MODULE-6

STATICAL MECHANICS

Up to the end of seventeenth century, all the observed physical phenomena were
explained by using either ordinary laws of mechanics or laws of electromagnetism. But
with the help of these ordinary laws, systems with many particles can’t be handled due to
mathematical complications. Moreover, in the last decade of seventeenth century there
were some ground-breaking experiments, such as black-body radiation, which needed new
theories for their explanation. As a result of these needs quantum theory came. When this
theory ties its knot with statistics, we get a new branch of physics known as Statistical
Mechanics capable of explaining the physical behaviour of all the systems whether
composed of a single particle or composed of a large number of particles.
Statistical mechanics is basically a formalism that aims at explaining the observed
physical properties of matter in bulk on the basis of dynamical behaviour of its microscopic
constituents. It is applicable to any physical system in any state whatsoever. It is not
concerned with the actual motion of the particles constituting a system; rather it
investigates some average or most probable properties of the system without going through
detail description of the constituent particles. It is noteworthy about statistical mechanics
that the larger is the number of particles in a mechanical system, the more correct are the
statistical predictions about the system and vice-versa. Before starting the various
formalisms in statistical mechanics, let us discuss a few general considerations regarding
the statistical nature of a macroscopic (observable with naked eyes) system.

7.1 Concept of energy levels and energy states

Consider a H2 atom, which has the simplest atomic configuration with a single
electron revolving round the nucleus. The total energy of such an electron is given by
m e4
- , where m and e are mass and charge of the electron respectively, ε0 is the
8  0 h2 n2
permittivity of free-space, h is the Planck’s constant and n is known as principal quantum
number. Thus the total energy for such an electron solely depends on n. We know that for a
given value of n, we get other three quantum three quantum numbers whose values depend
on n in the following manner:

l ( orbital quantum number) = 0,1,2,3,……..,(n-1)

ml ( magnetic orbital quantum number) = -l,(-l+1),(-l+2),….,-2,-1,0,1,2,…..,(l-1),l
1 1
ms ( magnetic spin quantum number) = - , + (for each value of ml)
2 2
All n, l, ml integers or zero.
A specific energy level corresponds to a specific value of n. For different integral values of
n, we get different discrete energy levels. On the other hand, each discrete set of the four
quantum numbers, i.e. {n,l,ml,ms}, designates each energy state. Let’s have an example to
make these concepts clear.
Consider n = 2 energy level. For n = 2, l = 0,1.

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 1 1
For l = 0, ml = 0 and ms = - ,+
2 2
1 1
For l = 1, ml = -1,0,+1 and ms = - , + for each value of ml.
2 2

n-value l-value ml- value ms- value energy states no.of energy
states
1 1 1
- , {2,0,0, - }
2 2 2
2 0 0
1
{2,0,0, + } 2
2
1
{2,1,-1, - }
1 1 2
-1 - ,
2 2 1
{2,1,-1, }
2
1
{2,1,0, - }
0 2
1 1
- , 1
2 2 2 {2,1,0, }
1 2

1
+1 {2,1,+1,- }
1 1 2 6
- , 1
2 2 {2,1,+1, }
2

Thus for n = 2 energy level, we get eight distinct energy states. But all these eight energy
states have the same value of the total energy because, the total energy, as already stated,
depends only on the principal quantum number. Such type of distinct energy states having
the same total energy are known as degenerate states and it is said that the energy level n =
2 is 8-fold degenerate. Similarly we can show that n = 3 energy level is 18-fold degenerate.
Note that this type of degenerate states is direct consequence of the symmetry of the
respective system.

7.2 Macrostates and Microstates

Let us consider a physical system composed of N identical particles confined to a

space of volume V. Typically N~ 1023 for which it is customary to use thermodynamic
N
limit, i.e. N → ∞, V → ∞, but ratio gives a finite value. In this limit, the extensive
V
properties of the system are directly proportional to either N or V. But the intensive
properties remain independent of these (i.e. N or V).If we assume that the particles under
consideration are non-interacting, the total energy E would be equal to the sum of energies
εi of the particles, i.e.,

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 E =  n i  i …………………………………………(7.1)
i


Where n i is the number of particles with energy i . Also the total number of particles is
N =  n i ……………………………………………(7.2)
i
Under these conditions, a macrostate can be defined as the specification of the actual
values of the system parameters N,V and E.
At the microscopic level, however, there is a large number of independent
possibilities in which the macrostate(N,V,E) of the given system can be realized. In case of
a non-interacting system, since the total energy E consists of a simple sum of th N single-

particle energies i , there will obviously be a large number of different ways in which the

individual i can be chosen so as to make the total energy equal to E. In other words, for a
specific volume V of the system composed of specific number(N) of particles, there will
be a large number of different ways in which the total energy E of the system can be
distributed among the N particles constituting the system. Each of these (different) ways
specifies a microstate ( or, complexion) of the given system. Thus corresponding to a
particular macrostate, we have a large number of accessible microstates. At any time t , the
macrostate of the system is equally likely to be in any one of its microstates which are
consistent with the constrained conditions of the given system. This assumption forms the
very basis of statistical mechanics and is known as the postulate of “equal a priori
probabilities” for all accessible microstates of the system.
The total number of accessible (i.e., consistent with the constrained conditions of
the given system) microstates corresponding to a system (macrostate) is known as the
thermodynamic probability of the system and it is generally denoted by a symbol
Ω(N,V,E). There is a certain distinction between thermodynamic probability and
mathematical probability. Mathematical probability is always less than unity, whereas
thermodynamic probability (total number of microstates) is equal or more than unity. If S
represents the entropy of the system, S is related to Ω by the relation S = k loge Ω.

