CHAPTER 7: ETHICAL AND SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Human’s Right to Science & Technology
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) –
important document in the history of human rights
 Adopted/proclaimed by United Nations
General Assembly in Paris on 10 December
1948
 Motivated by the events during the World War
II, drafted by representatives of different
backgrounds from all over the world
 Contains a preamble and 30 articles
UDHR preamble: “recognition of the inherent dignity
and the equal and inalienable rights of all members of
the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice,
and peace in the world: (UN General Assembly, 1948)
 Article 1 – Right to equality
 Article 2 – Freedom from discrimination
 Article 3 – Right to life, liberty, and personal
security
 Article 4 – Freedom from slavery or servitude
 Article 5 – Freedom from torture and degrading
treatment
 Article 27 – “everyone has the right to
participate in the cultural life of the community
and to share in scientific advancement and its
benefits.”
o also called the Right to Science and
Culture (one of the core economic,
social, and cultural rights)
 Article 15 of the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR)
Covenant – a treaty adopted by the UN General
Assembly on 1 December 1966
7.1 Ethical Dimension of Science and Technology
 Nuremberg Trials – members of Nazi party
were tried for war crimes
 Doctors’ Trial – trial prosecuted physicians
involved in unethical human experimentation
 Nuremberg Code – No human subject should be
forced to participate in experiments that will
yield harm or injury
o Contained elements of ethical medical
experiments
o Landmark document in clinical research
ethics
o Declaration of Helsinki – document
outlining ethical principles in research
ethics | published by World Medical
Association (WMA) in 1975
 Applied Ethics – a branch of ethics of moral
philosophy
o examines specific issues such as
abortion, animal rights, and
environmental concerns
o it serves as the purpose of providing a
moral point of view
 Science has a social dimension; it is ultimately
tied to its ethical dimension
7.1.1 Ethical Decision-making in Science
Essential Elements in Making a Decision
1. Identifying stakeholders.
2. Identifying possible options or course of action.
3. Review arguments for each option.
4. Making a rational choice from the available
options backed with the strongest set of moral
reasons or principles
 Moral principles provide distinctive guidance in
making ethical decisions but usually in conflict with
non-moral reasons (self-interest, efficiency,
economy)
 Ex. Medical Ethics – 4 principles: autonomy, non-
maleficence, beneficence, justice
Ethical Matrix – ethical tool developed to help in
decision-making
 Developed by Ben Mepham in 1990s
 Aims to assist non-philosophers in appreciating
the value of ethical insights to arrive at ethical
judgments
 First applied to emerging biotechnologies (ex.
Genetically modified organisms)
 Contains 3 principles: well-being, autonomy
and fairness
o Well-being – maximization of good
o Autonomy – freedom
o Fairness – respect for justice and the law
 PROS: the effect of technology to the well-
being, autonomy, and justice of different
interest groups are individually examined |
concerns of all groups are addressed | identify
ethically relevant considerations
 CONS: not giving weight to the different
considerations. Thus, may not help reach a
decision.
  Ethical Tools: Ethical Delphi, consensus
conferences, convergence seminars
Table 7.1 Example of Ethical Matrix
7.1.2 Code of Ethics of Scientists and Engineers
Codes of Ethics – exist in order to guide scientists and
engineers to perform their work in an ethical manner
 COE purposes:
1. Establish standards of conduct in cases
not dictated by common sense.
2. Formulate rules to govern a practice or
discipline.
3. Provide a framework for resolving
conflicts.
4. Manage the expectation of the public in
a practice or discipline.
Hippocratic Code – an old code used by medical
practitioners
 Recent and revised codes for the medical field:
American Medical Association (AMA) Code of
Medical Ethics and the Declaration of Geneva
by the World Medical Association (WMA)
Ethical Principles and Guidelines for Filipino Scientists
 Published by National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST) in 2009
 Consists of preamble and 8 general principles
 Aims to guide Filipino scientists to achieve a
high level of professional and ethical behavior.
EPGFS preamble: “Scientific research as a public
trust – Since the general public does not have the
means of verifying the results of the work of
scientists, the burden of making sure that their
work is correct lies on the scientists themselves.”
EPGFS General Principles
1. Ethical scientific practices –
2. Ethical use of science in Philippine
society –
3. Conflict of interest –
4. Intellectual Honesty –
5. Weighing the benefits of science vis-à-
vis potential harm –
6. Commitment to professional
development as scientists –
7. Development of students and other
stakeholders –
8. Advocacy for scientific approaches –
NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers
 By the National Society of Professional
Engineers (NSPE) of the United States of
America
 Contains ff. sections: preamble, fundamental
canons, rules of practice, professional
obligations
 Engineers should be honest, impartial, and fair;
they should also be dedicated to safeguarding
the health, safety, and welfare of the public
Code of Ethics for the Chemistry Practitioners
 In addition to moral responsibilities, scientists
and engineers are also bound by social
responsibilities. Their works concern the public
and environment.
 Article 1 – it is stated that chemistry
professionals have an obligation to the society
 Sec. 3 of General Principles – chemistry are
required to abide by rules and regulations
protecting the environment
 Social dimension of science – science is not
only a personal but also a community endeavor
7.2 Social Dimension of Science and Technology: the
Device Paradigm
Technology
 refers to the techniques and processes used to
achieve a certain purpose
 knowledge of such techniques and processes
 technology being considered as object,
knowledge and activity
 technology can be viewed as an intention – the
commitment to a goal
New Way of Thinking about Technology
 In 1984, Albert Borgmann
 3 essential types of approaches:
o Substantive view – technology as a
force of its own, capable of shaping
society without interventions from
other sources
o Instrumentalist view – technology as a
mere instrument to achieve social
values
o Pluralist view – dynamic interactions
between technology and social values
as a complex web
  Promise of technology: “bring the forces of
nature and culture under control, to liberate us
from misery and toil, and to enrich our lives”
 Device paradigm – things are distinguished
from devices.
 Things – when a technology is inseparable from
its social context
 When people interact with things, there is
personal and social engagement
 Devices – if the social context is removed, a tool
used as a means to an end
 Devices become readily available because they
operate in an instantaneous, ubiquitous, safe,
and easy way (Borgmann, 1984)
 Technology can help us achieve the good life.
However, if we simple consume technology as
mere devices, we may not be able to fully
realize our goal of freedom and happiness.
(Strong, 2014)
7.3 Robotics: an Example of Contemporary Issue in
Science and Technology
The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend
Human Biology by Ray Kurzweil
 He identifies technologies capable of driving the
society to singularity – the point wherein the
intelligence of machines converge with that of
humans
 3 such technologies: genetics, nanotechnology,
and robotics (GNR)
 GNR can threaten to make humans an
endangered species (Bill Joy – cofounder of Sun
