EM-3 UNIT-1

Constructional features of synchronous generator or alternator :

Stator (Armature): Contains 3 phase balanced AC winding in the slots of cylindrical laminated core of high quality silicon steel .
It has provision for ducts for forced circulation of hydrogen for cooling. Stator has armature winding due to high current
carrying conductors with large cross section at high voltage with suitable insulation. (ex. 3ph, 12kV, 500MVA, 0.95pf, 50Hz,
24kA, 167 rpm, internal diameter 9.25m, effective axial length 2.35m, 378 slots )
Rotor (DC field): 1. Salient pole rotor driven by low speed( 50 – 300 rpm) hydraulic turbine with large number of poles. It has a
large diameter and small length and is mounted on vertical shaft. A squirrel cage winding is also provided on the pole faces to
dampen the oscillations caused by sudden change in electrical output load or mechanical input. So it is also called damper
winding. Used in hydro electric projects.[ex. 167 rpm, 36 poles, each 600 mm wide, air gap 33mm, 8 round holes in pole faces
for bars for sq.cage winding, field winding made of 18 turns of bare copper bars of 89mm x 9mm, 2400A exciting current
@330V, rotor weight 600 t ]
2. Cylindrical or non-salient pole rotor used in alternators run by high speed steam turbines (2pole-3000 rpm
or 4pole-1500 rpm). This rotor is long, solid steel cylinder with slots on about 2/3 rd surface containing concentric field coils
and balance surface to work as poles. Because of strong centrifugal forces, the diameter has a limit to 1.2 m. So it is very long.
The rotor has slip-rings and brush gear to give DC field excitation.[ex. rotor of a 1530 MVA, 4 pole, 1500rpm, 27kV, effective
axial length 7.5m, 1.8m, mass 204t, air gap 120mm, DC excitation current 11.2 kA @600V brush less exciter ]
Field excitation and Exciters : A pilot exciter (small Permanent magnet DC generator, ex. 25kW) supplies DC current to the
stationary field poles of the main exciter ( ex. 2400Kw,400V, 6000A). The main exciter is either (a) DC generator with
commutator or (b)the brush less excitation system of 3 phase AC generator without slip ring and brushes. The rectified DC
voltage supplies the field excitation (6000A) of the main alternator with poles on the rotor. In the brushless excitation system
( also called an electronic rectifier), a rectifier is mounted in the shaft of the alternator . It replaces the mechanical rectifier
consisting of commutator and brushes of DC generator or AC generator’s sliprings and brushes and rectifier.
As the capacity of alternator increases, its efficiency improves. A 1kW synchronous generator has efficiency of 50%. A 10MW
generator has about 90% eff. Generators of 1000MW and above capacity have efficiencies of 99% besides improvement in
power output in kW/kg weight of the machine. The generators below 50MW capacity are cooled by circulating cold air system
but generators of 50MW TO 300MW have hydrogen cooling. Generators above 1000MW have hollow water cooled conductors.
Finally cooling cost limits the size of the generator.

ADVANTAGES OF ROTATING FIELD ALTERNATOR OVER ROTATING ARMATURE:

A.Stationary armature : 1.suitable for high voltage and insulation. 2.better mechanical braced windings against electromagnetic
forces developed during short circuits etc 3.Armature windings are not subject to centrifugal forces and vibrations. 4. Output
current can be taken from fixed terminals without using slip rings or brushes, etc. 5. Armature windings can be cooled easily
using cooling ducts with gases or liquids.
B. Field winding on rotor : 1.Being D.C at low voltage of 100 to 500V, only two slip rings with low insulation are required.
2. Being of low weight, rotor can be run at high speeds.
Types of Alternator Armature Windings :
(1) Single layer winding and double layer winding : If a slot has only one coil side, it is a single layer winding. In case there
are two coil sides per slot, one over another, it is a double layer winding. Double layer winding reduces the total
number of slots on the armature.

