Crisis PDF

GLOBE MARITIME TRAINING CENTER
CRISIS MANAGEMENT
Passenger information required on all passenger ships from January 1 of 1999
Since January 1 of 1999 a regulation of which to record details of passenger on board

ships such as the name, gender, and whether a passenger is an adult or an infant is
implemented for search and rescue purposes.
The regulation is specified in Chapter III of the International Convention for the Safety of
Life at Sea (SOLAS, 1974, another convention of the International Maritime Organization
(IMO), the United Nation’s agency who watches over the safety of shipping and the
prevention of marine pollution.
The order to provide information of passengers was part of a package of amendments to

SOLAS adopted in November 1995, based on proposals put forward by a Panel of Experts
set up by IMO in December 1994 next to the ro-ro ferry Estonia disaster in September
1994 which recorded 850 casualties. The regulation on information on passenger was
implemented on July 1 of 1997 but the order to provide details of passengers took effect
on January 1, 1999
Requirement for seafarer’s training on passenger ships
Following the Estonia ferry disaster, amendments to the revised International

Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers
(STCW) and Code concerning training for personnel on passenger ships also took effect
on January 1 of 1999
These amendments were adopted in June 1997 and concerns STCW Chapter V.: Special
training requirements for personnel on certain type of ships including personnel on board
ro-ro passenger ships.
The amendments require crews on ro-ro passenger ships to undergo and receive training
in technical aspects and also in crowd and crisis management and human behavior, and
the said amendments also clarify those requirements and extend them to crew on all
passenger ships.
The amendments also include an additional Regulation V/3 on Mandatory minimum

requirements for the training and qualifications of master, officers, rating and other
personnel on passenger ships other than ro-ro passenger ships other than ro-ro
passenger ships, and other related additions which covers Crowd management training;
“Global competence comes with Quality Training”
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Familiarization training; Safety training for personnel providing direct service to
passengers in passenger spaces; Passenger safety; and Crisis management and human
behavior training
List of contents:
I. ORGANIZATION OF EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
General Remarks
Knowledge of the ship’s layout and arrangement
Emergency preparedness plans and procedures
Adaption of emergency preparedness plans
Assuring adherence to procedures
The use of emergency preparedness plans
The importance of drills and training
Pre-planning and drills
Optimum use of resources
Resource management
Available internal resources
External resources
Limitation of the availability of resources
II. INTRODUCTION TO TERMS RELATING TO CRISIS MANAGEMENT ANDRESPONSE
The concept of crisis

The concept of stress
Concept of disaster
The phenomenon of panic
The vegetative nervous system
The psycho-physiological or psychomatic reactions
The concept of shock
Traumatophobia
Initial reaction to an emergency
III. LEADERSHIP IN ACCIDENT AND CRISIS SITUATIONS
The 3 C’S
Types of accident
Dangers
The phase of accident
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The steady state and preparedness
IV. CRISIS, CRISIS MANAGEMENT, STRESS AND STRESS REACTION
Crisis management
The stress factors
The stress reaction
Sense perception
Thinking
Feeling
Action
V. CONTROL PASSENGER AND OTHER PERSONNEL DURING EMERGENCY

SITUATION
Preparation
Warning
Emergency\reaction patterns during the emergency
Handling accidents/disasters and understanding of situations
Panic
Predisposition
Triggering factors
Characteristic of persons/group in panic
Prevention of panic
Briefing
Informal debriefing
Formal debriefing (group stress debriefing)
When and how is stress debriefing carried out?
How is stress debriefing carried out?
Health examination
Information meetings called by the management
VI. Communication
Crisis communication
Clear and precise instructions and orders
Management and communication open communication
Open communication
Communication with passengers
VII. Post-trauma period
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The fatalities
The bereaved
The survivors
Emotional first aid
Rescue personnel
Responsibilities
1. Organization of emergency procedures
General Remarks
The ISM Code establishes an international standard for the safe management and
operation of ships by defining element, which must be taken into account for the
organization f company management in relation to ship safety and pollution prevention.
Since emergencies cannot be controlled either through design or through normal
operational procedures, emergency preparedness and pollution prevention should form
part of the company management. For this purpose, every company is required by the
ISM Code to develop, implement and, maintain a Safety Management System (SMS).
Knowledge of the ship’s layout and arrangement
PASSENGER BOAT
Boats with the capacity for more than 12 passengers are called passenger boats.
Depending on their sizes, passenger boats take different names.
Passenger ship. Vessels which are used in urban sea traffic and for excursions. They do
not provide cabin accommodation for passengers.
Car/Passenger Ferry: are vessels used for transforting passengers as well as their
cars.
Liners: passenger boats operating over-seas
Cruise Ship: Large passenger boats used in touristic cruises.
Ro-ro/Container ships
 A ship type designed for the transportation of vehicles such as Iorries1 TIR’s etc.
Access to the cargo section is via a side or aft loading/unloading system. The
vehicles can access various decks via internal ramps.
 This type of ship allows loading/unloading containers on hatches on the weather
deck with or without a crane system.
 Cabin accommodation for lorry drivers is provided.
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 Various types may feature stern or bow doors/ramps for loading/ unloading
vehicles.
 There are also rolling on/roll off types allowing the loading/unloading of cargo on
wheeled transport.
Passenger ships and passenger ferries are complex structures in which the designer
seeks to optimized the use of areas available for passenger convenience, service,
functionality and visual presentation.
This may often mean that the fully optimal solutions with regard to an acute emergency
are not achieved. Maritime laws and regulations impose minimum requirements for
design in terms of safety, but these are nevertheless only minimum requirements.
In establishing emergency plans for the individual ship it will therefore be especially
important to identify the limitations on board which felt in an emergency situation. In
addition it is important that the crew on board are familiar with these limitations when an
emergency is to be handled.
An emergency on board passenger ship or passenger ferry will often involve the transfer
of large crowds of people, such as:
 Away from the scene of fire