Microsystems)
7.3.1 Background on Robotics
Robotics – use and development of robots
(programmable machines that are capable of motion
and interaction with their surroundings).
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) – a field of study that
seeks to develop intelligent computational
systems
 Ancient Greeks had the concepts of robots but
only come into use in 1921.
 Karel Capek’s play Rossum’s Universal Robots –
depicted machines that serve as humanoid
slaves
 Robot came from Czech word robota which
means forced labor.
Classifications of Robots
 International Federation of Robotics classified
robots as:
 (1) Service Robots – find domestic and field
applications
 (2) Industrial Robots – strictly used in industrial
setting
 ISO 8373:2012 – defines:
o service robots – “that perform useful
tasks for humans or equipment
excluding industrial automation
applications”
o industrial robots – “automatically
controlled, reprogrammable,
multipurpose manipulators
programmable in three or more axes” |
can be stationary or mobile
 Unimate – first programmable robot to be
employed in a factory
o Developed by George Devol in 1954
o Developed further by Unimation, Inc.
founded in 1956 by:
o Joseph Engelberger – the “Father of
Robotics”
 Robot’s Autonomy:
o Partially autonomous robots – require
human input
o Fully autonomous robots – usually
equipped with artificial intelligence,
capable of interacting with their
surroundings, working for long times
7.3.2 Roboethics and Ethical Issues in Advanced
Robotics
 Different from other technologies since you
have to treat robots as both technologies and
entities
Roboethics – a field of ethics made out of the existence
of robots capable of acting autonomously and their
imminent integration to the society
 Coined by the robot scientist Gianmarco
Veruggio
 Aims to develop scientific, cultural, and
technical tools that will encourage the
beneficial use of robotics for the society and
prevent its misuse against humanity
Three Laws of Robotics
 Formulated by Isaac Asimov (1940)
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey orders given it by human beings
except where such orders would conflict with the
First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as
such protection does not conflict with the First or
Second Law.
Zeroth Law of Robotics
- A robot should not bring harm to humanity,
through action or inaction.
 Surgical robots can allow for telesurgery – wherein
in the surgeon and the patient are separated by
long distances
 Zornosa and associates proposed that the liability
can be distributed among the involved parties such
as the producer, the programmer, and the owner.
 Robotic liability matrix – assigns weights to the
liabilities that are to be shouldered by the involved
parties.
Roboethical Issue/s: Humanoid robots
 Social Robots – capable of interacting with
humans in a human-like fashion
o Ex. ASIMO (Advanced Step in Innovative
Mobility) by Honda – a bipedal robot
that is being developed to be capable of
integrating to domestic environments
such as in home and offices
o Sophia by Hanson Robotics – a human-
like robot that is being developed as an
AI-robot |creators envision a future
wherein human-AI collaboration leads
to symbiosis.
o 2017 Future Investment Summit in
Saudi, Arabia – Sophia was the first
robot granted a Saudi Arabian
citizenship
o Controversial issue can be resolved in
the most practical way – how the
benefits outweigh the harms
CONCLUSION
 As our knowledge about the natural and
physical world continue to expand, the
complexity of ethical and social issues involving
S&T increases. In the end, it is up to us humans
to control our conduct and direct our intentions
– S&T may be limitless but the correct course of
action is quite limited.
CHAPTER 8: INFORMATION AGE
INFORMATION AGE
 A time period in which people could access
information and knowledge easily
 aka the Computer Age, Digital Age, or New
Media Age
 current period of human history
THEORY OF THE INFORMATION AGE
 first conceived by James R. Messenger in 1982
o an American Telephone and Telegraph
employee
o published a book entitled “The Death of
the American Telephone & Telegraph
Company”
 introduced a true new age
based upon the power of ideas
 led to the creation of global
digital communications
infrastructure that enables
worldwide interconnection of
computers
o known as The Father of Information
Age
8.1 History of Information Age
Johannes Gutenberg
 made the first version of Printing Press
 500 years ago, Gutenberg initiates an
information and communications revolution
o Experts identified this as the start of
Information Age
o It has social, economic, and political
consequences
PERIODS OF SHARP ACCELERATION/REVOLUTIONS IN
INFORMATION
1. Print Based/Gutenberg Era
 first information is print based
 mass distribution of information
became possible
 expensive therefore institutionalized
 2. Pre-digital
 Dominated by pre-digital developments
 Computers started to be introduced
3. World Wide Web
 Introduction of internet
 So much technological advancement
has taken place
DIFFERENT ERAS (that paved the way for the
Information Age)
 Renaissance Era
o Create the idea of inventions, which
were used to develop modern
inventions
 Scientific Revolution
o Introduce important scientists such as
Galileo, Copernicus, and Isaac Newton
o Their discoveries led to the
development of modern tools,
inventions, and innovations
 Industrial Revolution
o Brought major changes in agriculture,
manufacturing, mining, transportation,
most especially in communication &
information technology
TIMELINE OF THE IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS OF
INFORMATION AGE
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer)
o First electronic general-purpose computer
o Start date for the modern era of the
information age
o February 15, 1946
o Built by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert
o Used by the US Army to compute World
War II ballistic firing tablets
o ENIAC’s field of application: weather
prediction, atomic-energy calculations,
cosmic-ray studies, thermal ignition,
random-number studies, wind-tunnel
design, and other scientific uses.
o Became obsolete because of the need for
faster computing speeds
o Computers were very bulky
o ENIAC used panel-to-panel wiring and
switches for programming
o Occupied 1,000+ sq. ft., used 18k vacuum
tubes, weighed 30 tons
 UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)
o First American commercial computer
designed for business use
o Used in the US Census Bureau in 1951
o Weighed 16k pounds, used 5k vacuum
tubes, could perform about 1k calculations
per second
ACCESS TO INFORMATION
 INTERNET
o Achieved the flow of information
o First developed by the US Department of
the Defense
o To ensure that information could still be
disseminated in case of attack during a war
 ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network)
o The network that ultimately evolved into
what we know as the internet
o Used mainly by scientists to communicate
with other scientists
o Remained under government control until
1984
 World Wide Web (WWW)
o Led to more access to information
o Simply referred as the Web
o Aug. 23, 1991, users accessed the WWW
for the first time
o Paving the way for the dependence on
internet
o Web – “combination of all resources and
users on the internet that are using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP); and
the universe of network-accessible
information, and embodiment of human
knowledge.” (Rouse, 2017)
INTERNET
 A global network of networks
 To illustrate, an infrastructure
 A big bookstore
WEB
 A collection of information which is accessed via
internet
 To illustrate, web is service on top of that
infrastructure
 A collection of books on that bookstore
 Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer are accessed in
the internet via the World Wide Web
Table 8.1 Timeline of Information Age TYPES OF COMPUTERS ON THE BASIS OF SIZE

