constant, then

V&1 = −c1 e12 + e 2 [−c 2 e 2 − F sgn(e 2 ) + F ]

1271
 +
3-phase
220V L PWM
PWM
Rectifier C Inverter
inverter LIM
60Hz
- Encoder
FPGA
Ta Tb Tc FPGA Chip and
Timing Control Module Ramp ia Development System
Field-Oriented Control Module
Co mparison
Current
using PC
Control ib
*
i ds i a* Encoder
24 MHz 12 sin(θ e ) & cos(θ e ) 12
Signal
CLK Generator i Data & D/A
12 b
*
ia* ib* ic*
Controller
12
*
ic 36
12 v θe Coordinate D/A
Generator Translator Converter
Data & D/A
Control Signal
*
Co mmand 12
•
d *
Generator
Adaptive Backstepping i qs 12

12 d Position Controller
2
•
Encoder 12 v
Interface
Adaptive Backstepping
Encoder Interface Module Control Module Data & D/A *

Controller
d
24
D/A
Converter d

Motor Drive
Fig. 3. Block diagram of FPGA-based control system

control module, encoder interface module, the field-oriented

control module and the adaptive backstepping control module
are realized on the FPGA chip. Three-phase current
commands, ia* , ib* and ic* are generated from the coordinate Linear Induction Motor

translator and sent to three D/A converters for the ramp Fig. 4. Photo of experimental setup
comparison current control. Moreover, two D/A converters
are utilized to display the reference trajectory d * , the mover using the estimated slip velocity signal vsl , the control effort
position d , the control effort iqs* and the estimated value F̂ signal iqs* , the velocity signal v and an integrator. Then,
alternately on the oscilloscope. A photo of the experimental sin θ e and cosθ e signals are obtained through the sin θ e and
setup including the FPGA chip, the development system, the
motor drive and the LIM is shown in Fig. 4. cosθ e generator. Moreover, three-phase current commands,
ia* , ib* and ic* are generated from the coordinate translator,
A. Encoder Interface Module which consists of six multipliers and five adders, and sent to
three D/A converters for the ramp comparison current
The block diagram of encoder interface module is shown in controller.
Fig. 5(a), which consists of timing control, two digital filters,
a decoder, an up-down counter, two clock (CLK) generators, a C. Adaptive Backstepping Control Module
register, a command generator and one adder. The function of
the encoder interface is to obtain the position and speed values The block diagram of adaptive backstepping control
of the mover. The resolutions of the encoder are 0.1m = 1000 module is shown in Fig. 5(c). Using (19), the adaptive
digital value and 1.6104m/s = 22 digital value at the sampling backstepping control law iqs* is designed as
frequency 732Hz. The scaling 1V=29.9388m/s is obtained
since the specification is designed as 1V = 409 digital value. i qs* = Bm−1 [− Am v − Fˆ − c1 e&1 + d&&∗ − e1 − c 2 e 2 ] , (21)
The pulse count signal PLS and the rotating direction signal
DIR are obtained using the A, B pulse input signals from the where Am = −13 digital value and Bm = 0.81 digital value.
decoder through two digital filters. The position signal d can To implement the control law effectively, the above equation
be obtained using the PLS and DIR signals through up-down can be divided into the following six parts: 1) Am v , this part is
counter. Moreover, the command generator includes periodic
sinusoidal IP and periodic trapezoidal IP in order to generate implemented using a multiplier; 2) Fˆ = ∫ γ e2 dt , this part is
the reference trajectory d * . Furthermore, v is the velocity implemented using the result of e 2 with a multiplier and an
signal, and results from the difference between the position
signal d and the time delay of d , d delay . integrator; 3) c1 e&1 , this part is implemented using the result of
c e with an adder and a register; 4) d&&∗ , this part is
1 1