 From accommodation to life saving stations
 From the ship and back to the terminal quay
Depending slightly on how long the passengers have been on board and had the
opportunity to familiarize themselves with the ship’s accommodation and safety signs,
the passengers should be assumed to need assistance from the ship’s emergency
preparedness groups to be able to move efficiently.
In such circumstances it is important that those who are to lead this work take into
consideration the limitations inherent to the ship. Such limitations may be a narrowing in
an evacuation route, passage through narrow spaces likely to cause reduced flow and a
crowding of people, or a listing ship, which will cause passengers to move the “high” side
of the vessel.
Such crowding may cause some people to experience an overwhelming fear, which in
turn may lead to uncontrolled flight. Such uncontrolled behavior may at worst cause a
loss of human lives and it will complicate the planned transfer of people, as resources
must be employed to reduce fear among the development of relevant emergency
preparedness plans.
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Emergency preparedness
Any sea voyage involves a certain risk in the form of nautical hazards, technical failure
and errors of human judgments. Despite all precautions taken for a safe voyage, there
will always be a residual risk, which requires preparedness to achieve an acceptable
balance.
The notion of safety on board includes two main elements:
PRTOTECTION
Protection means damage prevention, all those precautions taken to prevent anything
undesired from happening so that one losses control of the situation.
PREPAREDNESS
The notion of preparedness includes all damage-reducing precautions taken in the event
that the preventive measures, despite all efforts, nevertheless fail and the situation takes
an undesired turn.
Preparedness does not become effective until the preventive measures have failed and
an undesired situation has occurred. What should have been done to avoid that situation
is less interesting in a preparedness context. The causes and any preventive measures
must be assessed only when the situation has been brought under control.
Shipboard preparedness may be defined as the possibilities at the crew’s disposal to

handle anomalous. Possibilities are:
 Technical arrangements and systems

 Equipment
 Knowledge and proficiency
To handle means to avoid damage, limit damage, protect values. In this context values
are life, property and the environment, and reputation should also be considered a value.
The term anomalous situation means not only disastrous events, but also other
undesired incidents.
The ship’s preparedness consists of a number of elements, based partly on rules and
regulations, partly on recognized principles. With regard to preparedness plans three
elements in particular should be mentioned:
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 Organization
 Instruction
 Action plans
In many solutions where speedy and maximum efforts are needed the ordinary
operational organization will be of little use. A preparedness organization has therefore
been established. Because the need for action may be so diverse, the underlying
principle is that the crew is divided into appropriate units. These may be directed to
locations where they can take action in the situation at hand. In some situations the
ordinary operational organization may be more suitable.
The preparedness instructions ensure that the organization can become effective as
quickly as possible, with aimed safety efforts. The instructions are partly general, which
means that they are addressed to anybody and everybody regarding action to be taken,
hazards etc., and partly specific instructions for every unit regarding muster stations,
preparations, personnel control, efforts and communication.
The more varied the types of situations which the preparedness organization shall be
ready to meet, the more careful one must be in developing instructions in order not to
start activities that are irrelevant in the prevailing situation and thus waste time and
efforts. An instruction for direct flight must also be prepared for use in situations where
all forms of damage control will obviously be pointless. The preparedness organization
and instructions are laid down in the ship’s emergency preparedness plans and must be
familiar to all. The preparedness organization of the individual ship must be designed
taking into account the type size, manning, equipments and any special condition of the
ship.
The preparedness organization shall be an instrument of damage control for the

