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Abstract
High temperatures and long drying times used in hot air drying can negatively affect the nutritional quality of the final product. It is generally
observed that, if ascorbic acid is well retained, other components are also well retained. Hence, ascorbic acid can be taken as an index of nutrient
quality of foods. The interest in dried tomato has increased since its use as ingredients for pizza and various vegetable and spicy dishes has
became popular. Tomatoes are usually dried in slices or halves, after seeds and parenchyma removal with a resulting large amount of wastes
and an important nutrient loss. The objective of this work was to investigate the effects of drying temperatures on ascorbic acid degradation
kinetics in caustic-peeled whole tomatoes (with or without osmotic pre-treatment) and in halved and drained tomatoes. The degradation rates
were dependent on samples treatment before drying, as well as on drying temperature. Lower degradation rates were observed in osmotically
pre-treated whole tomatoes, whereas higher degradation rates occurred in halved tomatoes. Increasing drying temperature led to higher
degradation rates.
Ó 2007 Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0023-6438/$34.00 Ó 2007 Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2007.11.003
P.H.M. Marfil et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647 1643
NaCl diffusivities increased with decreasing sucrose concen- treatment in sodium hydroxide solution to withdraw the
tration, whereas sucrose diffusivities were higher when solu- skin, would be a feasible alternative to reduce the volume of
tions with lower NaCl concentrations were used, reinforcing solid wastes, and could also contribute to decrease the rates
the interactive character of salt/sugar in osmotic dehydration. of nutrients loss, although with an important increase in or-
In modern food technology, the trend is to maximize nutri- ganic and chemical pollution of wastewaters.
ents retention during processing and storage. The increasing Based on the above considerations, the objective of this
interest in the antioxidant activity of lycopene e the most work was to investigate the effects of drying temperatures
abundant carotenoid in tomatoes e has been promoting several on ascorbic acid degradation kinetics in caustic-peeled whole
research activities on fresh tomato and tomato products tomatoes (with or without osmotic pre-treatment in NaCl/
(Chang, Lin, Chang, & Liu, 2006; Shi, Le Maguer, Kakuda, sucrose solution) and in halved and drained tomatoes, at the
Liptay, & Niekamp, 1999; Tavares & Rodriguez-Amaya, same drying conditions.
1994). On the other hand, it is generally observed that, if
ascorbic acid is well retained, other nutrients are also well 2. Material and methods
retained. Hence, ascorbic acid can be taken as an index of
nutrient quality of foods (Gregory, 1996). Ascorbic acid is 2.1. Raw material
known to be a labile vitamin that lose activity due to a number
of factors, including pH, moisture content, oxygen, tempera- Ripe fresh tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) of
ture and metal ion catalysis (Uddin, Hawlader, & Zhou, 2001). industrial, pear-shaped type were purchased at local market.
Several works concerning ascorbic acid degradation in The fruits were sorted visually for color, size and physical
foods have suggested first order decay kinetics and the Bige- damage and rinsed in fresh water. Whole tomatoes were sub-
low equation has been applied in modeling (Uddin, Hawlader, mitted to caustic peeling by immersion in a NaOH solution
Ding, & Mujumdar, 2002; Vieira, Teixeira, & Silva, 2001). It (6 g NaOH/100 g solution) at 30 C for 30 min (Santos, Mar-
is common to characterize first order reactions in terms of D fil, Telis-Romero, & Telis, 2005). Halved tomatoes were not
and z values (thermal death time concept). Singh and Lund peeled but had seeds and parenchyma manually removed.
(1984) developed a mathematical model to describe the ascor-
bic acid degradation in stored apple as function of temperature 2.2. Osmotic treatment
and water activity. Akinyele, Keshinro, and Akinnawo (1990)
investigated nutrient losses during and after processing of Sucrose (food grade) and NaCl (analytical grade) dissolved
pineapples and oranges and a number of authors studied vita- in distilled water were used as osmotic agents. Whole peeled
min C degradation in various foodstuffs (Prado, Chandra, & tomatoes were immersed in a NaCl/sucrose solution (10 g
Bicalho, 1995; Vieira, Teixeira, & Silva, 2000; Yamashita, NaCl/100 g solution and 35 g sucrose/100 g solution), for
Benassi, & Kieckbusch, 1999). 60 min, at 30 C, maintaining a 1:10 (w/w) tomato/solution
In drying process, the loss of ascorbic acid is affected spe- ratio (Telis et al., 2004). The treated samples were drained
cially by high temperatures. According to Zanoni, Peri, Nani, for 1 min, rinsed with fresh running water to withdraw excess
and Lavelli (1999), degradation rate of vitamin C in tomatoes, solution and slightly wiped with an absorbent paper.