(2) Full pitch winding and short pitch winding: Pole pitch = No. of slots on the armature/ No. of poles. If the two coil sides
of a coil are located in two slots one pole pitch apart, the winding is a full pitch winding and the coil is a full pitch coil. In case
the coil span is less than a pole pitch, the coil is called short pitched coil or fractional pitched coil and that winding is short pitch
winding or fractional pitch winding. For short pitched coil, chording = slots in pole pitch – slots in coil span.
α= chording of coil in elect deg. =( slots in pole pitch – slots in coil span) 180⁰/ slots in pole pitch
FULL PITCH WINDING SHORT PITCH WINDING
N S N S

Coil side 1 180⁰ elect Coil side 2 Coil side 1 180⁰ - α α Coil side2 , E1 = E /α volts
E volts E volts E volts
Chord angle, elect

2E volts 2E cos α/2 volts

E E E cosα/2 A1
E cos α/2 α/2 E Chording factor = OA1/2OB
O E +E = 2 E A α/2 α = [2E cos α/2 ]/2E
O E B = cos α/2

Ex. 4 pole, 3 ph, 24 slots alternator. Pole pitch = 24/4 =6 slots/pole (= 180⁰ elect). If the two coil sides of a coil are kept in two
slots 6 slots apart, it is a full pitched coil of full pitch winding and Coil span = pole pitch (= 180⁰ elect).
If the two coil sides of a coil are kept in two slots 5 slots apart, it is a short pitched coil of short pitch winding and coil span =5.
Chording = 6 -5=1 slot and chord angle in ⁰ Elect = α = (6-5)180⁰/6 = 30⁰elect . Coil span = ( 180⁰ - α ) elect. deg
Chording factor ( kc ) = Voltage generated in short pitch coil / Voltage generated in full pitch coil = cos (α/2),
The chording factor = kc < 1 for short pitched coil, k c = 1 for full pitch coil as α =0
Advantages of a fractional pitch or short pitched winding : (a)The length of overhang is less, so economical and also copper
loss is less. (b) High frequency harmonics are eliminated and consequently core losses are reduced (c) Mechanical strength of
coil is more, (d) Improved wave form of induced emf (e) Tooth ripples are less and so iron loss is reduced.

(3) Concentrated winding and distributed winding : In a concentrated windings, all coil sides belonging to a phase are placed in
one slot under every pole and some slots may be kept vacant. Heat dissipation is poor. In a distributed winding the coil sides
belonging to a phase under a pole are not placed in one slot but distributed over several slots to get better sinusoidal
waveform.
Ex. In above ex, S= Total slots, q = number of phases, slots per pole per phase =m = S/(Pq) =24/(4x3)=2. So, there are 2 slots
per phase under each pole. If each of these two slots have the coil sides of a phase, it is a distributed winding. But if all the coil
sides of a phase are kept in only one slot under a pole, the other slot is kept vacant and it is a concentrated winding.
Distribution factor or Breadth factor(k d ) = Phasor sum of coil voltages per phase / Arithmetic sum of coil voltages per phase.
kd = [sin (mβ/2) ] /[m sin (β/2) ], where m = slots/pole/phase = S/ Pq,
β = slot pitch angle in ⁰Elect = P x 180⁰ / Total slots on armature = 180P/S ⁰Electrical.
Phasor diagram of coil emfs to get phase voltage and expression for breadth factor, k d : Fig. shows a 2-pole, 3-phase machine
with m =3. Let the winding of phase R in the machine have 3 coils which are placed in 3 slot pairs distributed in space with an
angular separation of β ⁰ elect. The total angle σ = m β (= 60⁰) occupied by the phase winding along the armature periphery is
called the PHASE SPREAD. The sinusoidal emfs induced in the three coils have the same rms value of voltage, E, but have a
progressive time phase difference of β because coils are uniformly distributed in space. These coils are connected in series to
yield the phase voltage ER (AD) which is the phasor sum of the coil emfs , E1(AB), E2(BC), E3(CD). The rms phase voltage is less
than the algebraic sum of the rms coil voltages. This reduction indicated as a ratio called DISRIBUTION FACTOR , k d = AD/ mAB =
AD/ 3AB. The coil emf phasors form the sides of a regular polygon, the centre of whose circumscribing circle is O.