7.3 Concepts of Phase-space and Density of states

In Hamiltonian formalism in classical mechanics, we used the idea of specification of the

state of a system with the help of position and momentum coordinates associated with the
system. Suppose, we have a single-particle system. The instantaneous position of the
system can be specified by three independent coordinates x, y, z and the instantaneous
motion of the system is described conveniently by three momentum components px, py, pz.
Therefore the state of the single-particle system is then completely specified by position
components x, y, z and momentum components px, py, pz. Thus we can imagine a six
dimensional space to describe the dynamical state of a single-particle system. Such a space
is known as μ- space. Now if the system contains a large number of particles such that the
state of the system is represented by n independent position coordinates q1,q2,……,qn and n
independent momentum coordinates p1,p2,……,pn, then

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 q
Phase Point

Phase Trajectory

r
Fig.7.1: Representation of phase points and phase trajectory in phase-space.

mathematically these 2n position-momentum coordinates may be allowed to define a 2n

dimensional space known as phase-space or Γ-space. The μ- space is a special case of the
phase-space. The instantaneous state of a system in the phase-space is represented by a
point known as phase point or representative point. The number of phase points per unit
volume of the phase-space is called phase density. The volume occupied by each phase
point is known as phase cell which is the elementary volume in phase space. The time
evolution of the state of the system can be incorporated in phase-space by movement of the
same phase point in the phase-space. If we connect the instantaneous positions of the phase
point in various times by some imaginary line, we get a curve known as phase trajectory. A
phase trajectory can’t intersect itself; otherwise the single point of intersection would
denote two different states at two different times for the same system, which is physically
unacceptable. A system (macrostate) is said to be in statistical equilibrium if the
probabilities of finding the phase points in various regions of the phase-space and the
average values of the properties of the system are independent of time.
In the context of phase-space there is a very fundamental statistical quantity –
density of states which can be defined as the number of states per unit energy range.
Let us calculate this for a single particle of mass m and volume V. The elementary phase
volume for a single particle can be written as
dqx dqy dqz dpx dpy dpz. = h3 . ( dqi.dpi = h)

which is the volume of a phase cell( phase point) in phase-space. So the total volume of the
phase-space is
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ dqx dqy dqz dpx dpy dpz

But ∫ ∫ ∫ dqx dqy dqz = ∫ ∫ ∫ dxdydz = given volume V of the particle. Thus the phase

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 p

dp

Fig.7.2: Calculation of density of states for a single particle.

volume = V ∫ ∫ ∫ dpx dpy dpz. Now the volume of the momentum space containing
momentum between p and p+dp will be given by the volume of a spherical shell of radius p
and thickness dp. Therefore,
∫ ∫ ∫ dpx dpy dpz, = 4  p2dp
Thus the volume of phase-space = V. 4  p2dp
But the volume of a phase cell = h3

Therefore, total number of phase cells (microstates) in the momentum range from p to p+dp
is
V .4 p2 dp
g(p)dp = …………………………………………..(7.3)
h3
p2
If the energy corresponding to momentum p is E, E = or, p = 2mE
2m
m
 dp = dE
2E
Thus total number of microstates in the energy range from E to E+dE is
1 m 1
g(E)dE = 3 V. 4  .(2mE). dE = 3 (4  V 2E m3/2)dE………………….(7.4)
h 2E h

Therefore total number of microstates (phase cells) per unit energy range
1
= 3 (4  V 2E m3/2)………………………………………………………………(7.5)
h
which gives the required density of states for a single particle.
[ Note: For particles having two allowed values of spin quantum number ms, the number of
available quantum states is 2 times that given by equations (7.3) and (7.4). Also for such
particles density of states becomes twice that given by eqn. (7.5).]

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7.4 Different formalisms in Statistical Mechanics

The various methods of statistical mechanics are applied to discuss some average or
most probable properties of large assemblies of electrons, atoms,molecules etc. Before the
advent of quantum mechanics, Maxwell, Boltzmann,gibbs etc, applied statistical methods
with the help of classical physics. These methods are collectively known as Classical
Statistics or Maxwell-Boltzmann (MB) Statistics.These statistics were proved to be
successful in explaining pressure, temperature etc. of gaseous systems. But these couldn’t
explain some experimental results like the energy distribution in case of black-body
radiation, specific heat at low temperatue etc. For explaining such phenomena Satyen Bose,
Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Paul A. Dirac had made use of some new statics with the
help of newly discovered quantum theories. The new statistics are known as Quantum
Statistics and can be divided into following two categories:-
(i)Bose-Einstein (BE) statistics
(ii)Fermi-Dirac (FD) statistics
We’ll discuss the various interesting features of these three (MB,BE,FD) statistics
one by one in the following subsections.

7.4.1 Maxwell-Boltzmann (MB) Statistics

The basic postulates of MB statistics are:-
(i)The associated particles are distinguishable.
(ii)Each energy state can contain any number of particles.
(iii)Total number of particles in the entire system is constant.
(iv)Total energy of all the particles in the entire system is constant.
(v)Particles are spinless.
Examples: gas molecules at high temperature and low pressure.

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Law

Consider a system composed of N distinguishable, non-interacting particles. Let out

of these N particles N1, N2,….., Ni particles are to be distributed in energy levels
E1,E2,….,Ei respectively and these energy levels have g1,g2,…...,gi number of quantum
states correspondingly. Since the total energy E and total number of particles N are
constant for the system, we can write

 N i E i = E………………………………………………(7.6)
i
 N i = N ………………………………………………….(7.7)
i

The number of ways in which the groups of particles N1, N2,….., Ni could be
chosen from N particles is
N! N!
W1= = n …………………………….(7.8)
N1! N 2!...... N i !  !
Ni
i

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Where  denotes the product.
 
Now, Ni particles can be distributed in gi states in g i N i ways. Considering all the
values of i, total number of arrangement would be
n
 
W2 =  g i N i ……………………………………………..(7.9)
i
Therefore, the total number of ways W by which all the N particles could be
distributed among the quantum states is
W = W1W2 = n
N! n
 
 g i N i …………………………...(7.10)
 Ni ! i
i
This is the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law for n distinguishable particles.

Now taking the natural logarithm on both sides of eqn.(7.10), we get,

ln W = ln N! +  N i ln g i -  ln N i ! ..........................................(7.11)
i i
Applying Stirling approximation (i.e., ln x! = x ln x – x, where x is very large), we
get from eqn. (7.11)

 
ln W = N ln N – N +  N i ln g i –  N i ln N i  N i 
i i 
N
= N ln N –  N i ln i (using eqn.7.6) ……………………(7.12)
i gi
Now differentiating both sides we get,
N  
d( ln W) = d(N ln N) -  dN i ln i -  N i d  ln N i 
i gi i  gi 

Ni
= -  dN i ln -  Ni d Ni
i gi i Ni
Ni
= -  dN i ln - d Ni
i gi i
Ni
= -  dN i ln …………………………………………...(7.13)
i gi
 
  N i  cons tan t ,  d N i  0
 i i 
For the most probable distribution, d( ln W)max = 0
N
Therefore  dN i ln i = 0………………………………………………………...(7.14)
i gi
Since the system is in equilibrium, total number of particle and the total energy of the
system are constant. So,

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  d N i  0 ………………………………………………………...(7.15)
i
and  E i d N i  0 ……………………………………………………...(7.16)
i
Multiplying eqn. (7.15) by α and eqn.(7.16) by β and then adding to eqn. (7.14), we get,
  N  
 ln  i      E i  d N i  0 ……………………………………….(7.17)
i   gi  

Since d N i ’s are independent of one another, the above equation holds only if,

ln  i      E i = 0, or, N i  g i e   E i I 
N 
 gi 

Now the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function is given by

Ni 1
ƒ(Ei) = =    E i  .................……………………..(7.18)
gi e
which physically gives the probability of a particle to occupy the energy state Ei.