B. Field-Oriented Control Module implemented using the result of d& ∗ with an adder and a
register; 5) e1 , where e1 = d − d ∗ , only an adder is needed to
The field-oriented control module shown in Fig. 5(b) is
composed of a θ e generator, a coordinate translator, a sin θ e implement this part; 6) c e , where e = v − α − d& ∗ , two
2 2 2 1

and cosθ e generator and timing control. The θ e is obtained adders, two multipliers and a register are needed to implement
this part.
1272
 Timing Control Mover 0.1m Mover 0.1m
Position Position
Encoder Interface Module

Co mmand Generator
* d
*
0m 0m
Co mmand 12 d Reference Reference
Generator Trajectory Trajectory
-0.1m 2sec -0.1m 2sec
Encoder Interface
(a) (c)
12
d d
A Pulse Dig ital
Filter D Q Control Effort Control Effort
>C DIR

B Pu lse Up-Do wn d delay 0V

Encoder Dig ital d 0V
D Q
12
Register
12
−
Signals 2 Filter Decoder Counter
>C
PLS
5V 2sec 5V
v 12 v 2sec
Adder
(b) (d)
24 MHz CLK 375 KHz
CLK 12 d +
Generator
Fig. 6. Experimental results of backstepping control system for periodic
732 Hz CLK
Generator
sinusoidal trajectory: (a) Mover position at nominal condition; (b) Control
effort at nominal condition; (c) Mover position at parameter variation
(a)
condition; (d) Control effort at parameter variation condition

Timing control

Fie ld-Oriented Control Module nominal condition and the parameter variation condition. In
θe Generator
Coordinate
Translator i *qs 12
12
i cosθ e
*
qs
the experimentation, the parameter variation condition is the
addition of one iron disk with 9.37Kg weight to the mass of
Multiplier
cosθ e 12

v i *qs
npv sinθ e
12

the mover.
*
v 12
sinθe & cosθe Generator i qs
12
Multiplier
12
+ ve ωe sin θ e 12
Multiplie r 12

12
12
12 Adder + sinθ e

*
np + 12
π
Multiplier
Integrator
θe
sin/cos
Table
12

12 cosθ e
i *ds
cosθ e
12

12
Multiplie r
12
*
ids cos θ e Some experimental results are provided to demonstrate the
iqs
12 12 h
+
12
i *ds 12
*
ids sin θ e
effectiveness of the proposed FPGA-based control system.
Multiplie r
sinθ e
Fig. 6 depicts the experimental results of the backstepping
12
12

*
iqs 12
iqs* cosθ e
control system using the controller shown in (16) with F set
12
vsl
12
i qs
*
cos θ e +
ids* Tr 12 Div ider Adder 12
i *a
*
sinθ e +
12
i ds
24M Hz
> *
iqs sinθ e 12
i *qs cosθ e
12
+ − ib*
to be 20 and the control parameters shown in (22) for the
comparison of the control performance. The tracking response
12
CLK Adder Adder 12

i *ds sin θ e 12
+
12 Multiplier 12 −
ids* cosθ e 12 1/ 2
i *qs sinθ e
12
−
Adder
12
−
Adder
12
i *c
due to the sinusoidal reference trajectory at the nominal
*
i ds cos θ e 12
+
12 Multiplie r 12 +
ids* sinθ e 12
3/2 condition is depicted in Fig. 6(a); the associated control effort
(b) is depicted in Fig. 6(b). Moreover, the tracking response due
Timing Control to the sinusoidal reference trajectory at parameter variation
Adaptive Backstepping Control Module
condition is depicted in Fig. 6(c); the associated control effort
Register
∗
d delay d&delay
∗
Diffe rentiator d&&∗
12
is depicted in Fig. 6(d). From the experimental results, the
Register −
degraded tracking response shown in Fig. 6(c) is induced by
12
CLK 12
CLK Adder &ˆ +
732 Hz Multiplie r F + Adder •
F̂
+ γ
the inappropriate selection of lumped uncertainty bound.
12
732 Hz − 12
CLK
Adder • 732 Hz
12 Integrator
d& ∗
•
Though the degraded tracking responses can be improved by
+ Differentiator
− α1delay
Differentiator 12
Register −

d∗
CLK
732 Hz
12
Adder
− α& 1
selecting a large bound of the lumped uncertainty to confront
• +
the uncertainties that exist in practical applications, it will
12