B β C From geometry, AB = 2 OA sin (β/2) and AD = 2 OA sin (mβ/2)

E1 E2 β So, kd = AD/ [m AB] = [sin (mβ/2)] / [ m sin (β/2)]
E3
A β/2 β/2 ER D note : phase spread = mβ = 180/q = 180/3 =60⁰
β β
mβ The breadth factor(distribution factor) for nth harmonic = kdn =
= [sin (mnβ/2)] / [ m sin (nβ/2)]
O

(4) Integral slot winding : Slots / pole/ phase = m = integer. In above example, m= 2 = integer, so it is integral slot winding.
Fractional slot winding : m is not an integer, but a fraction.
Advantages of fractional slot winding : (a)The number of slots need not be an integral multiple on the number of poles.
(b)High frequency harmonics are reduced.(c) The voltage waveform is sinusoidal. (d) Easy to manufacture.
(5) Lap or wave winding
(6) 60⁰ or 120⁰ phase spread winding

Winding factor = kw = kc kd kc < 1 and kd < 1.

Ex. A 16 pole, 3ph alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is
0.04 wb. The speed is 375 rpm. Find (a) the frequency, (b) the phase emf, (c) The line emf. Given coil span = 160⁰ electrical.
Soln. (a) The frequency = PN/120 = 16 x 375/ 120 = 50 Hz
(b) The total number of conductors on stator = 144 x 10 = 1440. The total no. of turns = 1440/2 = 720 turns = T
The number of turns/ phase = T/3 = 720/3 = 240 = T PH .
m = no. of slots/pole/phase = 144/16/3 = 3
β = slot angle = P x 180/144 = 20⁰ electrical
Given coil span = 160⁰ electrical = 180⁰ − chord angle = 180⁰ - α . So, α = 20⁰ electrical.
The distribution factor kd = { sin (m β/2)}/ { m sin(β/2)} = {sin (3 x 20/2) } /{ 3 x sin (20/2) } = 0.9597
The pitch factor = kC = cos (α/2) = cos 10 = 0.9848
The emf /phase = 4.44ØfTPH kw = 4.44ØfTPH kc kd = 4.44 x 0.04 x 50 x 240 x 0.9848 x 0.9597 = 2014.22 Volts
( c) For star connection, line voltage = √3 x emf/phase = √3 x 2014.22 = 3488.73 Volts.
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Ex. Full pitch, Integral slot, Single layer distributed lap winding : Draw the developed diagram for full pitch armature winding
of a three phase, 4 pole, 24 slots armature. Assume single layer winding and of distributed type.
Soln. P= 4, S = 24, Coil span = Pole pitch = 24/4 =6. i.e., coil side no.1 is in slot 1 and other coil side of the same coil is in slot no.
1+6 =7 = front pitch. In this lap winding, back pitch = 5 slots. So 7-5 =2. So the coil side 7 is connected back to coil side 2.
m = slots/ pole / phase = 24/4/3 = 2,
β = Slot angle = angle between adjacent slots= P x 180⁰/ slots = 4x 180⁰/24 = 30⁰
 N S N S
21 22 3 4

Developed winding diagram

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 13141516 17 18 1920 21 22 2324

22 3

RS BF YS BS RF YF

R Y B N Star point

Winding layout

Slots 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Coil sides r r b’ b’ y y r’ r’ b b y’ y’ r r b’ b’ y y r’ r’ b b y’ y’

I I
β= 30⁰elect.

Ex. Fractional pitch , Integral slot, Double layer winding :A 4 pole, 3ph, alternator’s stator has 36 slots. The winding uses coils
chorded (shot pitched) by one slot. Show the winding layout. Find the distribution factor and the pitch factor of the winding.
No. of coils = No. of slots = 36. Double layer winding is used.
Soln. The winding in the fig. shows the layout of the winding distribution for two poles. After that the winding repeats itself.
Pole pitch = 36/4 =9 slots/pole. m = 36/4/3 = 3. Angle between adjacent slots = slot angle = P X 180/ S = 4X180/36 = 20⁰= β
The coils are chorded (shot pitched) by one slot. So, Coil span = (pole pitch in slots −1) = (9 − 1) = 8 slots. Chording = 1 slot and
so chording angle = α = one slot angle = 20⁰elect. As it is a two layer winding, if one coil side of a coil is in the bottom of slot
no.2, its other coil side is in the top of slot no. 10 (= 2+ coil span =2+8) and so on.
Pole N S
Slots 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 REPEATS
Coil side (TOP) r r r b’ b’ b’ y y y r’ r’ r’ b b b y’ y’ y’ r
Coil side(Bottom) r r b’ b’ b’ y y y r‘ r’ r’ b b b y’ y’ y’ r r
I I I I
β= 20⁰elect. α= 20⁰elect. =chording angle
The pitch factor of the winding = kc = cos (α/2) = cos 10⁰ = 0.9848
The distribution factor of the winding = k d = { sin (m β/2)}/ { m sin(β/2)} = {sin (3 x 20/2) } /{ 3 x sin (20/2) } = 0.9697