7.4.2 Bose- Einstein (BE) Statistics

The basic postulates of BE statistics are:-:
(i)The associated particles are identical and indistinguishable.
(ii)Each energy state can contain any number of particles.
(iii)Total energy and total number of particles of the entire system is constant
(iv)The particles have zero or integral spin,i.e. 0  , 1  ,5  ,50  etc, where  is the unit of
spin.
(v) The wave function of the system is symmetric under the positional exchange of any two
particles.
Examples: photon, phonon, all mesons (  ,  , ) etc., these are known as Bosons.
[Note: Symmetric and Anti-symmetric wave function
Suppose the allowed wave function for a n-particles system is ψ(1,2,3,…..,r,s,…n),
where the integers within the argument of ψ represent the coordinates of the n-particles
relative to some fixed origin. Now, if we interchange the positions of any two particles, say,
r and s, the resulting wave function becomes ψ(1,2,3,….s,r,…..n). The wave function ψ is
said to be symmetric when
ψ(1,2,3,…..,r,s,…n) = ψ(1,2,3,….s,r,…..n)
and anti-symmetric when
ψ(1,2,3,…..,r,s,…n) = - ψ(1,2,3,….s,r,…..n)]

Bose-Einstein Distribution Law:

Let Ni number of identical, indistinguishable, non-interacting particles are to be

distributed among gi quantum states each having energy Ei. So, in the i th energy level, there
are (Ni + gi) total objects. Keeping the first quantum state fixed, the remaining (Ni + gi - 1)

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objects can permuted in (Ni + gi - 1)! possible ways. But since the particles and the
quantum states are indistinguishable, we have to deduct Ni! ways and (gi – 1)! ways from
the all possible ways to get effective number of arrangements. Thus total number of
possible ways of arrangement for the ith state is
N i  gi  1! ………………………………………(7.19)
N i !g i  1!
Wi =

Hence the total number of ways of the entire distribution of N particles in n number of
energy levels of the system is
n N  g  1!
W=  i i
……………………………………(7.20)
i N i !g i  1!
where  denotes the product symbol.
If we assume that Ni and gi are very large, eqn. (7.120) reduces to
n N  g !
W=  i i
…………………………………………(7.21)
i !
Ni ig !
Taking natural logarithm of both the sides of eqn. (7.21) we get,

ln W =  ln( N i  g i )! ln N i ! ln g i !
i
=  N i  g i ln N i  g i   N i ln N i  g i ln g i…………………(7.22)
i
(using Stirling approximation)
Now, differentiating eqn.(7.22) to obtain the most probable distribution, we get,

d ln W max =  ln N i  g i   ln N id N i  0 ………………………(7.23)

i
Also we have other two conditions given by

 d N i  0 (conservation of total no of particles)………..(7.24)

i
 E i d N i  0 ( conservation of total energy)………..……(7.25)
i
Multiplying eqn(7.24) by (-α) and eqn.(7.25) by (-β) and then adding with eqn.(7.23) we
get,

 ln N i  g i   ln N i     E id N i 0 …………………….(7.26)

i

Since d N i ’s are independent of one another, the above equation holds only if,
g
ln N i  g i   ln N i     Ei = 0 or, Ni = 
i

………………………..(7.27)
  
e Ei  1 

Now the Bose-Einstein distribution function is given by

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 Ni 1
ƒ(Ei) =  …………………………..(7.28)
gi  
e    E i   1

which represents the probability of finding a boson with energy Ei.

7.4.3 Fermi-Dirac (FD) Statistics

The basic postulates of FD statistics are:-
(i)Particles are identical and indistinguishable.
(ii)Total energy and total number of particles of the entire system is constant
1 3 37
(iii)Particles have half-integral spin, i.e , , , etc .
2 2 2
(iv)Particles obey Pauli’s exclusion principle, i.e. no two particles in a single system can
have the same value for each of the four quantum numbers. In other words, a single energy
state can contain at best a single particle with appropriate spin.
(v) The wave function of the system is anti-symmetric under the positional exchange of any
two particles.
Examples: electron, proton, neutron, all hyperons (Λ,Σ,Ξ,Ω) etc., these are known as
Fermions.

Fermi-Dirac Distribution Law:

Consider a system of N indistinguishable, non-interacting particles obeying

Pauli’s exclusion principle. Let N1, N2, N3, ….Ni,….Nn Particles in the system have
energies E1, E2, E3, ….,Ei,…En respectively and let gi is the number of degenerate quantum
states in the energy level Ei. According to Pauli’s exclusion principle a single quantum
state can be occupied by at best one particle. Since Ni particles are to be distributed among
gi degenerate states (gi ≥ Ni) having the same energy Ei, Ni states will be filled up and (gi -
Ni) states will remain vacant. Now gi states can be arranged in gi! possible ways, . But
since the particles and the quantum states are indistinguishable, we have to deduct Ni! ways
and (gi – Ni)! ways from the all possible ways to get effective number of arrangements.
Thus total number of possible ways of arrangement for the ith state is
g i ! ………………………………(7.29)
N i !g i  N i !
Wi =

Hence the total number of ways for the entire distribution of N particles in n number of
energy levels of the system is
W= 
n g i ! ……………………………………(7.30)
i N i !g i  N i !
where  denotes the product symbol.
Now taking natural logarithm on both sides of eqn.(7.30) and applying Stirling
approximation, we get,

ln W =  ln g i  ln N i  ln g i  N i 
i

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 =  g i ln g i  N i ln N i  g i  N i ln g i  N i  …………………..……(7.31)
i
Now, differentiating eqn.(7.31) to obtain the most probable distribution, we get,

d ln W max =   ln N i  ln g i  N i d N i  0 …………………………...(7.32)

i
Considering the conservation of total energy and total number of particles, we can write

 d N i  0 (conservation of total no of particles)………..(7.33)

i
 E i d N i  0 ( conservation of total energy)………..……(7.34)
i
Multiplying eqn.(7.33) by α and eqn.(7.34) by β and then adding to eqn.(7.32) we get,

  ln N i  ln g i  N i      E i d N i  0 …………………………(7.35)
i

Since d N i ’s are independent of one another, the expression in the bracket of eqn.(7.35) is
zero for each Ni. Thus

gi
Ni  …………………………………….(7.36)
e(   E i )  1
Hence the Fermi-Dirac distribution function is given by

Ni 1
ƒ(Ei) =  ……………………………….(7.37)
g i e(   E i )  1

which represents the probability of finding a fermion with energy Ei.