8.2 Computers and Mobile Phones Super Computer

Invention and development of computers and mobile
phones provided a major defining event that
accelerated the advent of Information Age
8.2.1 Computers
Technopedia – defines a computer as “a machine or
device that performs processes, calculations and
operations based on instructions provided by a
software or hardware program. It is designed to execute
applications and provides a variety of solutions by
combining integrated hardware and software
components.”
 Fastest and most powerful type of computer
 Very expensive
 Employed for specialized applications that
require immense amounts of mathematical
calculations
 Channels all its power into executing a few
programs as fast as possible
 Can execute a single program faster than a
mainframe
 Ex. application: weather forecasting, animated
graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear
energy research, petroleum exploration

 Computers differ on their data processing abilities. Mainframe Computer

 Classified accdg. to purpose, data handling, and
 Very large and expensive computer capable of
functionality
supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
TYPES OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO PURPOSE users simultaneously
 Uses its power to execute many programs
General Purpose Specific Purpose concurrently
Computers Computers  Supports more simultaneous programs than
 Designed to perform a  Designed to handle a supercomputers
range of tasks specific problem or to
 Have the ability to perform a specific task Mini Computer or Server
store numerous  A set of instructions is
 Midsized computer
programs built into the machine
 Possesses a multiprocessing system capable of
 Lack in speed and
supporting from 4 to about 200 users
efficiency
simultaneously