d∗ • − − +
e1 −
d 12
Adder • e2 • −
result in large chattering phenomena in the control effort. On
+
12
Multiplie r • + Adder 12 Multiplie r
− α1 c2 12
12
12 12 12
Adder
d c112 +
−

the other hand, if an inappropriate small bound of the lumped

12
− −
v
12

uncertainty is chosen, degenerated tracking responses will be

v •
12

Am 12
Multiplier 12

12
∗
i qs resulted. Furthermore, the proposed adaptive backstepping
Bm−1 12
Multiplier 12
control system using the controller shown in (19) also with the
(c) control parameters shown in (22) is implemented to control
Fig. 5. (a) Encoder interface module; (b) Field-oriented control module; (c) the mover position of the LIM drive. The experimental results
of the tracking response, control effort and estimated value of
Adaptive backstepping control module
the lumped uncertainty due to the sinusoidal reference
trajectory at the nominal condition is depicted in Fig. 7. In
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS addition, the experimental results of the tracking response,
control effort and estimated value of the lumped uncertainty
The digital values of the parameters of the adaptive due to the sinusoidal reference trajectory at the parameter
backstepping controller are given as follows: variation condition is depicted in Fig. 8. Compared with the
c1 = 0.125 ; c2 = 130 ; γ = 0.33 (22) tracking response of the backstepping control system shown
in Fig. 6(c), the degraded tracking response is improved as
These gains are chosen to achieve the best transient control shown in Fig. 8(a) using the proposed adaptive backstepping
performance in the experimentation considering the control scheme at the parameter variation condition.
requirement of asymptotical stability. The control objective is Additionally, the nonzero estimated value of the lumped
to control the mover to move periodically according to uncertainty at the nominal condition shown in Fig. 7(c) is
reference trajectories including trapezoidal and sinusoidal induced by the friction force and unmodelled uncertainty in
commands. Two test conditions are provided, which are the practical applications. From the experimental results, the
robust control performance of the proposed FPGA-based

1273
 Mover 0.1m
Position
0m
Reference
Trajectory
-0.1m 2sec
(a)
Control Effort
0V
5V
2sec
(b)
Lu mped Unce rtainty
0V
5V 2sec
(c)
Fig. 7. Experimental results of adaptive backstepping control system for
periodic sinusoidal trajectory at nominal condition: (a) Mover position; (b)
Control effort; (c) Estimated value of lumped uncertainty
adaptive backstepping control system under the occurrence of
parameter variations are much improved owing to the on-line
adjustment of the value of the lumped uncertainty.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
This study has successfully demonstrated the design and
implementation of a FPGA-based adaptive backstepping
control system for the position control of the mover of a LIM
drive system. First, the dynamic model of an indirect
field-oriented LIM drive was introduced. Then, a
backstepping control technique was designed. However, the
upper bound of the lumped uncertainty is necessary in the
design of the backstepping controller. To relax the
requirement for the upper bound of the lumped uncertainty, an
adaptive backstepping controller with adaptive mechanism to
adapt the lumped uncertainty in real-time was proposed. The
proposed FPGA-based adaptive backstepping control system
is robust for parameter variations, external force disturbances
and friction force at different trajectories. Finally, the
effectiveness of the proposed low-cost high-performance
FPGA-based LIM drive has been confirmed by some
experimental results.
VII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge the financial support
of the National Science Council of Taiwan, R.O.C. through its
grant NSC 94-2213-E-259-025.
VIII. REFERENCES
[l] I. Takahashi and Y. Ide, "Decoupling control of thrust
and attractive force of a LIM using a space vector control
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1274
Mover 0.1m
Position
0m
Reference
Trajectory
-0.1m 2sec
(a)
Control Effort
0V
5V 2sec
(b)
Lu mped Uncertainty
0V
5V 2sec
(c)
Fig. 8. Experimental results of adaptive backstepping control system for
periodic sinusoidal trajectory at parameter variation condition: (a) Mover
position; (b) Control effort; (c) Estimated value of lumped uncertainty
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