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Ex. Fractional slot winding : A 3 ph synchronous machine with 8 poles has 90 slots. Determine the winding layout.
Soln. The no. of slots/ pole/ phase = m = S/(Pq) = 90/(8x3) = 15/4 ≠ an integer. So it is a fractional slot winding.
Now, m = S/(Pq) = 90/ (8x3) = 45/ (4x3) = S1/ (P1 q) .
There are 15 slots /phase for every 4 poles. So, there are 45 slots over a basic repeatable section of 4 poles. The arrangement of
coils will be repeated in the next sections of 4 poles each. The slot pitch in electrical degrees, β = 180P/S = [ 8 x 180 ]/ 90 = 16⁰
electrical.

Layout for the slots : COIL-GROUP TABLE :

Slot No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Elect. deg. 0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176
Coil side r r r r b’ b’ b’ b’ y y y y

Slot No. 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Elect. Deg 12 28 44 60 76 92 108 124 140 156 172
Coil side r’ r’ r’ b b b b y’ y’ y’ y’

Slot No. 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Elect. Deg. 8 24 40 56 72 88 104 120 136 152 168
Coil side r r r r b’ b’ b’ y y y y

Slot NO. 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Elect. Deg. 4 20 36 52 68 84 100 116 132 148 164
Coil side r’ r’ r’ r’ b b b b y’ y’ y’

EMF equation of an alternator:

Zph = the number of conductors (coil sides) in series per phase of the alternator
Tph = the number of turns per phase, and with two coil sides per turn T ph = Zph /2
P = Number of poles. Ø = useful flux per pole, webers N = Rotational speed of rotor, RPM f = frequency = PN/120 Hz
kd = distribution factor of winding, k p = pitch (chording) factor of the winding, k w = winding factor = kd x kp
kC =1 for full pitch winding, kD=1 for concentrated winding

Consider a conductor on the stator of the alternator.

The time taken by the conductor for one revolution = t = 1/N min = 60/N secs
The total flux cut by the conductor in that one revolution = P Ø webers
The average emf induced in one conductor = E av = flux cut in one revolution/time taken for one revolution = [P Ø] /[60/N]
= P ØN/60 = 2f Ø volts ( as f = PN/120 and so 120 f = PN)
Eav = Average emf/ phase = 2f Ø x conductors per phase =2f Ø Z ph = 2f Ø x 2Tph = 4f ØTph .
E = Erms /Phase = Eav x form factor = 4f ØTph x 1.11 = 4.44f ØTph volts/ phase for concentrated winding.
Phase voltage induced in alternator = E = 4.44f ØT ph kw volts/ phase
Line voltage in 3 ph alternator = EL = √3 x 4.44f ØTph kw volts (line to line)
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Causes of harmonics in the waveform of an alternator :

1. Non sinusoidal spatial waveform of field flux which produces time-harmonics in generated emf.
2. Variation in the reluctance of air gap due to the slotting of stator core causing tooth ripples in flux distribution.
Design measures to reduce the harmonics :
(a) 1. Shaping the poles by chamfering the pole tips.
2. Skewing the pole face eliminates the slot harmonics.
3. Short chording the armature winding by making coil span less than a full pole pitch. The chording (pitch) factor for
nth harmonic kcn = cos (nα/2), and by proper selection of α, that harmonic emf can be made very small or zero.