7.5 Application of Fermi-Dirac statistics:

7.5.1 Fermi distribution at zero and non-zero temperature

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is
N 1
ƒ(Ei) = i 
gi e (   Ei ) 1
Now for the fermions in statistical equilibrium at absolute temperature T, it is found
that α = - EF/ kT, and β = 1/kT
Where, EF is the Fermi energy of the system (i.e. the maximum energy at absolute zero)
k is the Boltzmann constant = 1.38×10-23 Joule/Kelvin.
N
Here i is known as the occupation index.
gi

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 Thus the F-D distribution function reduces to
1
ƒ(Ei) = ……………………………(7.38)
eEi  E F  kT  1
Now, let us discuss two distinct cases.
Case – 1 ( T= 0 K)

ƒ(Ei) = 1, when Ei < EF

= 0, when Ei > EF
Thus at T = 0K, ƒ(Ei) is a step function (see fig.7.3) which implies all the energy states
upto Ei = EF are filled up and the states above EF are empty.

ƒ(Ei)

T1 T2>T1>0K
1

T = 0K
1
2
T2

0 Ei
Ei = EF

Fig.7.3: Plot of Fermi-Dirac distribution function as a function of Ei

Case – 2 ( T> 0 K)

As the temperature increases beyond T= 0K, some of the electrons in the levels just
below the Fermi level go to levels just above EF resulting a gradual change in the
1 1
occupation index ƒ(Ei). If Ei = EF, ƒ(Ei) = 0  , i.e. at a finite temperature Fermi
e 1 2
energy of a system is that energy for which 50% energy states are filled and 50% states
are vacant.

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7.5.2. Fermi energy for electron gas in metals
Metals are characterized by the presence of a good number of free electrons. These
electrons move about at random within the metals. While moving the free electrons
collide among themselves also encounter with the fixed ion cores. Such behaviour of the
free electrons is similar to that of molecules of a gas. Thus metals can be treated as
electron gas. Since the electrons have half-integral spin angular momenta and they obey
Pauli’s exclusion principle, they follow F-D statistics.
Let us consider an electron gas consisting of N electrons occupying volume V. If N
is very large, the spacing between two successive energy levels becomes very small
making the energy levels almost continuous. Then if the energy of the electrons ranges
between E to E+dE, the number of degenerate states gi should be replaced by g(E)dE and
the total number of electrons Ni in these states should be replaced by N(E)dE in the
distribution function given by equation (7.36). Thus the total number of electrons in the
electron gas having energy between E to E+dE can be written by following eqn.(7.36)and
eqn.(7.38) as
g ( E )dE
N ( E )dE  ………………………………(7.39)
 Ei  E F 
exp   1
 kT 
Since the electrons have two allowed values of spin quantum number (ms = ± ½), the total
number of their allowed states between energy for the energy range E to E+dE can be
written following eqn.(7.4) as

1
g(E)dE = 2× 3
(4  V 2E m3/2)dE…………………………(7.40)
h
Hence the density of states g(E) for a Fermionic gas is given by
1
g(E) = 3 (8πV 2mE m)……………………………………(7.41)
h
which shows that g(E) depends only on E for a single type of fermionic gas kept in a
fixed volume V.
From fig.(7.3) it is obvious that at T = 0K, all the single-particle states upto energy
EF are filled up. Thus at T = 0K,
g ( E ) dE
N ( E ) dE  
e 1
 g ( E )dE [ e = 0]…………………..(7.42)
, i.e., total number of electrons is equal to the total number of single-particle energy
states, hence
EF
N =  N ( E )dE
0
EF
=  g ( E )dE [ using eqn.(7.42)]
0

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 13

 1 EF
 3
(8 2V m3 / 2)  E
1/ 2
dE [using eqn.(7.41)]
h 0

16 2V m3 / 2 3/ 2
or, N = 3
……………………………………..(7.43)
EF
3h
which is the expression for the total number of electrons in the metal at T = 0K.
Therefore,
23
 3N  2
EF = h   ……………………….…………..(7.44)
8m  V 
which is the expression for Fermi energy of the electrons in the metal.
If n = N/V denotes the concentration of the electrons in the metal, the Fermi energy of the
electrons in the metal is
23
2
 3n 
EF = h   ………………………………….(7.45)
8m   
which shows the Fermi energy of the electrons depends solely on their concentration.

7.5.3 Total energy at absolute zero temperature:

The total energy of electrons at absolute zero (T = 0K) is given by

EF
E0tot =  E.N ( E )dE
0
EF
  E.g ( E )dE [ using eqn.(7.42)]
0

1 EF
= 3
(8 2V m3 / 2)  E
3/ 2
dE [using eqn.(7.41)]
h 0
16 2V m3 / 2 5/ 2
= 3 EF
5h
3
= N E F [ using eqn.(7.43)] ………………(7.46)
5
which shows quantum effect because, classically the total energy of a system at
absolute zero is nothing but zero.
The average energy per electron at T = 0K can be written as

E 0tot  3
<E0> =
N 5
E F ………………………………….(7.47)

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 14

 which shows that at absolute zero temperature, the average energy per electron is equal
to 3 times the Fermi energy.
5
The ground-state pressure of the system is defined by
2
P0= (2E0/3V) = n E F [ using eqn.(7.46)]..............……..(7.48)
5
Substituting for EF, the foregoing expression takes the form
2/3
2 2 3
P0 = h   n5 / 3  n5 / 3 ……………………………..(7.49)
5 8m   
Thus the ground-state pressure of an electron gas at absolute zero solely depends on its
concentration.