Micro Computer or Personal Computer

TYPES OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO
FUNCTIONALITY  Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini
computer sufficient to fit on a desk
Analog Digital Hybrid
 Laptop Computer: a portable computer
Computer Computer Computer
complete with an integrated screen and
(Analog+Digital)
keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a
Uses continuous Performs Capable of
desktop computer and larger than a notebook
physical calculations, and inputting and
phenomena such computer.
logical outputting in
as electrical,  Palmtop Computer/Digital
operations with both digital and
mechanical, or Diary/Netbook/Personal Digital Assistant
quantities analog signals
hydraulic (PDA): a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have
quantities to
represented as offers a cost
no keyboard but the screen serves both as an
model the digits, usually in effective method
input and output device.
problem being the binary of performing
solved number system complex Workstation
simulations
 Terminal or desktop computer in a network
 Generic term for a user’s machine (client’s
machine) n contrast to a “server” or
“mainframe”
If our brain is a computer, it could perform 38 trillion
operations a second. That is 500 times more than the
world’s fastest supercomputer.
SUMMIT
 June 2019, fastest supercomputer
 Has a storage capacity of 148.6 petabytes (PB)
which is 1 million times a gigabyte (GB)
 Currently owned by the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory of the US Department of Energy
 Used to process vast amount of genetic data
and identify genes that may be more
susceptible to pain and opioid addiction with
promising treatments
 Used in projects ranging from bioenergy to
clinical genomics
IBM Blue Gene
 May 2013, Philippines was the first ASEAN
country to possess a supercomputer
 Utilized by the DOST’s Nationwide Operational
Assessment of Hazards (Project NOAH)
 Expected to greatly enhance the climate
specific weather forecasts and extend weather
prediction from three days up to seven days
 Useful in the area of genomics from the varietal
improvement of crops, livestock, and other raw
materials
 to drug discovery and development of
advanced, personalized medicines, and
diagnostic tests
8.2.2 Mobile Phones
Motorola DynaTAC 8000X
 First commercial mobile phone
 World’s first mobile phone call was made on
April 3, 1973 when Martin Cooper, a senior
engineer at Motorola, called a rival
telecommunications company
Angler
 First commercially available device
 referred to as a “smartphone” began as a
prototype
 developed by Frank Canova in 1992 while at
IBM
 A refined version was marketed to consumers in
1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon
Personal Communicator
 “smartphone” was not coined until a year after
the introduction of the Simon, appearing in
print as early as 1995
Figure 8.4 First Commercial Mobile Phone
Phone started as bulky but later became handy and
small but with the advent of more sophisticated
technology, it continued to evolve and become huge
again.
Figure 8.5 Evolution of Mobile Phones
8.3 Social Media and Social Networking Sites
Social Media
 “a computer-based technology that facilitates
the sharing of ideas, thoughts, and information
through the building of virtual networks and
communities.” (Wikipedia)
McMillian (2011) describes Social Media as a platform
for broadcasting information, whereas Social
Networking is a platform for communicating with one
another. | Social Media is a communications channel,
whereas Social Networking, the communication has a
two-way nature
 2019 Global Digital report revealed that there
are more than 5 billion people around the world
using the internet, more than half of the world’s
population who are now online. (Kemp, 2019)
STATISTICS OF USERS
 5.11 billion unique mobile users in the world
today, increase of 100 million (2%) in past yr
 4.39 billion internet users in 2019, increase of
366 million (9%) vs. January 2018
 3.48 billion social media users in 2019, growing
by 288 million (9%) since this time last 2018
 3.26 billion people use social media on mobile
devices in January 2019, growth of 297 million
new users representing a yr-on-yr increase of
more than 10%
 People have 7.6 social media accounts, average
daily time spent on social media as of Jan. 2018
is 142 minutes a day
Figure 8.6 Timeline of Social Media
 Friendster
o Founded by Jonathan Abrams (Canadian
computer programmer) in 2002
o A social networking service website but
redesigned and relaunched as a social
gaming platform
 LinkedIn
o Founded on 2002, relaunched after 6 mos.
o Considered as the most popular social
media site for professional networking
o Available in 24 languages, has over 400
million registered users
 MySpace
o an American social networking website
o launched in 2004 by Tom Anderson, Chris
DeWolfe, and Jon Hart
o offers an interactive, user-submitted
network of friends, personal profiles, blogs,
groups, photos, music, and videos
o most visited social networking site in the
world from 2005-2008
 Skype
o First released in August 2003
o Created by the Swede Niklas Zennstrom,
and the Dane Janus Friis, in cooperation
with Ahti Heinla, Priit Kasesalu, and Jaan
Tallinn