4. Distributing the armature winding. The distribution (breadth) factor n th harmonic,

 Kd n = { sin (mn β/2)}/ { m sin(nβ/2)} can be made smaller
(b) 1. Increasing the number of slots per pole.
2 Skewing the poles by one slot pitch to eliminate slot harmonics.
3 Making the number of slots per pole pair an odd number. This eliminates tooth ripples completely from the
waveform.
(c ) The positive and negative halves of flux density wave are identical. So, even harmonics are absent in emf generated.
(d ) The multiples of third harmonics in the emf waveform are in time –phase in all three phases. These triplen harmonics
( 3rd, 9th, etc ) will not be present in the line to line voltage of star connection, because the triplen harmonic emfs in
the three phases are equal and in phase. (But when the three phases are connected in delta, these harmonics become
additive around the closed circuit and produce a circulating current.)
As the strength of harmonic components decreases with increasing frequency, only fifth and seventh harmonics are
Important. These are known as belt harmonics.
Thus the rms voltage of the induced voltage across the lines of a 3 phase star connected alternator is given by :
Eline = √3 [ E12 + E5 2 + E7 2 + E112 + …….] , where En = 4.44 (nf) Øn Tph kwn
(e) Fractional slot winding reduces the harmonic emfs considerably due to smaller distribution factor.
(f) Large length of air gap increases the reluctance and so the magnitude of the slot harmonics is reduced.
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Armature reaction in Synchronous machines : T he load current passing the armature winding estaqblishes its own flux . In
the air gap there are two fluxes : one due to the current through the field winding known as main flux and the other due to the
current through the armature, called armature flux. The effect of armature flux on the main flux is known as armature reaction
and it is influenced by the load power factor.

(a) Lagging Power Factor load in 2- pole single coil concentrated winding alternator :
FR = Resultant mmf
Current 90⁰ lag elect. F M = Main field mmf
+ F A = Armature mmf
+
N emf + + S FA FM

FM v FR = FM −FA
v
Here the lagging PF causes the armature mmf oppose the main field mmf. So resultant mmf reduced(demagnetizing effect).

( b) Leading Power Factor load Current 90⁰ lead elect. Here the leading PF causes the armature mmf aid the main field
mmf. So resultant mmf increased(magnetising effect). .

.
+
N emf + + S FA FM

FM v + FR = FM + FA
v +
( c) Unity Power Factor load

Current in phase with emf

+
+
+
N emf + S FA FR

FM & currentv FM
v
Here the unity PF causes the armature mmf is at 90⁰ with the main field mmf. So resultant mmf distorts the air gap flux
because of its cross magnetizing component. But the average field strength is constant.
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IA ØARM ØMAIN ØARM IA ØMAIN Ø MAIN

ØARM

Lagging ZPF Leading ZPF IA UPF

EPH EPH EPH

The effect of the armature reaction flux can be simulated by a voltage drop proportional to the armature current, and added to
the drop due to armature leakage reactance as is done in the synchronous impedance method (or emf method). That is, the
armature reaction effect is represented by an armature reaction reactance, X A in series with the armature leakage reactance X L.
The combined reactance (XA +XL ) is called the synchronous reactance, XS, of the machine.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

EFFECT OF CONSTANT LOAD WITH VARIABLE EXCITATION OF AN ALTERNATOR (Armature resistance neglected, R A =0)

Constant watt-load = P watts, V = T.V.(fixed, INF bus) M HOW LOAD CAN BE KEPT CONST ON INF BUS?