7.5.4 Fermi Temperature (TF):

Fermi temperature (TF) is the temperature equivalent of Fermi energy (FF)
E F , where k (= 1.38×10-23 Joule/Kelvin) is the Boltzmann
and it is defined as TF  k
constant.

7.6 Application of Bose-Einstein statistics:

7.6.1 Planck’s law of black-body radiation:

In quantum mechanics we have already established Planck’s law of black-body radiation
which exactly accounts for the observed energy density in case of a black-body radiation.
Here shall re-derive the same Planck’s law by using Bose-Einstein statistics. In order to
derive this, let us consider a black-body chamber of volume V kept at a constant
temperature T and filled with radiant energy that can be considered as an assembly of
photons. . If the number of photons in the chamber is very large, the spacing between two
successive energy levels becomes very small making the energy levels almost
continuous. Thus if the energy of the photons ranges from E to E+dE, the number of
degenerate states gi should be replaced by g(E)dE and the total number of photons Ni in
these states should be replaced by N(E)dE in the distribution function given by equation
(7.27). Thus the total number of photons in the chamber having energy between E to
E+dE can be written by following eqn.(7.27) as

The number of photons having energy range between E to E+dE can be written
by using eqn.(7.27) as given by
g E 
N ( E )dE  ………………………………….(7.48)
  E   1 dE
e
where g(E)dE is the number of states of photons having energy between E to E+dE.
In case of black-body radiation, the total number of particles is not conserved because,
photons are absorbed and re-emitted frequently by the walls of the chamber, i.e.

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 15

 d N i 0 , which implies α = 0. Also it is experimentally established that β = 1/kT,
i
where, k = 1.38×10-23 Joule/Kelvin is known as the Boltzmann constant. Thus eqn.(7.48)
reduces to
g ( E )dE
N ( E )dE  ………………………………….…….(7.49)
e
E / kT
 1
Now the number of quantum states corresponding to the momentum range from p to
p+dp is
( see eqn.7.3)
4 V p 2 dp
g ( p)dp  g s ……………………………………….(7.50)
h3
where, gs is the spin-degeneracy or duplicity of a quantum state. Since a photon has two
spin orientations in transverse direction, gs = 2 for photons.
8 V p 2 dp
 g ( p ) dp  ………………………………………….(7.51)
h3
The energy of a photon of frequency ν is E = hν and so its momentum is p = hν/c, where c
is the speed of a photon in free space.

h
d …………………………………….(7.52)
 dp =
c
Substituting the values of p and dp in eqn.(7.40), we get the number of quantum states
having frequency range between ν and ν+dν as

8 V
g ( )d  3  2 d …………………………………….(7.53)
c
Hence, expressing eqn.(7.38) in terms of ν we get,

N ( )d 
g ( )d
 .
8V  2 d
(using eqn.7.42)………………………..(7.54)
h / kT h / kT
e 1 3
c e 1
which represents the number of photons having frequency range between ν to ν+dν kept in
a chamber of volume V at temperature T.

Therefore, the energy density (total energy per unit volume) of the photons within
frequency range dν is given by
h h 8V  2 d
u ( )d  N ( )d  . .
V V c3 eh / kT  1

or, u( )d 

8h  3 d
……………………………………(7.55)
h / kT
3
c e1
which is the Planck’s law of black-body radiation that we have deduced earlier in quantum
mechanics.

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 16

 7.7 Classical Limit of Quantum
Sstatistics
The distribution functions for MB,BE and FD statistics are respectively given by

1
[ƒ(Ei)]MB = N i =    E i 
gi e
1
[ƒ(Ei)]BE = N i 
gi 
e    Ei 1 
1
[ƒ(Ei)]FD = N i 
gi e (   E i )  1
1
in above all the three cases β = .
kT

ƒ(Ei)

MB
+2 BE

+1
FD

0 (α+βEi)
-2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3

Fig. 7.4: Plot of distribution function ƒ(Ei) with (α+βEi) for the three statistics.

Thus in general the distribution function for all the three statistics can be written as

Ni 1
[ƒ(Ei)] =  …………………………..(7.56)

g i e e E i kT  

where, δ = 0 for MB statistics

δ = -1 for BE statistics

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 17

 δ = +1 for FD statistics
It is obvious that the quantum statistics (BE and FD) would tend to the classical one
(MB) only when e e E i kT » 1, then i « 1. Now the parameter α for both BE and FD
N
gi
statistics is inversely proportional to T. Thus if very high value of the temperature T
N
corresponds to very low value of i , the quantum statistics reduces to the classical one.
gi
Ni
Here is the number of particles per unit state and can be treated as the particle
gi
density. Hence under high temperature and low particle density the quantum statistics
tend to the classical one.

7.8 Degeneracy in Statistical Mechanics:

In statistical mechanics, the word ‘degeneracy’ is also used to indicate the deviation
from classical results, apart from its conventional meaning. The deviation from classical
N
results depends on the occupation index i as we have already shown in the previous
gi
section. A system is said to be
Ni
(i) strongly degenerate when »1 …………………………………….(7.57)
gi
Ni
(ii) weakly degenerate when >1 ………………………………………(7.58)
gi
Ni
(iii) non-degenerate when «1. ………………………………………(7.59)
gi

WORKED-OUT PROBLEMS

1. Find out the different macrostates and microstates of a system of three particles
distributed in three cells assuming the particles to be (i) indistinguishable, (ii)
distinguishable.
Soln.: Macrostate → specification of N,V,E
Microstate → specification of total number of ways corresponding to a specific
value of the set set {N,V,E}
Here, V, E are fixed. So macrostates and microstates would be determined only by N. For
indistinguishable particles (let,a,a,a) the all possible arrangements are shown below:

Number Macrostates Microstates No. of

microstates
1 111 a a a 1
2 210 aa a 0 1

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 18

 3 120 a aa 0 1
4 201 aa 0 a 1
5 102 a 0 aa 1
6 021 0 aa a 1
7 012 0 a aa 1
8 300 aaa 0 0 1
9 030 0 aaa 0 1
10 003 0 0 aaa 1

For distinguishable particles (let, a,b,c) the all possible arrangements are shown below:

Number Macrostates Microstates No. of

microstates
n!
n1!n 2 !n 3!
1 111 a b c
a c b 3!
b c a 6
1!1!1!
b a c
c a b
c b a
2 210 ab c 0 3!
bc a 0 3
2!1!0!
ca b 0
3 120 a bc 0 3!
b ca 0 3
1!2!0!
c ab 0
4 201 ab 0 c 3!
bc 0 a 3
2!0!1!
ca 0 b
5 102 a 0 bc 3!
b 0 ca 3
1!0!2!
c 0 ab
6 021 0 ab c 3!
0 bc a 3
0!2!1!
0 ca b
7 012 0 a bc 3!
0 b ca 3
0!1!2!
0 c ab
8 300 abc 0 0 3!
1
3!0!0!
9 030 0 abc 0 3!
1
0!3!0!

