POWER QUALITY UNIT 1

http://www.stanley.smart-vidya.in/stlw/department/welcome.php

see this too good notes : https://www.cet.edu.in/noticefiles/227_Electrical_Power_Quality-PEEL5403-8th_Sem-

Electrical.pdf

Q1. What is Power Quality?

Good Electric Power Quality can be specified as :

Supply voltage of pure sine waveform with + 10% variation in specified magnitude,
at 50Hz + 2% frequency, balanced in all 3 phases, reliable and with proper earthing
system.
https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/electricity-generation-t-d/losses-
transmission-system for general

Q2. What are power quality concerns or problems?

The consumers of electricity face problems like voltage sags (dips), surges, fluctuations,
flickering, momentary interruptions, harmonics (distorted waveform), transients, power
outages.

Some of them could be due to interference from : [1]switching on and off of large loads, [2]
distortion from the modern solid state electronic switching devices and controls
( thyristor/IGBT/MOSFET controlled choppers, inverters, cycloconverters, SMPS
etc),[3]welding equipments and arc furnaces, [4] unbalanced distribution of loads, [5]
switching on and off of PF improving capacitors, [5] lightning, [6] EMI from welding,
loosewiring, mobile phone, radio and TV transmitters, [7] low PF from loads, [8] switching
on off heaters and air conditioners, compressors, elevators, etc.,
When fault occurs in power system, the voltages of the system drastically go down, this sudden reduction in
voltage magnitudes is termed as voltage sag and it affects the power quality, particularly on secondary
distribution system such voltage sag affects the performance of air conditioners, compressors, lightings and
computers.

The modern electronically controlled loads are very sensitive to the PQ problems.

Some examples of problems that occur due to power quality problems are: Automatic
Resets, Data Errors, Equipment Failure, Circuit Board Failure, Memory
Loss, Power Supply Problems, UPS Alarms, Software Corruption, and Overheating of
electrical distribution systems.

Smart grids and power quality

Modern systems use sensors called phasor measurement units (PMU) distributed
throughout their network to monitor power quality and in some cases respond
automatically to them. Using such smart grids features of rapid sensing and automated self
healing of anomalies in the network promises to bring higher quality power and less
downtime while simultaneously supporting power from intermittent power
sources and distributed generation, which would if unchecked degrade power quality.

Q3. Why good PQ required?

Good power quality saves money, time and energy. Ideal voltage waveform and frequency
reduce losses due to harmonics. Premature aging of equipment due to heating because of
harmonics, loss of production or loss of data and work can be avoided [due to problems
from over voltage and under voltage, frequency fluctuations, harmonics, loss of supply etc]

Power conditioning is modifying the power to improve its quality.

An uninterruptible power supply can be used to switch off of mains power if there is
a transient (temporary) condition on the line.

A Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR) and static synchronous series ompensator or (SSSC) are
utilized for series voltage sag compensation.
A surge protector or simple capacitor or varistor can protect against most overvoltage
conditions, while a lightning arrester protects against severe spikes.
Electronic filters can remove harmonics.

Q4. Factors affecting PQ

1. Voltage sag

Voltage Sag

Voltage sag is the balanced or unbalanced drop in RMS voltage to 10% to 90% of its
nominal value in the three phases for a duration of upto a few minutes [ or for a duration
between 0.5 cycle and one minute in another definition].
It is caused by the faults in the power system and has serious power quality issues and
sometimes leads to interruption of power supply.
The characteristics of voltage sag are its magnitude, time and phase angle jump (PAJ).
Voltage sag can be caused by faults in utility network, sudden insertion of heavy reactive loads, energization of
bulk induction motor with large starting time and primary protection failure when secondary protection has large
time to operate.
There are several methods to compute the voltage sag proposed in research papers. First method is “critical
distance method” and second method is “fault positions method ”.

Description: A decrease of the normal voltage level between 10% and 90% of the
nominal rms voltage at the power frequency, for durations of 0.5 cycle to 1 minute.

Causes for Voltage sag : [1] Faults in consumer’s installation: The L-G (or LL-G, LL, LLL etc)
fault on a feeder appears as a single phase voltage sag on other feeders from the same
substation. Typical causes are lightning strikes, tree branches, animal contact etc. It is not
uncommon to see single phase voltage sags to 30% of nominal voltage or even lower in
industrial plants.
[2] Connection of heavy loads and start-up of large motors.
INDUCTION MOTORS • Draw starting currents ranging between 600 and 800% of their nominal full load currents. The current starts at the
high value and tapers off to the normal running current in about 2 to 8 sec, based on the motor design and load inertia. Depending on the
instant at which the voltage is applied to the motor, the current can be highly asymmetrical.

[3] ARC FURNACES • Arc furnaces operate by imposing a short circuit in a batch of metal and then drawing an arc, which produces
temperatures in excess of 10,000°c, which melt the metal batch. Arc furnaces employ large inductors to stabilize the current due to the arc.
Thousands of amperes are drawn during the initial few seconds of the process.
Once the arc becomes stable, the current draw becomes more uniform. Due to the nature of the current drawn by the arc furnace, which is
extremely nonlinear, large harmonic currents are also produced. Severe voltage sags are common in power lines that supply large arc
furnaces. • Furnaces are operated in conjunction with large capacitor banks and harmonic filters to improve the power factor and also to
filter the harmonic frequency currents so they do not unduly affect other power users sharing the same power lines.