E IX S A P/V E4 E1 E2 E3 B

δ 90+Ø
V V I4 I2XS I3XS PXS/V
Ø I4XS I1XS
I 90⁰
O I1 F V D C
;; I2 ,Ø2
XS I normal excitation (unity pf)
V(Inf. Bus) I3 ,Ø3 IXS is perpendicular to I
E Alternator N
Under excitation over excitation
(Lagging pf ) (leading pf)
In above diagrams, OD = V = terminal voltage, δ = power angle or load angle (between E &V), Ø = power factor angle ( wrt V).
We have from geometry, IXS / sinδ = E / sin (90⁰ +Ø) or IXS / sinδ = E / cosØ or I = E sinδ / (X S cosØ)
So, the real- power output P = VI cosØ = VE sinδ cosØ / (X s cos Ø) = VE sinδ / Xs = P ---------------------(1)
In the figure, when the load current is I 1 (at Ø1 = 0 ), the active power is V I1 cos Ø1 = VI1 and similarly,
when the load current is I2 (at Ø2 ), the active power is V I2 cos Ø2
when the load current is I3 (at Ø3 ), the active power is V I3 cos Ø3
when the load current is I4 (at Ø4 ), the active power is V I4 cos Ø4
Now, since the load on the alternator P is constant, P = VI 1 = V I2 cos Ø2 = V I3 cos Ø3 = V I4 cos Ø4
Or I1 = I2 cos Ø2 = I3 cos Ø3 = I4 cos Ø4 = OF = P/V ---------------------------------------------(2)
So, the locus of the tip of the load current vector is the vertical line MN which is perpendicular to the X-axis or phasor V.
Again as P is constant, from (1), VE1 sinδ1 / Xs = VE2 sinδ2 / Xs = VE3 sinδ3 / Xs = VE4 sinδ4 / Xs = P OR
E1 sinδ1 = E2 sinδ2 = E3 sinδ3 = E4 sinδ4 = BC = PXS /V = constant
Hence the locus of the tip of the excitation vectors (E 1 etc) is the line AB parallel to the X-axis or the terminal voltage V.
So, for the alternator, for a given constant load, as the field current of the alternator is varied to change the excitation emf E ,
the power angle δ changes in such a way as to maintain E sinδ = constant.
The excitation required to obtain unit power factor is called the normal excitation(point D). The excitation above the normal
excitation is called over excitation(DB range) and the generator supplies a lagging power factor load currrent. The excitation
below the normal excitation is called under excitation (OD range) and the generator supplies a leading power factor load
current.
When the power factor is lagging more and more, the current keeps on increasing, the excitation voltage(E) keeps on increasing
& when the power factor is leading more and more, the current keeps on increasing, the excitation voltage (E)
keeps on decreasing and the armature current is minimum ( = I 1 ) at unity power factor.
The armature current keeps on increasing for both lagging and leading conditions.
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POWER ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ALTERNATOR
From the Phasor diagram and eqn (1) above, we have P = ( EV/XS )sinδ
This relationship between P and δ is known as the power angle characteristics of the machine. The maximum power transfer
from alternator to the bus occurs at δ = 90⁰ elect. For δ >90⁰, the alternator falls out of step and loses synchronism. The
machine can taken up to PMAX only by gradually increasing the load without causing large hunting. P MAX is known as the
steady state stability limit of the machine. The machine is normally operated at δ value much less than 90⁰.

PMAX Power angle characteristics

O 90⁰ 180⁰ δ

OPERATION OF ALTERNATOR ON INFINITE BUS BARS (from Wildi)

