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CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY:-
Formula:- Cn H2n On
Glucose and mannose are epimers at C2 carbon
Glucose galactose epimers at C4
Enantimomers are mirror images to each other.
α and β cyclic forms of D-glucose known as anomers
C1 is anomeric carbon
Benedict test reducing properties of sugars
Sodium amalgam is used as reducing agent.
Reduction of mono saccharides gives alcohols.
Aldose reductase converts aldehydes to alcohols.
Fructose is converted to sorbitol dehydrogenase (liver)
Monosaccharides gives needle shaped osazones.
Maltose gives sunflower shaped osazones
Lactose gives powderpuff shaped osazones
Maltose (α1-4) (glucose + glucose) – maltose (hydrolysed)
Lactose (βgalactose – βglucose) (β1-4) – lactase (hydrolysed)
Sucrose (glucose-fructose) (α1- β2)
Glucosidic bond- bond between monosaccharides.
Sucrose is hydrolysed by sucrase/invertase
Dextrins are breakdown product of starch
Inulin is a polymer of fructose
Glycogen and starch are polymer of glucose
Inulin is need to assess GFR
Dietary fiber is cellulose (β-glycoside bond)
D-glucoronic acid + N-acetyl glucosamine – Hyaluronic acid
Keratin sulphate keeps cornea transparent
LIPID CHEMISTRY:-
Biochemistry -- HIGH YIELD (everything is covered)
Saturated fatty acids does not contain double bond
Unsaturated fatty acids has double bonds
Linolecic, linolenic and arachidonic acid (PUFA)
Deficiency of EFA – phyrnoderma (toad skin)
Arachidonic acid gives Eicasonoids
Unsaturated fatty acids exists in Cis form
Hydrolysis of triacyl glycerin with alkali produces soaps
(saponification)
Vit.E is naturally occuring antioxidant, superoxide dismutase,
urase
Purity of fatty acid is checked by iodine number
RM number (Reichert-Meissl) – to check purity of butter
Phospholipids – free fatty acids + alcohol + phosphate +
nitrogen Base
Lecithin – choline ( nitrogen base) - ( lung surfactant)
Hormones like oxytocin and vasopressin action is mediated by
phosphatidyl inositol
Sphinogophospholipid :- cerebonic acid + sphingosine + phosphate
+ choline = sphingomyelin.
Phospholipases – A1, A2, C, D
PLA2 (phospholipase A2)– give arachidonic acid
Ganglioside GM2 accmulates in taysachs disease
Cholesterol –C27 H46 O
Cholesterol has ohg group at C3. Double bond between C5-C6
Ergosterol is precussor for vit.D
Zaks test is used to identify the qualitative analysis of
cholesterol
Emulsified fats in the intestine forms Micelles
PROTEINS AND AMINO ACID CHEMISTRY:-
kjeldahi’s method is used to find out protein in biological
fluids.
the amino acid glycine has H as side chain
alanine has –CH3 (methyl) as side chain.
Cysteine and methionine are sulphur containing aminoacid.
Aspartic acid and glutamic acid are acidic aminoacid
Phenyl alanine, tyrosine, tryptophan –aromatic aminoacid
Alanine is glucogenic aminoacid.
Leucine and lysine – ketogenic aminoacid.
Biochemistry -- HIGH YIELD (everything is covered)
Monosodium glutamate intolerance causes chinese restaurant
syndrome
D-penicilamine- used as chelating agent in Wilson’s disease
(Accmulation of copper in brain)
N-acetyl cysteine used in cystic fibrosis and chronic renal
failure.
GABA-pentane is used as anticonvulsant
Linear sequence of aminoacid seen in primary structure
α helix and β sheath – secondary structure.3 diminsional
arrangement of protein –teritary
2 or more poly peptide chains- quartenary structure
Peptide bond – bond between 2 aminoacid.