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 19

 10 003 0 0 abc 3!
1
0!0!3!

2. Two particles are to be distributed in three cells. Find out the total number of possible
ways both from formula and in tabular form if the particles follow (i) MB statistics
(ii)BE statistics (iii) FD statistics.
Soln. The total number of possible ways (microstates) in MB, BE, FD statistics are
respectively given by

N!
 
g i N i , WBE =
N i  gi  1! , g i !
N i !g i  1! N i !g i  N i !
WMB = WFD =
Ni!
Here, N = 2, Ni = 2, gi = 3. Thus,

WMB =
2! 2
. 3  9 , WBE =
2  3  1!  4!  6 , W = 3!  3!  3
FD
2! 2! (3 - 1)! 2!2! 2! (3 - 2)! 2!1!
For MB statistics , the particles are distinguishable and any state can contain any number
of particles. Let the particles are a,b.

CELL-1 CELL-2 CELL-3

ab 0 0
0 ab 0
0 0 ab
a b 0
b a 0
0 a b
0 b a
a 0 b
b 0 a

For BE statistics, the particles are indistinguishable and any state can contain any number
of particles. Let the particles are a,a.
CELL-1 CELL-2 CELL-3
aa 0 0
0 aa 0
0 0 aa
a a 0
a 0 a
0 a a

For FD statistics, the particles are indistinguishable and a single state can contain at best
one particle. Let the particles are a,a.

CELL-1 CELL-2 CELL-3

a a 0

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 20

 a 0 a
0 a a

3. A system has non-degenerate single-particle states with 0,1,2,3 energy units. Three
particles are to be distributed in these states such that the total energy of the system is
3 units. Find the number of microstates if the particles obey
(i) MB statistics (ii) BE statistics (iii)FD statistics. Find the corresponding
macrostates and microstates also.

Soln.

(i) For MB statistics, let the three particles are A,B,C and the energy unit is E.

MACRO 0E 1E 2 3E TOTAL MICRO

STATES E ENERGY STATES
AB 0 0 C
(2,0,01) BC 0 0 A 3E 3
CA 0 0 B
A B C 0
A C B 0
(1,1,1,0) B C A 0 3E 6
B A C 0
C A B 0
C B A 0
(0,3,0,0) 0 ABC 0 0
3E 1

Thus for MB statistics total number of microstates is (3+6+1) = 9.

(ii) For BE statistics, let the three particles are A,A,A and energy unit is E.

MACRO 0E 1E 2E 3E TOTAL MICRO

STATES ENERGY STATES
(1,1,1,0) A A A 0 3E 1
(2,0,0,1) AA 0 0 A 3E 1
(0,3,0,0) 0 AAA 0 0 3E 1

Thus for BE statistics total number of microstates is (1+1+1) = 3

(iii) For FD statistics, let the three particles are A,A,A and energy unit is E.

MACRO 0E 1E 2E 3E TOTAL MICRO

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 21

 STATES ENERGY STATES
(1,1,1,0) A A A 0 3E 1

Hence for FD statistics total number of microstates is 1.

4. Calculate the density of states for an electron with energy 5eV constrained to move in
a cubical box of length 0.5 mm.

Soln.: The density of states of an electron is given by

1
g(E) = 3 (8πV 2mE m) [ see eqn. (7.41)]
h
Here, V = (0.5 ×10-3)3 = 0.125×10-9 m3
E = 5eV = 5×1.6×10-19 Joule = 8×10-19 Joule
m = 9.1×10-31 Kg
h = 6.6×10-34 Joule-Sec.
Therefore, g(E) = 1.2×1037 states/Joule
Which is the required density of states for the given electron.

5. Calculate the probability of finding an electron with energy 6eV in an electron gas at
10000C if the Fermi energy of the gas is 5eV.

Soln. We know that the probability of finding an electron with energy Ei is given by
1
ƒ(Ei) =
Ei  E F  kT  1
e
Here, EF= 5eV = 5×1.6×10-19 Joule = 8×10-19 Joule
Ei = 6eV = 6×1.6×10-19 Joule = 9.6×10-19 Joule
k = 1.38×10-23Joule/Kelvin
T = 10000C = (273+1000) Kelvin = 1273 Kelvin
Thus
1 1 1
ƒ(Ei)=  9.11   1.105  104
 
 9.6  10  8  10 
19 19
e  1 9046.3
exp 
 1

 1.38  10  1273 
23

Hence the required probability is 0.01105 %.

6. If the probability of finding an electron of energy 6eV in an electron gas at 10000C is

0.01105 %, calculate the Fermi energy of the gas.

Soln. We know that the probability of finding an electron with energy Ei is given by
1
ƒ(Ei) =
Ei  E F  kT  1
e
0.01105
Here, ƒ(Ei) =
100

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 22

 Ei = 6eV = 6×1.6×10-19 Joule = 9.6×10-19 Joule
k = 1.38×10-23Joule/Kelvin
T = 10000C = (273+1000) Kelvin = 1273 Kelvin

Therefore,
0.01105 1
=
100  9.6  1019  E F 
exp 23
 1

 1.38  10  1273 
which gives EF ≈ 8×10-19 Joule = 5eV and this is the required Fermi energy
of the gas.

7. The Bose-Einstein distribution function is given by

N
ƒ(Ei) = i 
1
gi  
 
e E i   1

If    , where μ represents chemical potential; show that μ can take zero or
kT
negative values for a system of bosons.