It is not uncommon to see arc furnaces supplied from dedicated utility power lines try to minimize their impact on other power users. The
presence of large capacitance in an electrical system can result in voltage rise due to the leading reactive power demands of the
capacitors, unless they are adequately cancelled by the lagging reactive power required by the loads. This is why capacitor banks, whether
for power factor correction or harmonic current filtration, are switched on when the furnace is brought on line and switched off when the arc
furnace is off line.
Bad weather : high winds cause tree branches fall on electric lines. Thunder storms, lightning etc. Snow, ice build up on lines cause lines
touching iron poles etc or the fall of ice causes the line to swing and touch other phases.
Animals like pigeons, squirrels etc may cause shorts.

Ref. https://www.slideshare.net/ajal4u/voltage-sag

The depth of the voltage sag at the consumer’s site will vary depending on the supply line
voltage and the distance from the fault.
Critical distance : is the distance at which a short circuit fault will lead to a voltage sag of a
given magnitude for a given load position.
Duration of voltage sag : is the time duration during which the voltage drops to an rms
voltage less than 90% of its nominal value in at least one phase.
Magnitude of a voltage sag : is the rms value of the voltage during voltage sag. It is also
defined as the absolute value of the complex voltage.
Phase angle jump : is the difference between the phase angle of the voltage during the
sag period and the phase angle of the voltage before the event causing the voltage sag.
Supply voltage dip : is a sudden reduction in the supply voltage to a value between 90%
and 1% of the nominal value, followed by a recovery after a short period of time.

Consequences: loss of good quality production, malfunction of information technology

equipment, namely microprocessor-based control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may
lead to a process stoppage. Tripping of contactors and electromechanical relays.
Disconnection and loss of efficiency in electric rotating machines.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLTAGE SAG • Magnitude of the sag • Duration of the sag • Balanced or unbalanced • Phase-angle jump •
Missing voltage • Point at which sag initiated.
Estimate the voltage sag magnitude.

The magnitude of voltage sag determined from RMS voltage. • The magnitude of the sag is considered as the residual voltage or remaining
voltage during the event • RMS value during the sag is not completely constant and that the voltage does not immediately recover after the
fault. • There are various ways of obtaining the sag magnitude from the RMS voltages. • Most power quality monitors take the lowest value
obtained during the event. As sags normally have a constant RMS value during the deep part of the sag, using the lowest value is an
acceptable approximation.

• In the case of a three phase system, • Voltage sag can also be characterized by the minimum RMS -voltage during the sag if the sag is
symmetrical i.e. equally deep in all three phases • If the sag is unsymmetrical, i.e. the sag is not equally deep in all three phases, the phase
with the lowest remaining voltage is used to characterize the sag.

The magnitude of voltage sags at a certain point in the system depends

1. The type and the resistance of the fault 2. The distance to the fault 3. The system configuration.
The calculation of the sag magnitude for a fault somewhere within a radial distribution system • ZS is the source impedance at the PCC
and ZF is the impedance between the PCC and the fault • The voltage sag at the PCC equals the voltage at the equipment terminals.

Assume that the pre-event voltage is exactly 1 pu, thus E= 1.

N is the number of samples per cycle • Vi is the sampled voltage • K is the instant at which RMS voltage is estimated • RMS value is
calculated from previous samples of voltage- post estimation • One cycle window algorithm: RMS values are estimated with one cycle of
instantaneous values.

Half cycle window algorithm: choose instantaneous values over a half cycle • More sensitive and faster response than other.

SAG DURATION • The duration of voltage sag is mainly determined by the fault–clearing time. • The actual duration of a sag is normally
longer than the fault-clearing time. • The duration of a voltage sag is the amount of time during which the voltage magnitude is below
threshold is typically chosen as 90% of the nominal voltage magnitude • For three phase system, consider the three RMS values to find the
duration • The voltage sag starts when at least one of the RMS voltages drops below the sag- starting threshold. The sag ends when all
three voltages have recovered above the sag- ending threshold.

The commonly used definition of sag duration is the number of cycles during which the RMS voltage is below a given threshold. • This
threshold will be somewhat different for each monitor. But typical values are around 90% of the nominal voltage. • A power quality monitor
will typically calculate the RMS value once every cycle.

Post-fault sag will affect the sag duration. • When the fault is cleared, the voltage does not recover immediately. This is mainly due to the
reenergizing and reacceleration of induction motor load • This post-fault sag can last several seconds, much longer than the actual sag.

Magnitude-duration plot is a common tool used to show the quality of supply at a certain location or the average quality of supply of a
number of locations as the fault clearing time depends on the type of transmission distribution system • Faults in transmission systems are
cleared faster than faults in distribution systems. In transmission systems, the critical fault-clearing time is rather small • Fast protection and
fast circuit breakers are essential • Distance protection or differential protection, both of which allow for fast clearing of the fault • The
protection schemes used should have the ability to clear a fault within one half-cycle.

MONITORING AND MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION • Voltage sags are most costly of all power quality disturbances. • Lead to disruption of manufacturing processes due to
equipment being unable to operate correctly at the reduced voltage levels. • Industrial equipment such as variable speed drives and some
control systems are particularly sensitive to voltage sags. • In many manufacturing processes, loss of only a few vital pieces of equipment
may lead to a full shut down of production leading to significant financial losses. • For some processes which are thermally sensitive a
significant loss of material as well as the time taken to clean up and restart the process must also be considered.

[1] Ferroresonant transformers • FERRORESONANT transformers are designed to achieve regulation with non-linear operation. They
provide line regulation, reduce harmonics, and are current limiting. • Also known as Constant Voltage Transformers(CVT) • Operates in the
saturation region of the transformer B-H curve.

REGION OF OPERATION
A ferroresonant transformer consists of a core, a primary winding, two secondary windings (one for the load and one for the capacitor) and
a magnetic shunt that separates the primary and secondary windings.