management. In order to indicate how this instrument may be best applied in various
situations, particularly situations requiring speedy and resolute efforts, we should lay
down some guidelines.
Adaptation of emergency preparedness plan (s)
The preparedness plans developed in consultation with the ship owner and the shipboard
management must be adapted to the needs of the individual user.
Some of the precautions and measures referred will be in accordance with the
requirements or recommendations of authorities and the industries own organizations.
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Assuring adherence to procedures
The best way to ensure a procedure is to provide a good procedure. Such a procedure
may be ensuring by testing and continuous re-evaluation as set. Carefully implemented
training as such is a necessity, in particular proper familiarization. To get to know the
people, the procedures and the equipment is essential for satisfactory participation in
drills and exercises. This is particularly important aboard ships where you have a high
turnover of personnel.
Training and day by day operation should be geared at combating complacency, to instill
self-discipline and to obtain results by motivation.
When trying to ensure adherence to procedures, it may be useful to know that

everybody to a certain degree tends to try to avoid anxiety by diminishing the
importance of a risk. Training and development related to emergencies, including drills
and exercises, put a continuous focus on the risk involved. This may b unconsciously
countered by not engaging sufficiently in the safety issues involved, both during training
and in day-to-day operation.
The use of emergency preparedness plans
The crew has its muster list specifying the duties of the individual crewmembers in the
event that the alarm sounds. The emergency preparedness plan may be regarded as the
muster list of the shipboard management: precautions and measures for an anomalous
situation. When arriving fresh on board it is first of all through the preparedness plan
that a leader can become capable of taking part in the handling of damage control on
that particular ship
The preparedness plans never become a standard recipe to be consulted and slavishly
followed, because situations will always be somewhat different. By familiarizing oneself
with the plans in advance one will be better prepared to assess the special circumstances
of the situation at hand. The preparedness plan is primarily intended as an aid to the
ships officers when they are to prepare to handle an unexpected situation.
Through the preparedness plan the ship’s officers may form an opinion on what kind of
efforts and thus the practical skills that should be required of the individual units of the
preparedness organization, and the need for various aids.
Such efforts should be incorporated into the mandatory shipboard drills. This must be
done so that the crew can have an understanding of what they may be required to do in
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various situations. If the crew proves not to possess adequate proficiency and awareness
of routines for the use of equipment and methods, this will indicate a need for more
instruction and training.
The importance of drills and training
By trying out emergency preparedness plans in practical drills on board one will be able
to verify whether the action plan is appropriate, whether misunderstanding arise,
whether methods or equipment are inappropriate etc.
Such experience may indicate that the plan should be corrected or that conditions which
one was previously unaware of must be included in the existing action plan.
If the individual user himself recognizes the usefulness of the preparedness plan, it may
be developed and adapted to become a valuable instrument. It is, however, only the user
himself who can do this. Others may suggest guidelines and make examples, but it is
only the user who-by virtue of his knowledge of local conditions-can elaborate and
incorporate plans so that they can contribute to arising the level of preparedness.
The preparedness plan is in itself no guarantee against undesired events, nor is it a

guarantee of successful damage control. The plan is only one of several aids. If the plain
is to be useful, it must be included in the training.
Emergency preparedness training has not sufficiently emphasized the tactical aspect in
favor of technique and the purely practical skills. One should not an action Commander
to carry the entire preparedness plans really emerge. And it is not until one has carried
out this kind of drills that the preparedness plans can be adapted and further developed
into an appropriate instrument for the shipboard management.
It is always tempting when organizing drills, to adapt the situations to suit the
preparedness plan. In a real situation, however, it is the plan that must be adapted to
the situation. Only when on uses forms of drills that make demands on both the tactical
and practical skills with need for preparedness plans really preparedness plans can be
adapted and further developed into an appropriate instrument for the shipboard
management.
A general summary of the effect of training and drills:
1. Improve survival capability and rescue capability