Soln. For a system of bosons we can write

gi
Ni   
.
  E i   1
e  
Since the number of states and number of particles in a state can’t be

   E i 
negative, Ni≥0, gi≥ 0. This requires e ≥ 1. If the ground state energy is

assumed to be zero, e ≥ 1, i.e.,    ≥0  μ≤ 0 and thus proved.
kT

8. Calculate the Fermi energy for metallic silver assuming each atom of silver contains
a single free electron.[ Given: Density of silver = 10.5 gm/c.c., atomic weight of
silver = 108]

Soln. The number density of free electrons is given by

N 6.023  10 23
n=   10 .5 per c.c.= 5.9×1028 per m3
V 108
Thus the Fermi energy is given by

EF = h  3n 
2 23
=
6.61034 
2
 35.910 28 

2/3
Joule
8m    8  9.11 1031  3.14 

-19
= 8.8×10 Joule
8.8  10 19
= eV = 5.5 eV.
1.6  10 19

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 23

 9. If the Fermi energy for metallic silver is 5.5 eV. Calculate the number of free
electrons per unit volume of the metallic silver.

Soln. The Fermi energy of metallic silver is given by

23
h  3n 
2
EF = = 5.5 eV = 5.5×1.6×10-19 Joule
8m   
= 8.8×10-19 Joule

or,
6.61034 2
 3n 

2/3
  8.8  1019

8  9.11 10 
31 3.14 
On solving we get,
n ≈ 5.9×1028 per m3
which is the number of free electrons per unit volume of the metallic silver.

10. Calculate the total energy of an electron gas at absolute zero temperature for sodium
containing one free electron per atom.[ Given: Density of sodium = 9.7×103Kg/m3.,
atomic weight of sodium = 23].

Soln. Here the number density of the free electrons is

N 6.023  10 23
n=   9.7  10 3 per m3 = 2.54×1029 per m3
V 108
Therefore the Fermi energy is given by

EF = h
2
 3n 
  =
23
 
6.610  34  3 2.5410 29 
2 2/3
Joule
8m    8  9.11 1031  3.14 

= 23.2×10-19 Joule
Hence the total energy per unit volume at absolute zero is

Etot 
1
E 0tot  3 . N . E F  3 .n. E F
V 5 V 5
3
  2.54 1029  23.2 1019 Joule/m3
5
= 35.36×1010 Joule/m3

11. Calculate the ground-state pressure of an electron gas for sodium containing one
free electron per atom. .[ Given: Density of sodium = 9.7×103Kg/m3.,atomic weight
of sodium = 23].

Soln. The Fermi energy(EF) and number density (n) of sodium is respectively given by
EF = 23.2×10-19 Joule
n = 2.54×1029 per m3

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 24

 [ see Worked-out problem No. 10]

Hence the ground-state pressure is

2
P0 = n E F
5
2
=  2.54  1029  23.2  1019 Newton/m2
5
= 23.57×1010 Newton/m2
which is the required ground-state pressure.

12. Show that sodium behaves as a metal in ordinary room temperature[ Given: Density
of sodium =9.7×103Kg/m3.,atomic weight of sodium = 23].

Soln. The Fermi energy of sodium is

EF = 23.2×10-19 Joule. [see Worked-out problem No. 10]
By definition , the Fermi temperature is given by
TF = EF/k
23.2  10 -19 Joule
= = 16.81×104 Kelvin
1.38  10 Joule / Kelvin
- 23

which is the Fermi temperature of sodium.

Since this Fermi temperature is very very larger than ordinary room temperature (≈
300 Kelvin), the valence band overlaps with conduction band in sodium at room
temperature. Hence sodium behaves as a metal at ordinary room temperature.

13. Show that the average momentum per electron at absolute zero temperature is
3
<p0> = p F , where pF is the Fermi momentum (i.e., momentum equivalent of
4
Fermi energy).

Soln. The total momentum of electrons in an electron gas at absolute zero(T = 0K)
temperature is given by
pF
 
p 0 tot =  p.N ( p)dp ……………………………(7.60)
0

We know that at T = 0K,

N(E)dE = g(E)dE [ see eqn.(7.42)]
1
= 3 (8πV 2mE m)dE [ see eqn.(7.40)]
h
2
p
But in non-relativistic limit, E = ……………………………………………..(7.61)
2m
p
Also, dE = dp …………………………………………..(7.62)
m

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 25

 And the Fermi momentum is defined as pF  E F ………………………….….….(7.63)
2m
Thus using eqn.(7.60) and eqn.(7.61) we get,
N(p)dp = g(p) dp
8V
2
p
= 3
dp …………………………………………….….(7.64)
h
3/ 2
 p2 
16 2V m 3/ 2
3/ 2 16 2V m 3/ 2
 F
Also from eqn.(7.43), , N = 3 EF =  2m 
3h 3 h3
 
8V 3
= p F ………………….……..(7.65)
3 h3
Now on using eqn.(7.64) in eqn.(7.60) we get,
p F 8V p2
 p0tot =  p. 3 dp
0 h
4
8V p F
= .
3 4
h
8V pF 3
= 3
. . pF
h 4
8V pF 3N h3
= . . [using eqn.(7.65)]
h
3 4 8V
3
= .N. p F
4
Therefore,
Average momentum per electron at absolute zero temperature is
 p0tot 3
<p0> =  pF ………………………..(7.66)
N 4
and hence proved.

14. Calculate the number of photons per unit m3 at 1000 Kelvin.

Soln. The number of photons per unit volume in the frequency range ν to ν+dν is
given by
8  2 d
N(ν)d ν = . [see eqn.(7.54)]
3 h / kT
c e  1
Therefore the total number of photons per unit volume having all possible energies
is

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 26

 
8   2 d
N=  N ( )d   ………………………(7.67)
h / kT
0 c
3
0e 1
h kT
Putting  x , such that d  dx in eqn.(7.67) we get,
kT h
3

N = 8 
 kT   x2 dx
 x
 hc  0 e  1
 2
dx
From standard results we get,  xx =2.405
0 e 1
3
 1.38 10 231000 
Therefore, N = 8  3.14   343 8 
  2.405
 6. 610 10 
= 2.045  1016 photons
which is the required number of photons per unit m3 at 1000 Kelvin.