The magnetic shunt provides a path for the imbalanced flux of the primary and secondary by allowing a portion of the primary flux to return
to the primary winding without coupling the secondary. At the same time, it allows the secondary flux to return to the secondary winding
without coupling the primary.
OPERATION: • When a voltage is applied to the primary winding the secondary voltage increases as the primary voltage increases. As the
primary voltage increases the secondary voltage continues to increase up to a point of discontinuity, or secondary resonance, where an
abrupt increase, about 20 %, in secondary voltage occurs. The resonance effect immediately increases the secondary flux density and
causes saturation of that portion of the core. This partial core saturation is the key to the magnetic design of the ferroresonant transformer.

The voltage induced in the capacitor winding by the primary flux causes a capacitive current to flow. The flux due this current is in phase
with the primary flux. This flux addition occurs in the secondary portion of the core. The increased flux saturates the portion of the core on
the secondary winding only. The primary portion of the core is operating below saturation or below the “knee” of the magnetization curve.

FERRORESONANT TRANSFORMERS are inherently self-protected against short circuits, and are able to supply large surge currents if
required because of the large amount of energy stored in the secondary circuit. • Ferroresonant transformers are simple and relatively
maintenance free devices which can be very effective for small loads.

Ferroresonant transformers are available in sizes up to around 25 KVA • Voltage sags down to 30 % retained voltage can be mitigated
through the use of ferroresonant transformers. • Typically ferroresonant transformer regulators can maintain secondary voltage to within
±0.5% for changes in the primary voltages of ±20%

The disadvantages of a ferroresonant transformer are: • Frequency sensitive. • Temperature sensitive. • External magnetic field may
require shielding for sensitive component. • Ferroresonant transformers are generally not suitable for loads with high inrush currents such
as direct-on-line motors

[2] STATIC TRANSFER SWITCH • For facilities with a dual supply, one possible method of voltage sag mitigation is through the use of a
automatic static transfer switch. • Upon detection of a voltage sag, these devices can transfer the load from the normal supply feeder to the
alternative supply feeder within half a cycle.

Conventional transfer switches will switch from the primary supply to a backup supply in seconds. • Fast transfer switches that use vacuum
breaker technology are available that can transfer in about 2 electrical cycles. This can be fast enough to protect many sensitive loads. •
Static switches use power electronic switches to accomplish the transfer within about a quarter of an electrical cycle

[3] VOLTAGE REGULATOR

VOLTAGE REGULATOR • Voltage regulators are devices that can maintain a constant voltage (within tolerance) for voltage changes of
predetermined limits above and below the nominal value. • A switching voltage regulator maintains constant output voltage by switching the
taps of an autotransformer in response to changes in the system voltage • The electronic switch responds to a signal from the voltage-
sensing circuitry and switches to the tap connection necessary to maintain the output voltage constant. • The switching is typically
accomplished within half of a cycle, which is within the ride-through capability of most sensitive devices.

[4] UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES (UPS) • UPS mitigate voltage sags by supplying the load using stored energy. • Upon
detection of a voltage sag, the load is transferred from the mains supply to the ups. Obviously, the capacity of load that can be supplied is
directly proportional to the amount of energy storage available. • Ups systems have the advantage that they can mitigate all voltage sags
including outages for significant periods of time (depending on the size of the ups).

[5] 3 CONFIGURATIONS : (A) ONLINE UPS • (B) OFFLINE/STANDBY UPS • (C) HYBRID UPS

ONLINE UPS : The load is always fed through the UPS. The incoming ac power is rectified into dc power, which charges a bank of
batteries. This dc power is then inverted back into ac power, to feed the load. • If the incoming ac power fails, the inverter is fed from the
batteries and continues to supply the load. • However, the on-line operation increases the losses and may be unnecessary for protection of
many loads.
OFFLINE/STANDBY UPS : A standby power supply is sometimes termed off-line UPS since the normal line power is used to power the
equipment until a disturbance is detected and a switch transfers the load to the battery backed inverter. The transfer time from the normal
source to the battery-backed inverter is important. • 8 ms is the lower limit on interruption through for power-conscious manufacturers.
Therefore a transfer time of 4 ms would ensure continuity of operation for the critical load. • A standby power supply does not typically
provide any transient protection or voltage regulation as does an on-line ups. This is the most common configuration for commodity UPS
units available at retail stores for protection of small computer loads.

UPS specifications include kilo-voltampere capacity, dynamic and static voltage regulation, harmonic distortion of the input current and
output voltage, surge protection, and noise attenuation. The specifications should indicate, or the supplier should furnish, the test
conditions under which the specifications are valid.

HYBRID UPS
Similar in design to the standby UPS, the hybrid UPS utilizes a voltage regulator on the UPS output to provide regulation to the load and
momentary ride-through when the transfer from normal to UPS supply is made.

[6] FLY WHEEL AND MOTOR- GENERATOR SETS • Flywheel systems use the energy stored in the inertia of a rotating flywheel to
mitigate voltage sags. • A flywheel is coupled in series with a motor and a generator which in turn is connected in series with the load. •
The flywheel is accelerated to a very high speed and when a voltage sag occurs, the rotational energy of the decelerating flywheel is
utilised to supply the load. • Flywheel storage systems are effective for mitigation of all voltage sags including interruptions and can supply
the load for a significant period of time (up to several seconds depending on the size of the flywheel).

Flywheels have maintenance and reliability advantages over other energy storage systems such as batteries. However, if large energy
storage capacities are required, flywheels must be large and are heavy. The configuration has high losses during normal operation.