at 80 and 110 C, was dependent of temperature and moisture
and vitamin C was not detected in samples dried at 110 C to 2.3. Convective drying
50% of moisture. Nevertheless, these authors found a 10%
residue of vitamin C in samples dried at 80 C until 10% of Drying was accomplished with air velocity of 1 m/s, at 50,
moisture. Erenturk, Gulaboglu, and Gultekin (2005) investi- 60 and 70 C. In general, food is dried at 60 C, a temperature
gated degradation kinetics of ascorbic acid during air drying level that provides sufficiently high rates of water removal and
of whole rosehip. These authors found that temperature depen- results in products without excessive loss of nutrients and with
dency could be described by Arrhenius relationship, while the pleasant texture. The other temperatures were chosen in order
activation energy and reaction rate constant could be determined to deviate in 10 C from the central level.
as functions of moisture content. Goula and Adamopoulos The equipment was a pilot scale tray drier with parallel air-
(2006) determined a mathematical model for the rate of vitamin flow, which consists of an airflow rate control system, a drying
C loss in a drying process of tomato halves and tomato pulp. air heating section and a drying chamber. Once the desired op-
They observed that the reaction constant depended on moisture eration conditions were achieved, the tomatoes were inserted
content of the product, in addition to temperature. Furthermore, into the dryer cabinet. The initial moisture contents were
the maximum rate constant was observed when the moisture determined gravimetrically using a vacuum oven at 60 C
content was between 65 and 70%. These effects were expressed for 48 h, and drying kinetics was determined by weighing
by a linear relationship between temperature, moisture content samples at regular time intervals.
and natural logarithm of rate constant.
Tomatoes are usually dried in slices or in halves. In the last 2.4. Ascorbic acid analysis
case, seeds and parenchyma are removed and discarded with
a resulting large amount of wastes and an important nutrient At regular time intervals, three tomatoes were removed
loss. Drying whole tomatoes, submitted to a chemical pre- from the dryer, cut and grounded, and a sample of 25 g was
1644 P.H.M. Marfil et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647
homogenized with 50 g of the extraction solution (2 g oxalic led to lower drying times necessary to attain certain moisture
acid/100 g solution). An aliquot of 20 g was taken and diluted content. The osmotic pre-treatment also contributed for de-
to 50 ml with the extraction solution in a volumetric flask and creasing drying times of whole peeled tomatoes (Table 1).
then vacuum filtered. Aliquots of 10 ml of the filtrated were The parameter n in the Page model is a behavior index,
taken for titration with 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol (0.01 g/ related to the dependence of drying rate on the drying time.
100 g solution). The titration end point was detected visually Table 1 shows that n values increased with drying temperature
and all analyses were conducted in duplicated (Benassi & and were higher for halved tomatoes. When n > 1 the drying
Antunes, 1988). rate increases with time and contributes to reducing the neces-
In order to improve the uniformity of drying conditions of sary drying time.
all samples in the dryer, the drying tray was rotated at each
time that samples were removed from the tray to be subjected 3.2. Ascorbic acid degradation kinetics
to ascorbic acid analysis.
The average vitamin C content of fresh, whole tomatoes
3. Results and discussion was of 4.00 0.30 mg ascorbic/g dry matter (that corresponds
to 20.5 3.5 mg ascorbic/100 g fresh matter), whereas after
3.1. Drying kinetics caustic peeling, this content felt to 3.36 0.56 mg ascorbic/g
dry matter, representing a decrease of about 16.0% in the
In the present work, the Page model (Eq. (1)) was used to nutrient content. On the other hand, the osmotic treatment
fit experimental data of moisture content versus drying time. in NaCl/sucrose solutions caused additional degradation of as-
The parameters of the model were calculated by non-linear corbic acid, reducing its content to 2.19 0.24 mg ascorbic/g
regression ( p < 0.05) and the results can be seen in Table 1. dry matter: a decrease of 35.0% in relation to peeled tomatoes
The correlation coefficient (R2) and the sum of squared resid- non-submitted to osmotic treatment. Probably, the reduction
uals, SSR (Eq. (2)), were considered to evaluate the quality of of ascorbic acid content observed during osmotic dehydration
fittings. is related to the extraction of vitamin C by the osmotic solu-
tion. Similar results were obtained by Abushita, Daood, and
X Biacs (2000) when analyzing the content of this nutrient in
M¼ ¼ expðktn Þ ð1Þ
X0 tomatoes. Sablani, Opara, and Al-Balushi (2006), using the
2 same analytical method in tomatoes soon after harvesting,
SSR ¼ S Mexp Mpred ð2Þ found values of about 28 mg ascorbic/100 g fresh matter.