INFINITE BUS : is a system of a large number of alternators interconnected in parallel in which an addition or removal of an
alternator does not affect the system voltage and frequency. The system behaves like a large generator with zero internal
impedance and infinite rotational inertia. An infinite bus is a system so powerful that it imposes its own voltage and frequency
upon any apparatus connected to its terminals. It is impossible to specify the nature of load in terms of large or small, resistive
or capacitive, connected to the terminals of any particular generator. What then determines the power that the alternator
delivers? The terminal voltage and the frequency are fixed. Then the only parameters that can be varied are : the exciting
current and the mechanical torque exerted by the turbine.
(1) Alternator on infinite bus : effect varying the exciting current :
Alternator(induced voltage = E) just paralleled with infinite bus(Voltage = V) and so E = V and are in phase and there is
no potential difference across the synchronous reactance, so no current flows from alternator. It delivers no power. It
just floats electrically. It is neither generating nor motoring.
(a)If we increase the exciting current, the induced voltage E will increase and the synchronous reactance X S will
experience a difference of potential of EX = E – V and a current I = (E – V )/ XS will circulate in the circuit. Because the
synchronous reactance is inductive, the current I lags 90⁰ behind E X and E, which means that the generator sees the
infinite bus system as if it were an inductive reactance. Consequently, an over excited alternator supplies
(lagging)reactive power to the infinite bus. The (lagging)reactive power increases as we increase the excitation.
(b)Let us decrease the excitation current so that E becomes smaller than V. So, EX = V-E and I = EX/XS lags behind EX by
90⁰. However, this puts the current I, 90⁰ ahead of E, which means that the alternator sees the system or the infinite
bus system as if it were a capacitor. Consequently, when we under excite an alternator, it draws reactive power from
the system. The reactive power produces part of the magnetic required by the machine and the remainder is supplied
by the exciting current.
(2) Alternator on infinite bus : effect varying the mechanical torque :
Again, Alternator(induced voltage = E) just paralleled with infinite bus(Voltage = V) and so E = V and are in phase
and there is no potential difference across the synchronous reactance, so no current flows from alternator. It delivers
no power. It just floats electrically. It is neither generating nor motoring.
(c)If we open the steam valve of the turbine driving the generator, the immediate effect is an increase in mechanical
torque. The rotor will accelerate, and consequently, E will attain maximum value a little sooner than before. i.e., the
phasor E will slip ahead of phasor V, leading it by a phase angle δ. Although both voltages have the same value, the
phase angle produces a difference in potential E X = E –V across the synchronous reactance. A current I will flow again,
lagging behind EX by 90⁰, but now it is almost in phase with E. That means that the generator feeds active power into
the system. Under the driving force of the turbine, the rotor will continue to accelerate, the angle δ will continue to
diverge, and the electrical power delivered to the system will gradually build up. However, as soon as the electrical
power delivered to the system is equal to the mechanical power supplied by the turbine, the rotor will cease to
accelerate. The generator will again run at synchronous speed, the torque angle δ between E and V will remain
constant. It is important to note that a potential difference exists when two equal voltages have a phase difference.

NOTE : Depending on the relative positions between the rotating stator poles and rotor poles, powerful forces of
attraction and repulsion are set up between them. When the generator floats on the infinite bus, the stator current is
zero and so no forces are developed. The only flux is that created by the poles on rotor and it induces the voltage E.
If a mechanical torque is applied to the generator, by admitting more steam to the turbine, the rotor accelerates and
gradually advances by a mechanical angle α, compared to its original position. The stator currents immediately begin to
flow, owing to the electrical phase difference δ between induced emf E and terminal voltage V. these stator currents
produce a revolving magnetic field in the stator with corresponding N and S poles. Now forces of attraction and
repulsion are developed between stator poles and rotor poles. These magnetic forces produce a torque that opposes
the mechanical torque exerted by the turbine. When the electromagnetic torque is equal to the mechanical torque, the
mechanical angle will no longer increase but will remain a constant value, γ.
There is a direct relationship between the mechanical angle γ and the torque angle δ in electrical degrees given by
δ = P γ/2 , where P = the number of poles on the alternator.

Active power delivered by the generator(alternator) to infinite bus : is given by the equation :
P = ( EV/XS ) sin δ in watts, where δ = torque angle, E = voltage induced / phase in alternator,
V= terminal voltage / phase at bus and X S = synchronous reactance per phase in ohms
For a given fixed excitation, E = constant. So, the term EV/X S is fixed and so the active power delivered by the
alternator to the bus will vary directly with the sin δ. So as we increase the steam input, δ will increase and so, the
active power too increases. This is shown graphically in the above power angle curve. Note that between zero and 30⁰
the power increases almost linearly with the torque angle. Rated power is typically attained at a torque angle of 30⁰.
However, the upper limit to the active power the generator can deliver is when δ = 90⁰. The peak power output is then
PMAX = EV/XS watts. If we try to exceed this limit, by admitting more steam to the turbine, the rotor will accelerate and
lose synchronism with the infinite bus. The rotor will turn faster than the rotating magnetic field of the stator, and large
pulsating currents will flow in the stator and the circuit breakers will trip to avoid this situation as soon as synchronism
is lost.
Control of active power : Due to load demand on the infinite bus changes, the speed of the alternator connected to it
tries to change, but its speed is kept constant by an extremely sensitive governor. This device can detect speed changes
as small as 0.01%. an automatic control system sensitive to such small changes immediately modifies the steam valve
opening of the turbine so as to maintain a constant speed .