Sangers reagent – used to determine aminoacid sequence
Sangers reagent used to determin insulin structure
Biurate is a compound formed by heating urea to 180 degrees .
process is biurate reaction
Copper sulphate is used for heatin in biurate reaction.
Glutathione is involved in transport of amino acfid in intestine
and kidney via glutanyl cycle/meister cycle.
Aspertame – artifical sweetner.
ENZYMES :-
There are 6 cclasses of enzymes
Biochemistry -- HIGH YIELD (everything is covered)
The functional unit of enzyme is holoenzyme
Holoenzyme is made up of apoenzyme (protein part) and co-enzyme
(non-protein part).
Increase in concentration of substrate increase enzyme velocity
Km = ½ Vmax
Km = S (substrate concentration) Km-(michaelis-menten constant)
Km is defined as the substrate concentration to produce ½
maximum velocity.
Low Km denotes strong affinity between enzyme and substrate
When enzymes are exposed to C and above temperatures
denaturation occurs.
All enzymes are active at neutral PH (7)
The most common aminoacid at active site is serine
INHIBITORS:-
LIPID METABOLISM:-
VITAMINS:-
Vit.A:-
Retinol is present in animals in the form of retinylester
Retinal,retinol and retinoic acid are vitamers of vitamin A
β- carotene gives l2 moles of retinal by 1 ’-1 ’ di-oxygenase
retinyl esters are transported by chylomicrons and stored in
liver
retinol is transported in circulation by RBP 9retinal binding
protein)
rods – dim light vision
cones – bright light
vit-A required for rods
rhodopsin present in rods
rhodopsin = 11-cis retinal + opsin
during walds visual cycle rhodipsin is bleached to
metarhodopsin-II which increases C-GMP an degenerates nerve
impulse
Vit-A deficiency night blindness
Serene deficiency of vit-A causes xerophthalmia, characterized
of dryness of conjunctiva and cornea, white triangular plaques,
bitot’s spots are seen
Xerophthalmia leads to keratomalacia causing total blindness
Vit. D
Ergosterol (plants) ergocalciferol – vit. D2
Cholecalciferol (animals)- vit.D3
Vit-D synthesis takes place in skin.
1,25- Di-hydroxycholecalciferal is known as calcitriol i.e.,
active form of vit-D
25- α -hydroxylase and 1-α-hydroxylase requires cyt-p-450, NADPH
and O2
Vit.D is essential for bone formation
Vit-D deficiency:- pickets – bowlegs – children; osteomalacia –
Adults.
Alkaline phosphatase activity elevated in rickets
Vit-D is more toxic in over doses
Biochemistry -- HIGH YIELD (everything is covered)
Vit-D is transported in the circulation by α2-globulin
1-α-hydroxylase present in kidney and stimulated by PTH
25- α –hydroxylase present in liver
Vit-E:-
Anti sterility vitamin
Also known as tocopherols α,β,γ,δ out of these α-tocopherols
more active
Vit-E is transported by VLDL and LDL in the circulation
Normal plasma levels of tocopherols <1mg/dl
Vit-K:-
Vit-K also synthesized by intestinal bacteria
Bile salts are essential for absorption of vit- K
Transported to liver by means of LDL
Vit-K is responsible for post transitional modification of
2,7,9,10 clotting factors by carboxylation of glutamic acid
Carboxylation of glutamic acid is inhibited by dicumarol
Deficiency of vit-K leads to lack of acive prothrobin in
circulation
High doses of vit-K causes hemolytic anemia
Vit-C :-
Vit-C is required for collagen formation
Vit-C is co-enzyme for hydroxylation of proline and lysine,
where protocollagen is converted to collagen
Deficiency of vit-C leads to scurvy, delayed wound healing
Biochemistry -- HIGH YIELD (everything is covered)
Vit-B1 :-
co-enzyme – TPP
TPP required for PDH transketolase
Deficiency seen in the people who consume polished rice as a
staple food
Elevation of pyruvate in plasma and excrets in urine
Wet-beriberi – edema – systolic increase – diastolic decrease –
bouncing pulse.