o First to add videoconferencing in 2006
 Facebook
o Launched and founded by Mark Zuckerberg
with his roommates & fellow Harvard
University student Eduardo Saverin in early
2004
o was first limited to Harvard students but
expanded until it became worldwide
o most popular site with 2.3 billion users
followed by YouTube with 1.9 billion people
users
 YouTube
o History started when PayPal employees
created a video-sharing website where
users could upload, share, and view content
o Internal domain www.youtube.com was
activated on Monday, Feb. 14, 2005,
9:13pm
 Twitter
o Created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey,
Noah Glass, Biz Stone, Evan Williams
o Launched in July 2006
o An online news and social networking
service where users post and interact with
messages “tweets”, restricted to 140
characters
 Tumblr
o a microblogging and social networking
website founded by David Karp in 2007
o Owned by Oath Inc.
o Allows users to post multimedia and other
content to a short-form blog
o Users can follow other users’ blogs
o can make their blogs private
 BizSugar
o a social networking platform and niche
resource for small business owners,
entrepreneurs, and managers
o created in 2007 by DBH Communications,
Inc. – a provider award-winning business
publications
o later acquired by Small Business Trends LLC
in 2009
 Facebook Messenger
o a messaging app and platform.
o Developed as Facebook Chat in 2008
o Revamped in 2010 and subsequently
released standalone apps in August 2011
 Instagram
o Created by Kevin Systrom, Mike Krieger
o Launched in October 2010
o Free mobile app exclusively for the iOS
operating system
o A mobile, desktop, and internet-based
photo-sharing application and service
o Allows users to share pictures and videos
either publicly or privately
 Pinterest
o A web and mobile application startup that
operates a software system designed to
discover information on the World Wide
Web
o Founded by Ben Silbermann, Paul Sciarra,
Evan Sharp
o Development began in December 2009
o Site launched as a closed beta in March
2010, proceeded to operate in invitation-
only open beta
 Viber
o Launched in 2010, a cross-platform voice
over IP and instant messaging software
application
o Operated by Japanese multinational
company Rakuten, provided as freeware for
the Android, iOS, MS, macOS & Linux
platforms
8.4 Issues and Concern of Information Age
8.4.1 Health Risks
Being overexposed to digital media can take a toll on
your mental and emotional well beings well as cause
various physical problems
8.4.1.1 Eyestrain and Hearing Problems
 Felt (2018) – headphones at high volumes can
reach 105 decibels
 Listening with headphones at high volume for 5
minutes per day can increase risk for
permanent hearing loss
 Computer Vision Syndrome – a condition
resulting from focusing the eyes on a computer
or other display device for uninterrupted
periods of time | makes the eye muscles unable
to recover from the strain due to a lack of
adequate sleep
8.4.1.2 Brain Cancer
 Cellular phones emit a form of radiation called
radio-frequency energy or radio waves.
 Radiation produced by x-ray machines is known
to raise cancer risk, leading experts to question
whether cell phones might also pose a risk.
RESEARCH STUDIES
 Inskip et al. – examined temporal trends in
brain cancer incidence rates using data
collected by Surveillance, Epidemiology and
End Results Program, found out the incidence
do not support that cellular phone use causes
brain cancer
 Hardell et al. –investigates the use of mobile
phone and the risk of malignant brain tumors,
confirmed the results of an association between
them
8.4.1.3 Depression
 Elison et al. – social media users may
experience decreased depression due to
perceived social support, and life satisfaction.
Figure 8.8 Effect of Social Media to the User
8.4.1.4 Accidents
RA Act No. 10913 Anti-Distracted Driving Act of 2016 –
“bans the use of a mobile communications devices to
write, send, or read text-based communications or to
make or receive calls.”
8.4.2 Information Overloading
“Information Overload” – a situation in which too much
information is given at one time which can cause the
inability to think clearly.
 Coined by Bertram Gross – The Managing of
Organizations
 Popularized by Alvin Toffler – Future Shock
8.4.3 Data Privacy
Data Privacy (Information Privacy) – the necessity to
preserve and protect any personal information,
collected by any organization, from being accessed by a
third party.
 a part of Information Technology that helps an
individual or an organization determine what data
within a system can be shared with others and
which should be restricted
8.4.3.1 Data Privacy Act of the Philippines
RA Act No. 10173 Data Privacy Act (DPA) of 2012 –
protects individuals from unauthorized processing of
personal information that is private and identifiable |
President Benigno Aquino
Figure 8.7 What Data Privacy Act of 2012 entails
8.4.4 Cybercrime
Techopedia defines cybercrime as – “a crime in which a
computer is the object of the crime (hacking, phishing,
spamming) or is used as a tool to commit an offense
(child pornography, hate crimes).”
8.4.4.1 Cybercrime Prevention Act of the Philippines
RA Act No. 10175 Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012