In this configuration, the motor which drives the flywheel is connected through a variable speed drive. This connection arrangement results
in better starting characteristics for the flywheel and efficiency gains for the motor. • Connection of the ac generator to a voltage source
converter increases the amount of energy that can be extracted from the flywheel due to the fact that the converter is able to produce a
constant dc voltage, which may then be used directly or converted back to ac voltage, over a wide speed range.

[7] SAG PROOFING TRANSFORMERS • Known as voltage sag compensators • A multi-winding transformer connected in series with the
load • These devices use static switches to change the transformer turns ratio to compensate for the voltage sag • Sag proofing
transformers are effective for voltage sags to approximately 40 % retained voltage
ADVANTAGE: • Maintenance free and do not have the problems associated with energy storage components •
DISADVANTAGE: • Sag proofing transformers are only available for relatively small loads of up to approximately 5 kVA. • With the
transformer connected in series, the system also adds to losses and any failure of the transformer will lead to an immediate loss of supply.

[8] UTILITY EFFORTS IN MITIGATION OF VOLTAGE SAGS • REDUCE THE NUMBER OF FAULTS • Limiting the number of faults is an
effective way not only to reduce the number of faults but also to reduce the frequencies of short and long term interruptions

FAULT PREVENTIVE ACTION includes • Tree trimming policies • Addition of lightning arresters • Proper insulators • Addition of animal
guards • Considerable reduction of faults can be achieved by replacing overhead lines by underground cables which are less affected by
bad weather

REDUCE THE FAULT CLEARING TIME • The modern static circuit breakers available are able to clear the fault within a half cycle at
power frequencies ensuring that no voltage sag can last longer • Redesign existing systems to achieve faster fault clearing time •

SYSTEM DESIGN AND CONFIGURATION • By proper changes in the design and configuration we can achieve reduction in voltage sag
and other problems.

INTERRUPTIONS • SHORT INTERRUPTIONS • LONG INTERRUPTIONS

SHORT INTERRUPTIONS • Total interruption of electrical supply for duration from few milliseconds to one or two seconds • Causes: •
Opening and reclosing of protective device to decommission the faulty part • Insulation failure, insulator flashover, lightning

LONG INTERRUPTIONS • Total interruption of electrical power supply for a duration greater than one or two seconds • Causes: •
Equipment failure in power system network • Storms and objects(trees, vehicles etc) • Striking lines, poles • Fire • Bad coordination of
protective device

MOMENTARY POWER INTERRUPTIONS • Lasts no longer than few seconds • Causes: • Lightning strikes • Fallen branches • Animals
coming into contact with power lines • Transfer of load from one source to another • Advanced electronic devices are more sensitive to
disturbances
How to minimize momentary interruptions • Taller trees should be planted at a minimum distance of 30feets away from power lines •
Medium sized trees should be planted atleast 15 feet away from power lines • Care should be taken if small sized trees are planted near
the power lines.

Vulnerable equipments are • Digital clocks • VCR • Microwave ovens • Stereos, TV • Computers

POWER OUTAGES Total interruption of electrical supply Utilities have installed protection devices that briefly interrupts power to allow
time for a disturbance to dissipate If lightning strikes the power line, large voltage is induced into the power lines. The protection equipment
momentarily interrupts power, allowing time for the surge to dissipate

Types of power outages: • A transient fault is a momentary loss of power typically caused by a temporary fault on a power line. Power is
automatically restored once the fault is cleared • A blackout refers to the total loss of power to an area and is the most severs form of
power outage that can occur. It is difficult to recover from it quickly

CAUSES: • Ice storms, lightning, wind, utility equipment failure.

VULNERABLE EQUIPMENT: • All electrical equipments

EFFECTS: Complete disruption of operation Solutions: Transient voltage surge suppression, UPS

https://www.slideshare.net/ajal4u/voltage-sag

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1a. PHASE ANGLE JUMPS : the inceptions of symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults not only cause
the voltage dip magnitude[SAG] but also affect the phase angle of voltage. Phase angle jump (PAJ)
shifts the zero crossing of the three phase system.
Hence, power-electronic converters that operate on the instants of phase angle get affected by
subsequent magnitude of phase-angle jump (PAJ). The nature of PAJ for three-phase faults depends
upon difference of X/R ratio between the source and the feeder and the transmission of dips [SAGS]
to lower tension circuits.

The power system consists of three phases that carry the balanced three phase voltages and currents.
Ideally, all the phase’ signals are symmetrical and displaced by 1200 in balanced system while unbalance
condition occurs if the magnitudes are not equal or there is no any 120 degrees symmetry.

The major cause of unbalancing in the distribution system is uneven loading of distributor or asymmetry
of line parameters of distributor.

Unbalancing is also one of the causes that disturbs the symmetry of the three phase system and distorts
the power quality. Due to unbalanced system, the phase angle between alternate phases will no longer
be 120o.

Unbalancing increases the zero sequence currents, over heats the transformer, reduces the torque and
increases the current in induction motor. It also causes fluctuation in illumination of lights and huge
voltage drops in line.

Phase angle jump (PAJ) is related to the intensity of voltage sag and system unbalancing. There are several
methods to compute the voltage sag and PAJ. First method is “critical distance method ” and second method is “fault positions method ”.
The PAJ can be determined by measuring the zero crossing of the fundamental signal and then comparing it with reference signal to get
the time difference. Another method of finding the PAJ is Fourier Transform (FT), in which the Fourier Transform of complex signal is
known and the instantaneous phase angle difference between three phases is found.

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Very short interruptions [short duration interruptions]

Very short interruptions

Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration from few milliseconds to
one or two seconds.
Causes: Mainly due to the opening and automatic reclosure of protection devices to
isolate a faulty section of the network. Or when voltage falls to less than 10%. The main
fault causes are insulation failure, lightning and insulator flashover.
Consequences: Tripping of protection devices, loss of information and malfunction of data
processing equipment. Stoppage of sensitive equipment, such as ASDs[Adjustable Speed
Drives], PCs, PLCs, if they’re not prepared to deal with this situation.