15. Considering a relativistic particle (e.g. electron, proton etc.), calculate the density of
states .
Soln. We know that the number of quantum states in the momentum range from p to
p+dp is
V .4 p2 dp
g(p)dp = [see eqn.(7.3)]
h3

For a relativistic particle the total energy is given by

E2 = m02 c 4  p c 2 ……………………………….(7.68)
2

where, m0 is the rest mass of the particle and c is the speed of light in free space.
So, we can write from eqn.(7.68) that
p  ( E 2  m02 c 4) / c 2 ……………………………..(7.69)
2

and pdp  EdE / c 2 ……………………………………(7.70)

Hence the number of quantum states in the energy range from E to E+dE is
1/ 2
4V ( E  m 0 c ) EdE
2 2 4
g(E)dE = 3 2
…………….(7.71)
h c c
So, the density of states is
g(E) = 
4VE 2 2 4 1 / 2
3 3 E
h c
m c
0

for E ≥ m0 c2

=0 for E< m0 c2 ……………………(7.72)

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 27

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ASSIGNMENTS

1. Calculate the number of possible ways by which three particles can be distributed
in thee cells following (i) MB statistics, (ii) BE statistics, (iii) FD statistics
[ Ans. MB – 27, BE – 10,FD – 1]

2. Three distinguishable particles each of which can be in one of the E,2E,3E,4E

energy states have total energy 6E. Find all possible number of distributions of all
particles in the energy states. Find the number of microstates in each case.
[Ans.No. of macrostates =3, No.of microstates = 10.]

3. Consider a two particle system each of which can exists in states E1,E2 andE3.What
are the possible states if the particles are (i) bosons, (ii) fermions?
[Ans.BE – 6, FD – 3]

4. Calculate the probability of finding an electron with energy 6.125 eV in an

electron gas at temperature 9910C if the Fermi energy of the gas 5.6 eV.
[Ans. 0.8%]

5 .Calculate the Fermi energy and Fermi temperature of a monovalent solid of

density 0.97 gm/c.c. and atomic weight 23.
[Ans.3.145 eV]

5. Show that the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron in an electron

gas at absolute zero is
1/ 3
  
 F  2   , where n0 is the number of electrons per c.c. of the gas.
 3 n0 
6. Calculate the average velocity per electron at absolute zero in terms of Fermi
velocity (VF).
3
[Ans.<V0> = V F ]
4
8. Show that the derivative of the Fermi function ƒ(E) with respect to E is

 ƒ(E)
symmetrical about EF and that  dE  1 .
 E

9. Distinguish between MB statistics and FD statistics in respect to ground-state

pressure.

10. Using BE distribution law, deduce Planck’s law of black-body radiation and

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 28

 hence derive Wien’s displacement law.

11. If the density of zinc is 7130 kg/m3 and its atomic weight is 65.4, calculate its
Fermi temperature and hence prove that zinc is metal at ordinary room
temperature.[Given: the effective mass of a free electron in zinc crystal is
7.7×10-31 kg, Avogadro number = 6.023×1026atom/kg-atom.
[Ans.11.58×105K]

12 Fermi energy of copper is 7 eV at room temperature. What is the number of free

electrons per unit volume at that temperature.
[8.39×1028 per m3]

REFERENCES
1. Statistical Mechanics – Kerson Huang.
2. Statistical Mechanics – R.K. Pathria (Elsevier Publication)
3. Statistical Mechanics – Satyaprakash & Agarwal.

MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE QUESTIONS

1.How many energy states are there in energy level represented by n = 4?
(i) 4 (ii) 8 (iii) 16 (iv) 32

2.A coin and a six-faced dice are thrown. The probability that the coin shows head and
the dice shows 2 is
(i) ¼ (ii) 1/12 (iii) 1/6 (iv) 1/8

3.In MB statistics, which of the following statements is correct?

(i) particles are identical
(ii) particles are distinguishable
(iii) particles are indistinguishable
(iv) particles are identical but indistinguishable.

4. The number of macrostates for N particles in MB statistics is

(i) N (ii) N-1 (iii) N+1 (iv)N+2

5. Any number of particles can be accommodated in an energy state for

(i) MB statistics only.
(ii)BE statistics only
(iii) FD statistics only
(iv) both MB and BE statistics

6.Spin angular momentum for bosons is

(i) always zero
(ii)always integer

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 29

 (iii)zero or half-integer
(iv) zero or integer

7.Pauli’s exclusion principle is obeyed by

(i) MB statistics
(ii) BE statistics
(iii)FD statistics
(iv)both MB and BE statistics.

8. Two distinguishable particles can be distributed in three separated quantum states by

(i) 3 ways (ii) 6 ways (iii) 9 ways (iv) 12 ways

9. Photons have spin angular momentum

1
(i) ħ (ii) 0 (iii) ħ (iv) 1
2

10.MB statistics is applicable for

(i) photons (ii)ideal gas (iii)phonons (iv)electron

11.Which of the following statements is wrong?

(i) MB statistics deals with distinguishable particles
(ii) FD statistics deals with indistinguishable particles
(iii)BE statistics deals with indistinguishable particles
(iv)Bosons are subjected to Pauli’s exclusion principle.

12.If Ni is the number of identical and indistinguishable particles in the ‘i’ th energy state
with degeneracy gi then classical statistics can be applied if

(i)
Ni = 1 (ii)
N i <<1 (iii)
N i >>1 (iv)gi = 0
gi gi gi

13.The number of possible arrangement of two fermions in 3 cells is

(i) 9 (ii) 6 (iii) 3 (iv) 1

14.A system is called strongly degenerate if

(i)
Ni = 1 (ii)
N i <<1 (iii)
N i >>1 (iv)gi = 0
gi gi gi

15. Fermi energy of an electron gas is proportional to concentration of electrons (n) as

(i) n3/2 (ii) n5/2 (iii) n1/2 (iv) n7/2

16. Ground-state pressure of an electron gas is proportional to concentration of electrons

(n) as
(i) n3/2 (ii) n2/3 (iii) n5/3 (iv) n3/5

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 30

17.The probability of finding an electron with its energy equal to its Fermi energy at any
temperature is
(i) 10% (ii)30% (iii)50% (iv)70%

18.The duplicity or degeneracy of each quantum state for photons is

(i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii)3 (iv) 4

19. The Fermi temperature of a fermionic system with Fermi energy 1.38 eV is
(i)1.6×102 K (ii)1.6×104 K (iii) 1.6×106 K (iv)1.6×108 K

20. Planck’s law of black-body radiation is valid for

(i) all wavelength regions
(ii) infrared region only
(iii) ultraviolet region only
(iv) microwave region only.

Answers to the Multiple choice type questions:

1.(iv) 2.(ii) 3.(ii) 4.(iii) 5.(iv) 6.(iv) 7.(iii) 8.(iii 9.(i) 10.(ii) 11.(iv) 12.(ii) 13.(iii) 14.(iii)
15.(i) 16.(iii) 17.(iii) 18.(ii) 19.(ii) 20.(i)

Prepared by Prof. P.P.Das 31