penalizes offenses against the confidentiality, integrity
and availability of computer data and system, such as
illegal access, illegal interference, data interference,
system interference, misuse of devices, and
cybersquatting
8.4.5 Fake News
Fake news – aka junk news or pseudo-news, as a “type
of yellow journalism or propaganda that consists of
deliberate disinformation of hoaxes.
CHAPTER 9: BIODIVERSITY AND THE HEALTHY SOCIETY
9.1 Overview of Biodiversity
Biodiversity (Biological Diversity)
 Encompasses the variety of all life on earth
 The biodiversity that makes up the earth today
is the outcome of over 3 billion years of
evolutionary history
 Continuously shaped by natural processes and
greatly by the influence of humans
 It forms the web of life in which we greatly
depend
Figure 9.1 the Biodiversity of the Earth
bacteria, fungi, animals,
5000protists, 63665 280000
55000
plants,
insects, 240000
900000
 Global importance is reflected in the:
o Frequent usage of the term not just in
the academe, also by politicians,
advocates conservationists, scientists
 Difficulties in coming up with a universal,
objective, and scientific definition:
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
o Hard to exclude something from such a
broad term
o Hard to aggregate all the definitions of
biodiversity because its definition
depends on what values are important
to the one defining it
 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity –
defined biodiversity as “the variability among
living organisms from all sources including, inter
alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part: this includes diversity
within species, between species, and of
ecosystems.”
o Encompasses all kinds of life forms,
from single-celled to the largest multi-
celled organisms
o Includes variety of organisms & all
ecosystems
 Species richness – variety is commonly
measured by counting all species in an area
o Species count is weighted differently for
each species
o Number of species in a region, and their
abundance relative in that area (species
evenness)
 Another way of weighing species diversity is to
recognize the unique biodiversity in
environments that contain few species but
unusual ones
 Biodiversity plays a major role in the dynamics
of the relationship between biotics and abiotics
 Understanding biodiversity within the concept
of ecosystem is important in order to predict
the sustainability of life in a certain area
o Ex.
 Biodiversity encompasses: living organisms are
numerous and interacts with one another and
with non-living things
 These organisms are: abundant in habitats that
contains the food and other requirements they
need in order to live
o They have different metabolic
characteristics, growth, and
reproductive patterns and that
biodiversity is essential to human
survival
 Biotic – all living organisms within an ecosystem
(plants, animals, fungi, and other living things)
o Abiotic – all non-living things in an
ecosystem
 Ecology – study of organisms in their house or
the place they live in.
o Derived from the Greek word: oikos
which means house
o A study of living things, their interaction
with one another, and their
environment.
o A discipline which attempts to
understand the complex web of
linkages, relationships and
 interdependencies in the ecosystem or  Biological Community – an ecosystem houses a
environment. population of a wide range of species that
 Ecosystem – life forms of plants, animals, and interacts with one another
non-living things that belong in an organized o Interaction and survival is greatly
unit. affected by abiotic factors such as
o Encompasses the biotic and abiotic temperature, air, pH, water and light
component in an environment , as well
as their relationship and interactions 9.2.4 Functional Diversity
o Provides habitats for various organisms
 The range of things an organism does in
 Fauna – all of the animal life within a specified
communities and ecosystems.
region, time period, or both
 The manner by which species behave, obtain
o Flora – groups of indigenous plants in
food, and use natural resources in an
an ecosystem of a geographical region |
ecosystem
derived from floral which means fowers
 Generally, ecosystem with high species diversity
 Relative Abundance – relative proportions of
is more functionally diverse because there are
different species in an ecosystem
more species with differing traits
 Trophic Structure – answers the question of
 Useful for ecologists trying to conserve or
who eats who? The feeding relations of the
restore its damages because knowing
species in a community or an ecosystem
determine the flow of energy and nutrient 9.3 Importance of Biodiversity
cycles. | determines the biological organization
of a community  It is the source of our food, shelter, medicine,
and clothes
9.2 Types of Biodiversity  It is where we derive raw materials for various
activities that sustain us (industrial and
ECOSYSTEM SPECIES GENETIC
commercial activities)
Forests Fish Disease
 Central importance to and largely determines
Resistance
economies, health, culture, food security, and
Wetlands Crab Varied diet
environmental conditions
Savannahs Snail Body size
 It is the life support system of all living beings
Rivers Frog Climate
condition