Long duration interruptions

Long interruptions

Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration greater than 1 to 2

seconds
Causes: Equipment failure in the power system network, storms and objects (trees, cars,
etc) striking lines or poles, fire, human error, bad coordination or failure of protection
devices.
Consequences: Stoppage of all equipment.
4. Voltage spike

Voltage spike

Description: Very fast variation of the voltage value for durations from a several
microseconds to few milliseconds. These variations may reach thousands of volts, even
in low voltage.
Causes: Lightning, switching of lines or power factor correction capacitors, disconnection
of heavy loads.
Consequences: Destruction of components (particularly electronic components) and of
insulation materials, data processing errors or data loss, electromagnetic interference.

5. Voltage swell or momentary increase in voltage [surges]

Voltage swell

Description: Momentary increase of the voltage, 1.1% to 1.8% at the power frequency,
with duration of more than 0.5 cycle and typically less than a few seconds.
Causes: Start/stop of heavy loads(motors, air conditioners), badly regulated
transformers.
Consequences: Data loss, flickering of lighting and screens, stoppage or damage of
sensitive equipment, if the voltage values are too high.

6. Harmonic distortion

Harmonic distortion

Description: Voltage or current waveforms assume non-sinusoidal shape. The waveform

corresponds to the sum of different sine-waves with different magnitude and phase,
having frequencies that are integral multiples of power-system frequency. Measured by
the order of the significant harmonics, their magnitudes and phase angles.
Causes: Classic sources: electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization
curve (magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush
motors, non linear loads.
Modern sources: all non-linear loads, such as power electronics equipment including
ASDs, switched mode power supplies, data processing equipment, high efficiency lighting.

Consequences: Increased probability in occurrence of resonance, neutral overload in 3-

phase systems, overheating of all cables and equipment, loss of efficiency in electric
machines, electromagnetic interference with communication systems, errors in
measures when using average reading meters, nuisance tripping of thermal protections.

7. Voltage fluctuation

Voltage fluctuation

Description: Oscillation of voltage value, amplitude modulated by a signal with

frequency of 0 to 30 Hz.
Causes: Arc furnaces, frequent start/stop of electric motors (for instance elevators),
oscillating loads.
Consequences: Most consequences are common to undervoltages. The most perceptible
consequence is the flickering of lighting and screens, giving the impression of
unsteadiness of visual perception.

8. Noise

Noise

Description: Superimposing of high frequency signals on the waveform of the power-

system frequency.
Causes: Electromagnetic interferences provoked by Hertzian waves such as microwaves,
television diffusion, and radiation due to welding machines, arc furnaces, and electronic
equipment. Improper grounding may also be a cause.
Consequences: Disturbances on sensitive electronic equipment, usually not destructive.
May cause data loss and data processing errors.

9. Voltage Unbalance

Voltage Unbalance
The unbalancing is one of the major issues in distribution system that increases the zero
sequence currents, over heats the distribution transformer, causes huge voltage drops in
distributor etc. The PAJ when distributor is unbalance due to uneven loading or the line
parameters of the distributor are unsymmetrical. Simple radial system is used to analyze the PAJ
caused by the different types of faults and unbalancing.

Description: A voltage variation in a three-phase system in which the three voltage

magnitudes or the phase-angle differences between them are not equal. Voltage
Unbalance (or Imbalance) is defined by IEEE as the ratio of the negative or zero sequence
component to the positive sequence component.
Causes: Large single-phase loads (induction furnaces, traction loads), incorrect
distribution of all single-phase loads by the three phases of the system (this may be also
due to a fault).
Consequences: Unbalanced systems imply the existence of a negative sequence that is
harmful to all three- phase loads. The most affected loads are three-phase induction
machines.

10. Electrical transients : occur in the power system when the network changes from one
steady state to another, like switching on/off of loads, sudden changes in loads, sudden
change in supply voltages, faults, extraneous disturbances like lightning hitting the ground
in the vicinity of a HV transmission line or lightning hitting directly the lines, etc. The
duration of transients is in the range of micro seconds to milli seconds.

Types of transients : 1. Impulsive transient , 2. Oscillatory transient.

[1] Impulsive transient is a brief, unidirectional [of either direction]variation in voltage,

current or both on a power line. The most common sources are lightning strikes. Such
transients can be from (a) direct strike on a power line or (b) from inductive or capacitive
coupling from the strikes on the adjacent lines. Here the maximum amplitude of transient
current could be about 20 kA and the duration of the transient current is tens of
microseconds. [c] Electrostatic Discharge is another form of an impulsive transient. (Most of
us are familiar with this, since we may have already experienced such when touching an
object (door knob) or another person, after walking across a carpeted floor). The sudden
release of charge can damage sensitive electronics. This is the main reason why technicians
use wrist straps when servicing electronic equipment.
fig. Typical current impulsive transient caused by lightning.
Nanosecond transients generally exist near the source of the disturbance. It rises in 5 ns with a duration of
less than 50 ns.

Microsecond impulsive transients are relatively unusual, but they have much higher amplitudes. They do
not conduct as easily as the millisecond types but may cause arcing faults on the electrical system. It rises
in 1μs and has a duration of 50 ns to 1 ms.

Millisecond impulsive transient is the most common to occur in a power system. It rises in 0.1 ms and lasts
more than 1 ms.