Dry-beriberi – no edema – neurological manifestations are seen
Decrease transketoplase activity – Wernick’s korsakoff syndrome
Thyamine deficiency more commonly seen in alcoholics.
B2 – RIBOFLAVIN:-
NIACIN:-
PYRIDOXINE: - B6
BIOTIN – B7
It is required for carboxylation reactions
Eg.:- 1. acetyl CoA carboxylase
2. propony CoA carboxylase
3. pyruvate carboxylase
PANTOTHENIC ACID:-
also known as coenzyme –A
deficiency – burning feet syndrome
FOLIC ACID:-
METABOLISM:-
BIOSYNTHESIS OF HEME:-
HEME METABOLISM :-
Bilirubin bound to albumin to form bilirubin albumin complex
Enters liver for conjugation
Bilirubin enters into intestine where it reacts with bacterial
enzymes to form stercobilin which enters into feces
1 gm of Hb gives 35 mg of bilirubin
Bilirubin- albumin complex binds to receptor LIGANDIN which in
present on hepatocytes
Porphyrias :-
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM:-
Insulin dependent glucose transport – GLIT-4 skeletal muscle,
adipose tissue
GLUT-1 – erythrocytes
GLYCOLYSIS CYCLE:-
Location – cytosol of all most all the cells
Glucokinase – liver, hexokinase – other tissues
Hexokinase – low Km, glucokinase- High Km
(PFK-1) Phosphofructokinase-1 – rate limiting step
Spilitting – aldolase-A . 7 ATP in aerobic glycolysis and 2 ATP
in anerobic
Glycolysis in RBC is always anerobic
IRREVERSIBLE STEPS:-
Hexokinase
PFK-1
Pyruvate kinase ( deficiency hemolytic anemia )
Biochemistry -- HIGH YIELD (everything is covered)
INHIBITORS:-
Glycerol dehyde 3 phosphate dehydrogenase – iodo
acetate ,arsenate
Enolase – fluoride
Phospphotriose isomerase - bromohydroxy acetone phosphate
End product of aerobic glycolysis – pyruvate
End product of anaerobic glycolysis – lactate
Glycolysis in erythrocytes is always anaerobic
Number of ATP under aerobic glycolysis 7
Number of ATP under anaerobic glycolysis 2
PFK-1 is regulated by PFK-2
A product of glycolysis – 2,3 BPG combines with hemoglob9in and
unloads O2 to tissues.
Increase 2,3-BPG shifts O2 /Hb dissociation curve to right
Decrease 2,3-BPG shifts O2/Hb dissociation curve to left.
PDH COMPLEX:
Location – mitochondria
Enzyme complexes:-
1. E1 – pyruvate dehydrogenase – TPP
2. E2 – dihydro lipoyl transacetylase – lipoamide ,CoA
3. E3 – dihydro lipoyl dehydrogenase – NAD, FAD
Inhibitors – arsenic poisoning
TCA CYCLE:-
Location – mitochondria
Citrate synthase - rate limitin step
NADH produce in :-
1. iso citrate dehydrogenase
2. α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
3. malate dehydrogenase
FADH produced by succinate dehydrogenase
GTP produced by succinate thiokinase
Biochemistry -- HIGH YIELD (everything is covered)
INHIBITORS:-
1. Aconitase – fluroacetate
2. Α-keto glutarate dehydrogenase – arsenate
3. Succinate dehydrogenase – malonate
Number of ATP produced from 1 Acetyl Co-A is 10.
GLUCONEOGENESIS:-
GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
HMP PATHWAY:-
GLACTOSE METABOLISM:-
CLASSICAL GALACTOSEMIA
Infants
Deficiency of galactose 1-phosphate Transferase uradyl.
Increase galactitol by aldose reductae – cataract diagnosis –
elevated galactose 1-phosphate uridyl transferase
FRUCTOSE METABOLISM:-