9.2.1 Genetic Diversity

 It refers to the variation in the genes of a

species of individuals as well as how they are
closely related to the members of a species in
an environment. Figure 9.4 Importance of Biodiversity
 Genes – part of DNA, traits/characteristics of an
organism, adaptive potential of species

9.2.2 Species Diversity

 The variability of different species represented

in a community.
 A large number of species can help an
ecosystem recover from ecological threats,
even if some species go extinct.

9.2.3 Community Diversity / Ecosystem Diversity

 The variety of ecosystems in a given region.

 Importance
supports food security, dietary health, and
of
Biodiversity livelihood sustainability
provides important resources for medical
research (traditional & modern medicine)
9.4.4 Invasive Alien Species
plays a role in the regulation and control
of infectious diseases
essential for climate change adaption
has social, cultural, and spiritual
importance with communities
9.4 Threats to Biodiversity
 Factors that negatively affect biodiversity that
may vary, with some affecting only up to
organismal level, while some may affect a
whole ecosystem
9.4.1 Habitat Destruction
 One of the biggest threats to biodiversity
9.4.5 Global Climate Change
 No. 1 reason why species go extinct
 Anthropogenic activities (urbanization,
construction, logging, reclamation,
industrialization ) – activities that result to
unnatural increase in the concentration of
environmental compounds destroy habitats
leads to loss of biodiversity
9.4.2 Over-exploitation
 Harvesting species from the wild at rates faster
than natural populations can recover.
 Overfishing and Overhunting – types of
9.5 Interrelatedness of Society, Environment, and
overexploitation
Health
 1/3 of the world’s endangered vertebrates are
threatened by overexploitation
9.4.3 Overpopulation
 2019 United Nations report on global
biodiversity decline reports that humans are
speeding extinction and altering the natural
world at an ‘unprecedented’ pace.
 ¾ of all land environments and 2/3 of all marine
environments have been severely altered by
human activities
 As human population increases, the demands
for human needs and wants also increases
 It’ll be a threat to biodiversity if coupled with
unsustainable pattern of consumption and
poor govt. policies
 Introduction of invasive alien species,
accidentally or deliberately, that is not endemic
in that habitat or not in the normal
distributional range could threaten other
organisms
 especially if the species introduced have the
same ecological niche as those naturally
existing in that ecosystem
 2nd largest threat after habitat loss
 Alien or introduced species – any species that
are introduced into new habitats by human
intervention
o Usually invasive or aggressive
o Could result in decline of endemic
species and extinction
o Could take over the habitat by rapid
proliferation if it does not have any
natural predator in receiving area
 Climate Change, specifically global warming –
causes huge changes to biodiversity
 Increase in global temperature could be
detrimental to some species
 As temperatures warm, species that currently
live in more extreme climates will have to adapt
or die out
 Climate change and variability cause
biodiversity loss and extinction of species and
population
 Living organisms are dependent on their
environment in terms of living and
reproduction
 Access to a sufficiently varied nutritious food is
a key factor to human survival
 Biodiversity – primary determinant of food
production
 Nutrition, biodiversity, health – interrelated
and intersectional
 A healthy environment means a robust and
well-preserved biodiversity
  Food production – one of the important
services the ecosystem provides
 Unsustainable and intensified food production
through use of pesticides, introduction of alien
crop varieties, overfishing, dynamite fishing,
game-hunting affect natural patterns of
organisms and impact nutritional status and
human health
 Needs of living organisms such as air, water,
food and habitat are provided by the
environment.
 Environment is vital to and sustains human life
but biodiversity loss that causes lack of basic
necessities significantly tips the scale of human
viability towards mortality
 Climate change poses a serious threats to
human health and subsistence
 Climate change brought about by
anthropological activities causes significant
negative effect on human health and the
environment.
 Biodiversity can be prevented through:
o Proper legislation
o Implementation of sound laws and
policies
o Appropriate research with adequate
government support
o Education and awareness raising
o Sustainable use of biodiversity
o Community-based programs/people
involvement
o Change in consumption practices
9.6 Biodiversity in the Philippines
 Philippines – considered a mega-diversity
country when it comes to variety of
ecosystems, species, and genetic resources
 17 countries in the world can have this much
biodiversity
 Philippines – harbors more diversity of life than
any other country or planet
o Hosts more than 52,177 described
species
o Contains 2/3 of Earth’s biodiversity
o 70% of world’s plants and animals
species due to its geographical
isolation, diverse habitats, and high
rates of endemism
 Accdg. to Biodiversity Management Bureau of
DENR (2019) – Philippines is also considered a
biodiversity hotspot. Madagascar shares the
title.
o Biodiversity hotspot – refers to 25
biologically rich areas around the world
that have lost at least 70% of their
original habitat
 Mayuga (2019) – reports that 1,437 terrestrial
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, are listed
as threatened under DENR Administrative
Order (DAO)
Table 9.1 Statistics of threatened species of wild
fauna/animals
 There are also 984 species of wild flora that
are threatened for extinction, 179 of which
are critically endangered; 254 are
endangered, 406 are vulnerable; 145 other
threatened species
 Philippines has been exposed to a threat of
alien species: imported pets such as gold
fish, turtles, spiders, lizards, rodents and
snakes – source of invasive alien species