[2] Oscillatory transient : it is a brief [extremely short duration compared to the line
frequency], rapid bidirectional variation[ + ve and – ve polarity oscillations] in voltage,
current or both on a power line, occurring due to resonances during switching in/ off of
capacitor banks in the lines having inductance.
These transients are characterized by their magnitude, duration and the spectral content.
They can be of high, medium and low frequencies.
[1] The low-frequency oscillatory transient [300 Hz to 900 Hz] and the oscillating currents
have a tendency to decay to zero within the same cycle [0.3 to 50 microseconds]. They are
caused frequently by ferroresonance and transformer energization.
 The low frequency osc transient

[2] The medium frequency transients with the primary frequency component of 5kHZ to
500 kHz with duration in microseconds. They are caused by response to the impulsive
transients.

[3] The High frequency transients have a component of frequency of 500 kHz or more with
duration of microseconds.

http://www.powerqualityworld.com/2011/05/impulsive-transients-power-system.html

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High-frequency oscillatory transients are linked with power electronics and switching
events (e.g. line or cable energization). Power electronics, like the switching power supply
in computers, generate oscillatory voltage transients that repeat several times per 50 Hz
cycle.

With growing trend of miniaturisation and IoT, there is going to be more electronics in every device,
then ever before. This not only means that transient voltage will be on the rise, but our devices will also
be more susceptible to damages from the transients. An increase in transient voltage results in increased
power disturbance, interruptions.

Protection from transient surges : Chokes (reactor) of appropriate size, Surge Protection Devices like
MOVs ( Metal Oxide Varisters), UPS, Zero crossing switching ( or synchronous closing control) where a
switch is closed when the voltage is zero, and fuses and circuit breakers.

https://apqi.org/transient-over-voltages-in-power-system/

http://www.powerqualityworld.com/2011/05/impulsive-transients-power-system.html

REFERENCES

1. Sources of Transient Voltages – ECM Web – https://www.ecmweb.com/contractor/looking-sources-transient-overvoltages

2. Impulsive Transients – http://www.powerqualityworld.com/2011/05/impulsive-transients-power-system.html
3. Transient over voltages – https://www.powerstandards.com/tutorials/transient-overvoltages/

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11. Power frequency variations:

12. Over voltage : Increase in the RMS voltage greater than 110 % at the power frequency
for a duration longer than 1 minute.

[A] Temporary overvoltage due to the internally generated voltages : (a) switching surges : from
switching operation ( load removal) or (b) faults ( single phase fault, fault on a high resistance ground, or
ungrounded system), or (c) from nonlinearities due to ferroresonance, harmonics or both or (d)
energizing a capacitor bank.

Such overvoltages are characterized by amplitude, the oscillation frequencies and the total duration.

[B]Overvoltage due to the externally generated voltage by atmospheric disturbances. Lightning is the
most common and the most severe cause. Causes: lightning and switching surges. Consequences:
damage on equipment and load.

[C] Overvoltages result if the voltage regulation controls are inadequate or if the transformer tap setting
is incorrect.

Techniques for controlling over voltages : 1.installation of shunt reactors. 2. Use of pre insertion
resistors. 3. Synchronous reclosing and simultaneous operation of CBs at both ends. 4. Use of the surge
arrestor and elimination of the trapped charges by line shunting after opening by means of earthling
switch. 5. Use of surge absorber or resistance switching.

The causes for power frequency and harmonic over voltages in EHV and UHV systems are: [a]Sudden
load reflection loss of loads, or a disconnection of inductive loads, or connection of capacitive loads.
[b] Ferranti effect, [c] Unsymmetrical faults. [d] Saturation in transformers, etc, [e] Tap charging
operations.
https://www.matterhere.com/2017/02/high-voltage-engineering-viva-short-questions-answers-pdf.html

https://www.google.com/search?q=image+of+impulsive+transient+due+to+lightning+stroke&tbm=isch&tbs=rimg:C
ToRJInQKeTSImDNIWx4Xvp6fCCjowCJNr_1CXfEpLx9_1Qm0OTtPk_1LR28PVud2g_1_1pzOqKBWuMep94zwf-
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CjowCJNr_1CEUrYItgyJfeOKhIJXfEpLx9_1Qm0RQby5MsvwpXMqEgkOTtPk_1LR28BFhSvjEsjYOWSoSCfVud2g_1_1pzO
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bE73GHiNkNCoSCWf1AzogkH2rEXto_1Cb0ZEAtKhIJ7hXtxZU3IlIR2NC_1KjUu6qNhfPTs3EzWV6Y&tbo=u&sa=X&ved=2
ahUKEwiHrMmVheDmAhWGf30KHVyDAN8QuIIBegQIARAv&biw=1060&bih=460&dpr=1.25#imgrc=SoX-Pi-i3_tF4M:

13. Under voltage : decrease in the RMS voltage to less than 90% at he power frequency for
a duration longer than 1 minute.

Cause : usually the result of switching on a large load or switching off a capacitor bank or
over loads. Undervoltages result if the voltage regulation controls are inadequate or if the
transformer tap setting is incorrect.

14. waveform distortion :

a. DC offset or presence of DC voltage in power system due to assymetry in electronic

power converters. Causes heating.

b. Harmonics : A pure voltage or current sine wave has no distortion and no harmonics, and a non-sinusoidal
wave has distortion and harmonics. To quantify the distortion, the term total harmonic distortion (THD) is
used. The term expresses the distortion as a percentage of the fundamental (pure sine) of voltage and current
waveforms. Harmonic frequency (fh) is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency (f1)
of the periodic waveform. fh = k f1

c. Inter harmonic : is the frequency component of a periodic waveform of voltage or current

that is not integral multiple of the frequency of the supply system [ 50Hz]. Eg., 55 Hz, 76
Hz. The interharmonic waveform distortion is caused by arcing devices like welding
transformers, arc lights, cycloconverters, static frequency converters, induction furnaces ec.

d. Electrical noise [ high frequency interference] from arc welding, lightning, the operation
of some solid state switches controlled motors.