Power transfer between two sources A and B :

I E

X δ Ψ IX
E A V B Ø V

I
Let power input to the alternator be raised using its governor. The increase input would tend to accelerate the rotor of
alternator and so E would move ahead of V (Fig.2 below). However the speed of rotor is fixed by the system frequency. So the
speed change is temporary. The angle δ assumes such value that the current has a component corresponding to the input and a
steady state condition would be restored. The alternator is operating at a leading pf. The magnitude of E depends on the field
current.

(1) By adjusting the field current, pf can be adjusted to any value(fig.3 : lagging current). When the excitation is changed,
the active power remains unchanged. Thus the excitation controls the reactive power output, while the governor speed
setting controls the active power output.
(2) An alternator working on an infinite bus bar will become a motor if its excitation is maintained, but the prime mover is
replaced by a mechanical load. When the operation alters from generator to motor, δ changes from positive to
negative.
(3) After synchronizing, the alternator is loaded by adjusting the governor setting to admit more steam. This tends to
advance the rotor and load current flows from alternator to the bus bars, maintaining an exact balance between the
mechanical input and the electrical output.
(4) Excitation is adjusted to provide the necessary reactive power output and hence the pf.

E V
E IXS
I E

. Ø δ V IR A δ IXA

Fig.1 Fig.2 Ø V IR A Fig.3

I

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General : Expression for Complex power : Let for a given load, E = E /θ = E e j θ and I = I /Ø = I e j Ø
The average real power absorbed by the load = P = EI cos (θ - Ø ) = E I Re { e j ( θ – Ø ) } = Re { E e j θ I e j – Ø } = Re ( E I* )
Complex power = S = E I* = P + j Q , where P = real power = Re ( E I* ) and Q = reactive power = Im ( E I* )

Im E = E ejθ
I cos (θ - Ø ) = In phase component of current
I cos (θ - Ø ) I sin (θ - Ø ) I sin (θ - Ø ) = Quadrature component of current

θ–Ø I = I ejØ (θ - Ø ) = 0 - 90⁰ for lagging loads, positive reactive power

Re

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Stray load loss : Additional variable losses that vary with load but cannot be related to current in a simple manner. They occur
in windings ( skin effect and increase in the resistance value) and core ( an increase in core loss due to uneven distribution of
flux waveform ) .

Reluctance torque : rotor

N S

The stator produces a flux when a ferromagnetic material is placed in its magnetic field. The rotor will immediately experience
a counter clockwise torque because the magnetic flux has a tendency to follow a minimum reluctance path. The torque so
produced is called RELUCTANCE TORQUE. The reluctance torque will be zero when the rotor axis coincides with the stator axis.

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Constructional features of an alternator:

1.Stator : 3 ph Armature winding of high voltage is located in the slots of the stator core which has cooling arrangement. The
stator core is assembled with high grade silicon steel laminations. The winding of each phase is distributed over several slots to
produce an essentially sinusoidal space distribution of emf.
2. Rotor with two slip rings and brush sets : is salient pole type or cylindrical type. Salient pole rotor is of 4 or more poles and is
operated at lower speeds. It is made of laminations to reduce eddy current losses. Damper bars are usually inserted in pole
faces for starting purpose and for damping rotor oscillations during sudden change in load. The pole face is so shaped that the
radial air gap is minimum at pole centre and increases gradually up to pole tips to get sinusoidal flux distribution in air gap and
so to generate sinusoidal emf. A salient pole generator with large number of poles has comparatively large diameter and a
short axial length. A cylindrical rotor machine (non salient pole) has the form of smooth cylinder made of forgings of high
grade nickel-chrome-molybdenum steel. Distributed field winding is placed in slots on it and the unslotted part of it forms two
or four poles. This machine has a small diameter and long axial length, thus limiting centrifugal forces. Thus they are suitable
for high speed alternators, say, 3000 rpm (2 pole) called turbo alternators.

Excitation system for field current supply: An ac generator called pilot exciter with permanent magnetic poles and another
ac generator called exciter are mounted on the same shaft as the main alternator. The pilot exciter’s ac voltage is rectified and
supplied to the exciter’s field. The exciter’s ac output is again rectified and supplied to the field winding of the alternator.
Brushless exciters do not require slip rings and brushes.