o Easily survive and adapt to new
environments and may dominate
other native species
Figure 9.5 Some Philippine Endangered Species
Table 9.2 Some alien species in the Philippines with
their effects
 Wildlife Resources Conservation and
Protection Act of the Philippines (Republic Act
No. 9147) (2001) – prohibits the introduction of
invasive alien species into the wild because of
their potential adverse impact to the natural
ecosystems
o Provides conservation, preservation
and protection of wildlife species and
their habitats
CHAPTER 10: MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY
10.1 GENETIC ENGINEERING
10.1.1 Overview
Genetic Engineering
 one of the many tools of biotechnology to
produce novel or improved organisms through
direct gene modification
 biotechnology preceded genetic engineering
 former can be traced to the dawn of civilization
when ancestors began to make cheese and
wine
 3 distinct stages: ancient, classical, modern
biotechnology
Figure 10.1 5 Principal Groups of Modern
Biotechnology
 Among the 5 principles, Genetic Engineering is
considered the most dominant
 2 scientific breakthroughs (unified genetics with
biotechnology)
o DNA structure of 1953
o Recombinant DNA experiment of 1973
Figure 10.2 A timeline of some of the milestones in
genetic engineering
Figure 10.3 A timeline of some of the milestones in
gene therapy and cell therapy
 Second International Summit on Human
Genome Editing – a Chinese scientist have
successfully modified the DNA of 2 embryos
(Nov. 2018)
 Prof. He Jiankul – used gene-editing tool called
CRISPR-Cas9 to make twin girls HIV-resistant
10.1.2 Genetically Modified Organisms
 Genetic engineering – aka recombinant DNA
technology / genetic modification
 Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) – the
outcome of genetic modification that possesses
the desired trait.
o Ex.: Atlantic Salmon – takes at least 2
years to grow into market size
o AquAdvantage Salmon – first
genetically modified animal to be
approved by the United States Food &
Drug Administration (FDA) as fit for
human consumption
 International Service for the Acquisition of
Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA) – listed 40
genetically modified traits and 7 commercial
genetically modified traits in crops and foods
 “Event” – term used to differentiate one GM
crop variety from one another
 ISAAA listed:
o 4,133 approved events for 26 crops in
67 countries between 1992-2017
 43 countries – import GM crops
 24 countries – plant it
o Japan – first place with the most
number of approved GM events
o USA – largest producer of GM crops
followed by Brazil, Argentina, Canada,
and India
Figure 10.4 Illustration of the 5 most commonly
approved GMO traits for food and crops
10.1.3 GMO in the Philippines
In the Philippines, 90 GM crop events were approved
some of which were undertaken as early as 2003
Figure 10.5 Illustration to show the most recently (Oct.
2018 – Mar. 2019) approved genetically modified crops
in the Philippines
10.1.4 Ethical Issues
Figure 10.6 Illustration of the Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Ethical Concerns regarding GMO
10.2 GENE & CELL THERAPY
10.2.1 Overview
 Gene therapy – modification of an organism’s
gene.
 Disease prevention or cure is the main goal.
 Genetic Engineer – Makes some alterations in
the gene to enhance an existing trait.
 Gene therapy aims to make a person function
normally again while Genetic Engineering
intends to make a person function beyond
what is considered normal.
10.2.2. Gene Therapy
 3 Approach:
a. Requires a working copy of a gene that is
later on transferred to the affected cells
containing the disease-causing gene.
 b. Either inactivated or replaced with a  Ability to self-renew and to mature into
healthy copy of the gene. specialized cells of each tissue provide the
c. To introduce a new or modified gene into patient with a therapeutic technique that
the human body and to aid in the treatment potentially lasts for a lifetime.
of the disease.  They make use of the cell’s capability to
 Department of Health & Human Services of the differentiate into various cell types known as
State Government of Victoria Australia (2011) Cell Potency.
listed four key aspects that must be taken into
Figure 10.9a
consideration in the administration of gene
therapy namely: Figure 10.9b
1. Identity of the disease-causing gene
2. Specific location of the affected cells in the 10.2.4. Cell Therapy
body
3. Availability of the working copy of the gene  Transfers live and intact cells to patients
4. Mode of delivery of the working copy of the  Cells come from a donor (allogeneic cells) or
gene to the affected cell from the patient himself (autologous cells)
 CAR – Chimeric antigen receptor
Figure 10.7
 Treatment used for a specific form of acute
 Vector – genetically engineered viruses and lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) seen in children
stem cells. and young adults.
 Tisagenlecleucel (KymriahTM) – First CAR T-Cell
Figure 10.8 therapy approved by the FDA last 2017.
 it attacks cancer cells more readily
 The European Commission approved last 2012
its first gene therapy for use Throughout the Figure10.10
entire European Union.
 Glybera – Developed by UniQure aims to treat 10.2.5. Ethical Issues
patients with lipoprotein lipase deficiency.  Governed by 4 basic principles.
 Gene therapy inside the body (In Vivo)  All four must be satisfied in order for the
 Outside (Ex Vivo) medical treatment to be considered ‘’ethical’
 Luxturna (voretigeneneparvovec-rzyl) – First
FDA approved direct administration gene Figure 10.11
therapy
Figure 10.12
 Was made available last 2017 to patients that
has confirmed biallelic RPE65 mutation-
associated retinal dystrophy
 Severe vision problems that include night
blindness leading to complete blindness that
can affect both children and adults, were
addressed by this type of treatment.
 Last May 2019 FDA approved the gene therapy
called Zolgensma.
 Developed by Novartis for infants with spinal
muscular atrophy and costs $2.125 million

10.2.3. Stem Cells

 Are the forefront of both gene therapy and cell

therapy.