Power Quality issues due to events : Voltage sags, swells, transients, interruption, DC
offset etc.

Power Quality issues due to Steady state deviations : Voltage unbalance, harmonics, inter
harmonics, flicker, notching, electrical noise etc.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

16. Notching : Voltage Notching is a recurring power quality disturbance due to the normal
operation of power electronic devices (i.e. rectifier), when current is commutated from one
phase to another. Subsequently, a momentary short circuit between two phases will occur
during this period.
Moreover, the depth of the notch at any point in the system is influenced by the source
inductance, the isolating inductance between the rectifier/converter, as well as the point
being examined. Consequently, the width of the notch is the commutation angle.
Voltage notching characterizes an unusual case that falls
between harmonics and transients. This is because notching takes place in steady-state.
-------------------------------------------------.

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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

NOISE : Noise Distortion of voltage waveform Source

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
PQ data : collection and analysis

the PQ parameters monitored for the power system are the RMS voltage & current, power, frequency,
harmonics (representing the waveshape of V).

Voltage sag, swell, unbalance and interruption are detected as PQ events throughout the
measurements.

PQ Data Measurement Module

Mobile PQ measurements in the Electricity Transmission System are carried out for a period of
seven consecutive days for each measurement point. Measurement points are feeders and
busbars in the transformer substations. For example, measurements are taken for 144 bus-bars,
205 feeders, 59 transformer substations over a region.

Mobile measurement program is developed in LabView development environment where the sampling
frequency of the program is 3200 Hz, that is, it acquires 3200 raw samples per second for each PQ
parameter.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

Database Structure

“PQ DATA” is a stream database which stores the output of the measurement module. Throughout the
study, PQ parameters given at IEC 61000-4-30 [10] are used. The parameters measured are the RMS
voltage & current, power, frequency, harmonics in the power system.

Voltage sag, swell, unbalance and interruption are detected as PQ events throughout the
measurements.

The output of measurement module is presented in the Table “Data structure” below for each PQ data
measurement point.
 Parameter Precision Update Rate Three Average PQ Data Bit
(Averaging Phase Rate (bps)
Interval)
Active Power Double every second Yes 192
Reactive Power Double every second Yes 192
Apparent Power Double every second Yes 192
Power Factor Double every second Yes 192
33 Voltage Double every 3 secs. Yes 2.112
Harmonics
33 Current Double every 3 secs. Yes 2.112
Harmonics
RMS Current and Double every 0.2 secs. Yes 1.920
Voltage
Event Length Integer variable No 4
Event Type String variable No 10
Event Raw Double variable Yes 614.400
Current1 Data
Event Raw Double variable Yes 614.400
Voltage Data
Short Term Double every 10 mins. Yes 0,32
Flicker
Demand Double every 15 mins. Yes 0,213
Frequency Double every second No 64
Total (with Events) 1.235.790,533
Total (without Events) 6.990,533

614400 bps = 3200 samples/sec * 8 bytes/sample * 8 bits/byte * 1 sample/phase * 3 phase

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

PROCESSING PQ DATA

“ PQSTREAM” is a full-fledged system architecture with a data measurement module which carries out
processing of the continuous PQDATA. It computes averages according PQ standards. PQStream is a
stream database for storing the averages that the measurement module computed.

A Graphical User Interface is used for retrospective analysis of the PQ data stored in the stream
database.

Fig. Representation of PQStream Architecture

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Power Quality Monitoring [PQM]

A PQM System will gather, analyze, and interpret raw electricity measurement data into useful
information. A typical monitoring system measures voltage and electrical current. Ground quality may also
be measured if unbalanced loads or harmonics are detected.
Reasons for power quality monitoring : Power Quality Monitoring System monitors the quality of voltage
and current produced by a power plant. It's employed to decrease plant and customer downtime, and
optimize the quality of electricity delivered. A good system will also improve the performance, efficiency,
and longevity of power generating equipment. It
allows plants to perform energy management, preventive maintenance, quality control, and saves money.

To monitor their power, modern power plants use digital fault recorders, smart relays, voltage recorders,
in-plant power monitors, and special-purpose power quality equipment.

A digital fault recorder activates on fault events and records the current waveforms and voltage that
caused the problem. It can also capture periodic waveforms helpful in calculating harmonic distortion
levels.

Smart relays and IEDs [ intelligent electronic devices]check the power current and record disturbances.

A variety of voltage recorders are used to monitor variations that are on the system. A voltage recorder
detects a trend and gives minimum, maximum, and average voltage every two seconds. In-plant power
monitors, usually at the service entrance, capture wave shape for evaluation of harmonic distortion levels
or voltage sag conditions.

Special-purpose power quality monitors are able to simultaneous watch voltage and current.
A 14 – bit ADC board provides a sampling rate of 256 samples per cycle for voltage. This high sampling rate
allows detection of voltage harmonics as high as 100th harmonics.

--------------------------------------------------------------.

Power disturbances are a PQ concern, but they also contain unique and useful information;
• Utilities have found that the information is quite useful and its applications go beyond the traditional PQ
activities;
• The PQ monitoring network is the most general platform to provide the waveform level disturbance
data; • The waveform monitoring networks provide a powerful platform for power system monitoring, in
parallel with SCADA, WAMS and AMI [ Interval E, P, V & I data for billing purpose and demand monitoring].

-----------------------------------------------------------------------.