These authors, studying the vitamin C loss during storage,
In Eq. (1), M (dimensionless) is the ratio between the moisture found that, after a week at 25 C, ascorbic acid content was
content at time t (X ) and the initial moisture content (X0), and reduced to 22 mg/100 g fresh matter.
k and n are the Page drying coefficients, which determine the Toor and Savage (2005) determined the major antioxidants
precise shape of the drying curve. While neither of these pa- and antioxidant activity in different fractions (skin, seeds and
rameters have a direct physical significance, empirical regres- pulp) of three tomato cultivars and observed that skin fraction
sion equations have been developed relating both parameters of all cultivars had significantly higher levels of ascorbic acid
to drying conditions and raw material moisture content (Hos- than pulp and seed fractions. These authors pointed out that re-
sain & Bala, 2002; Queiroz, Gabas, & Telis, 2004; Wang, moval of skin and seeds of tomatoes during home cooking and
2002). processing results in a significant loss of major antioxidants,
As expected, results showed that temperature was the main since according to their results these parts of the fruit contains
variable affecting drying kinetics. Higher drying temperatures 43% of the total ascorbic acid.
Table 1
Page parameters for tomato drying curves at different conditions
Sample Drying K (h1) n Drying SSR R2
temperature ( C) time (h)*
Tomato halves 50 0.17 0.01 1.01 0.02 16.73 0.003 0.998
60 0.18 0.01 1.20 0.02 10.20 0.001 0.999
70 0.21 0.02 1.35 0.08 7.09 0.011 0.992
Whole peeled tomatoes 50 0.19 0.02 0.83 0.05 27.79 0.015 0.985
60 0.20 0.03 0.89 0.07 20.56 0.042 0.965
70 0.18 0.02 1.09 0.04 12.55 0.009 0.993
Osmotically pre-treated, 50 0.14 0.00 0.96 0.01 17.90 0.001 0.999
whole peeled tomatoes 60 0.22 0.00 0.85 0.01 16.81 0.0003 0.999
70 0.26 0.01 0.92 0.01 10.52 0.001 0.999
*Drying time necessary to attain 50% moisture (wb) estimated using Eq. (1) with parameters k and n from Table 1.
P.H.M. Marfil et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647 1645
ment of the Weibull model, given by Eq. (3), to experimental Time (hours)
data. Fig. 2. Ascorbic acid degradation curves for halved tomatoes at different dry-
b ing temperatures (-, Tair ¼ 50 C; B, Tair ¼ 60 C; , Tair ¼ 70 C). The
Ct t solid lines correspond to the adjustment of the Weibull model.
¼ exp ð3Þ
C0 a
process beginning (Cunha, Oliveira, & Oliveira, 1998). Manso,
In Eq. (3), symbols Ct and C0 refer, respectively, to ascorbic Oliveira, Oliveira, and Frias (2001) obtained good results
acid concentration at a certain time, t, and at the zero time describing vitamin C degradation in orange juice and non-
of air drying, while a and b are the fitting parameters of the enzymatic browning kinetics by the Weibull model.
model. Eq. (3) was fitted to experimental data by non-linear regres-
Eq. (3) was originally presented in 1939 by W. Weibull to sion and the quality of the adjustment was evaluated through
describe the collapse of stressed materials. Since then it was al- the statistical parameters R2 and SSR. Except for tomato
ready successfully applied to describe kinetics of chemical, en- halves fitting of Eq. (3) to ascorbic acid degradation curves
zymatic or microbiological degradation processes, which also gave better results when adopting b ¼ 1, i.e. assuming a first
lead the system to collapse. The parameter a can be interpreted order decay kinetics. This result is in agreement with the
as a kinetic reaction constant and represents the characteristic works of Erenturk et al. (2005) and Goula and Adamopoulos
time to collapse, or specifically, the time when concentration (2006), which had also observed a first order decay for ascor-
Ct attains a value corresponding to 36.8% (1/e) of C0. The con- bic acid degradation. Nevertheless, for tomato halves, b was
stant b represents a behavior index and, when b ¼ 1, the model greater than unity, indicating higher degradation rates at the
is reduced to a first order kinetics, with a constant degradation end periods of drying. This fact could be related to the drying
rate. When b > 1 the reaction rate increases with time and the behavior of tomato halves, which was also different from that
degradation curve assumes a sigmoidal shape. On the other observed for whole tomatoes, as shown in Table 1. The n
hand, if b < 1 the reaction rate decreases with time and degra-
dation rate higher than the exponential is observed at the
1,2
1,2
1,0
Acid ascorbic (Ct/C0)
1,0
Ascorbic acid (Ct/C0)
0,8
0,8
0,6
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
0,0
0,0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Time (hours)
Time (hours)
Fig. 3. Ascorbic acid degradation curves for osmotically treated, peeled whole
Fig. 1. Ascorbic acid degradation curves for whole peeled tomatoes at different tomatoes at different drying temperatures (-, Tair ¼ 50 C; B, Tair ¼ 60 C;
drying temperatures (-, Tair ¼ 50 C; B, Tair ¼ 60 C; , Tair ¼ 70 C). The , Tair ¼ 70 C). The solid lines correspond to the adjustment of the Weibull
solid lines correspond to the adjustment of the Weibull model. model.
1646 P.H.M. Marfil et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647
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