Power Quality Data Analysis :

Fault diagnosis : Fault location, Fault anticipation, Fault resistance …

[Fault anticipation is to analyze unusual V&I waveforms to determine if a potential fault could occur in a
feeder.]

Condition monitor: Capacitor, Cable, Breaker, Grounding …..

Parameter estimator: Load model, Line parameter …..
Developed Behavior monitor: Appliance, Power thefts, ....

--------------------------------------------------.

PQ BOOKS :
https://www.google.com/search?sa=X&q=Power+Quality+C.+Sankaran&stick=H4sIAAAAAAAAAOOQUeLRT9c3NErKz
TNKK8gzki3IL08tUigsTczJLKlUyE3MS0xPzU3NK1FIys_PjtJIzUlNLinKTE7MUUBVmZJYkqiQnJ8Dks_MzzvFyAsy1zCpPCU9
26AiHc43zTUzSrIwPsWIYi9MOtnUMrusqrACLp1nnmFZmXWKkUs_V98g2SQ93qwEKmdoXAFUaoZQmptbmZacBecWm
lRm5xT_YpQNwOejRaySEPlAqLyznkJwYl52YlFiHgD3isR7HQEAAA&ved=2ahUKEwjr74OZlebmAhWN4zgGHc8BAzsQ-
BYwFXoECBIQLA&biw=1094&bih=474

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

Switchyard Central location

VT

VT
Local
acquisition
module Central
processing
CT
VT and
CT logging
Local
acquisition system
CT
module Digital
communication links
Analogue links

[a] Conventional centralised processing architecture,

b)
Switchyard Central location

VT A/D DSP

A/D DSP
Central
A/D DSP sampling
VT
VT signal
A/D DSP source
CT
&
A/D DSP
CT
A/D DSP data
CT
distribution
and logging
F/O digital communication links system

b) A possible distributed processing architecture;

CT – current transformer, VT - voltage transformer, A/D - analog-to-digital converter, DSP - digital signal processor
Fig.2. Power Quality Instrumentation-Structure Designs :

--------------------------------------.
OVERVIEW of POWER QUALITY phenomenon

Power quality in a power system is represented by the parameters : RMS voltage & current, power,
frequency, wave shape or harmonics.

Voltage variations : The impact of voltage variations is to cause higher energy consumption.

Types of voltage variations: 1. Short term (may last up to 10 sec or less) 2. Exceeding 10 sec or up to
hours.

For a given MW of power rating, the current drawn goes up inversely in proportion to the voltage drop.
Increased current causes increase in I²R losses of the network. For ex: a 20% drop in voltage would increase
the losses in the network by 56% . Increased current contributes to increasing the voltage drop hence
intensifies the problem.

Power Quality & Voltage variations are a frequent occurrence in power distribution networks.

IEC - voltage variation ± 6% for MV & ± 5% for LV

Most of motors are manufactured to operate in tolerance of ± 5% (IEC) to ± 10% ( NEMA/USA)

Frequency & Harmonics : The feedback of harmonic currents from non linear loads is a form of electrical
pollution on the network .

The presence of harmonic distortion significantly increases the energy consumption. Iron loss is also a
function of the power of the frequency. Higher frequency components increase the loss. Hence energy
consumption will go up and all day efficiency could be reduced. The losses increase the temperature and
causes faster ageing of the insulation. Increased I²R losses depend on skin effect - the phenomenon causes
over heating - increasing the amount of energy consumption. Allowable limit of voltage harmonic (5%) &
current harmonic (10%).

On Induction Motors : Power consumption increases. The 5th harmonics creates a counter rotating field,
where as the 7th harmonic creates a rotating field beyond the motors synchronous speed. The pulsating
torque causes wear and tear on couplings and bearing.

Capacitors fail from thermal Losses – reduced life.

Ideal power factor is unity - cannot be achieved due to the nature of loads used e.g. inductive & nonlinear
loads.Lower power factor results in higher energy consumption Lowering of power factor also causes
voltage drop.

The Power Quality issues such as voltage variations, frequency variations, harmonic distortions and power
factor combine together to reduce the overall operating efficiency of electrical networks and also results in
increased power supply demand, unnecessary wastage of energy and malfunctioning / damage of
equipment.

Sensitive loads • For i.e. computers and microprocessor that include electronic controlled devices
(adjustable-speed drive, scanner, fax and telecommunication equipment). • The brain of computer is
integrated circuit (IC) chips. Chip is sensitive to changes in power supply. • Use on and off voltages and
timing provided by supply to store and manipulate data in microp. • Any deviation from voltage can cause
data to be corrupted or erased.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

[General classes of power quality problems.. • 2 committees involved: • IEEE (Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers) www.ieee.org • IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) www.iec.ch]

Voltage imbalance : Deviation of each phase from the average voltage of all three phases.
Most equipment can tolerate voltage imbalance of 2%. It can cause network problems such as mal-
operation of protection relays and voltage regulation equipment, and also overheat of motor and
transformer.

Waveform distortion : Steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power frequency.
Primary types of waveform distortion: DC offset, harmonics, inter- harmonics, notching and noise.

DC offset : Presence of a dc voltage or current in an AC system. it can result in corrosion of network and
customer’s earthing system.
Harmonics : Periodic sinusoidal distortions of the supply voltage or load current caused by non- linear
loads. Harmonics are measured in integral multiples of the fundamental supply frequency, 50Hz (i.e.
150Hz is third harmonic). Harmonic current caused by nonlinear loads like adjustable speed drive, SMPS
in computer, power electronic devices and medical test equipment.
Effect: overheating of txt, cable and motor; relay trip and incorrect measurement of V and I by meters.
----------------------------------------------------------------------.