2. Improve rescue capability of rescue personnel
3. Protect rescue personnel against the problems of mental long term effects.
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Pre-planning and drills
Drills are the only way to make sure that a procedure is workable. A well arrange drill will
test all aspects of the pertinent set of procedures, and will provide a check on weather
the five factors are satisfied.
1. Technology: testing functionality of relevant equipment. Does it function? Does

it suit your needs?
2. Procedures: does the procedure fit the present technology and personnel
resources available? Does the procedure lead too much or too little information
passed on to each crew member, too much or too little work passed on to each
crew member? Is there room for delegation of more tasks?
3. Personal characteristics: am I able to cope with this? Do others or I show
signs of stress levels, which impair the ability to cope?
4. Cohesion: do crew members show loyalty to commanding officers? Do they
respect their decisions? Is there an acceptable level of interpersonal
communication? Do the crewmembers show a willingness to assist each other?
5. Training: during the drill or exercise, have you established that there is a gap
between present competence and required competence? What training is needed
to improve the ability to cope with the situation?
Optimum use of resources
Resources management
Shipboard emergency preparedness is essentially different in many ways from a shore-

based enterprise. On board one should be prepared to handle any number of different
situations, anything from the need to clean to massive efforts in highly specialized
operations carried out by few chosen persons.
The emergency preparedness force and its resources are permanently stationed in the
area to be covered by preparedness. This provides the possibility of speedy response,
but may also mean that parts of the preparedness force and technical arrangement and
systems may be rendered inoperative due to the accident.
Available resources may generally be divided into the following categories:
Technical arrangements and systems:
 Communication equipment, mobile, stationary for internal and external use
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 Firefighting equipment, such as hoses, smoke helmets and accessories
 Lifeboat and life raft equipment
 Life belts/survival suits
 Pyro technical equipment
 First aid equipment etc.
Crewmembers:
The individual crewmembers knowledge and proficiency in controlling or handling the

situation at hand.
The job of the preparedness management will be to coordinate these three categories
optimally, and to assess how, in the event of failure of one or more of these resources,
the vacuum can be filled.
When situation has developed, the management will have to evaluate its proportions
step by step.
Step 1. Assess
What is this-how can we influence, limit, and prevent, escalation?
Step 2. Mobilize
Which are the relevant sources to employ?
Step 3. Act
Implement the measures decided on, using the resources found to be most
appropriate.
Step 4. Observe/evaluate
Whether the measure decided on functioned according to plan or whether

changes in situations require new or modified measures,
In the development of ship board emergency preparedness plans it is important

to analyze which resources are needed for the individual situations and the
consequence of a failure of one or more resources.
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External resources
The organization of help and assistance needed by shipping in emergencies is being

constantly developed. The establishment of Search and Rescue centers, development of
sea rescue services under international conventions, improved communications,
establishment of internal preparedness groups in shipping companies, reporting systems
and follow-up routines are important elements in this process.
The availability of such organized help and assistance will on several

conditions, such as:
 Position of the ship

 Weather conditions in the relevant area
 Traffic density in the area
 Traffic density in the area
 Availability of emergency services personnel, in the form of fire-fighting and
health personnel from ashore
The development of emergency preparedness plans for the individual ships
should include an evaluation of the availability of external assistance based on
the ship’s trading area.
Limitations on the availability of resources
The resources available, technical, human, or organizational, are limited. The minimum
safe manning levels on a vessel may prove to be insufficient in certain crisis situations,
because of:
 The massive demands in scenario in question

 The human reaction to crisis, reducing crew members ability to take adequate
actions, and/or
 The possibility of crewmembers being severely hurt or missing
If crewmembers are incapacitated, the ability to make a co-coordinated effort

may be severely impaired. Moreover, communication maybe impaired, making it
difficult to reach all crewmembers involved. Thus it is vital to use everyone to his
or her full capacity.
External assistance may also be limited or non-existent, depending on the

location of the ship. Although may cruise lines and ferry operators work their
vessel fairly close to external emergency resources, it may take considerable
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time to mount an external rescue effort. Thus, in most initial stages of ship
emergencies, the ship management must rely on internal resources only. In such
a setting, delegation becomes vital. A ship management level trying to solve all
problems into the least detail in a demanding crisis situation will soon find them
bugged down with too much communication and too many decisions to take.
Even though this is obvious, many commanding officers may find it difficult to
delegate tasks, because of perceived and/ or real problems;
Quality- “I better do this myself. I do it better.”
Time- “I’ll get this done faster, in half the time that he’ll use.”
Comfort-“I’m sure that it gets done if I do it myself.”
Risk- “He may make mistake. I better do it myself.”
It is vital to overcome these problems to be able to delegate without undue

stress. A good training program for crewmembers should make it easier to
delegate without such worries.
2. Introduction to terms relating to crisis management and response
Although is desirable to avoid using technical and foreign terms, some of these are
difficult to avoid in an introduction to crisis management and human behavior and
response. We will therefore give some definitions of terms used regularly in this
guide.
The concept of crisis
A crisis really means a turning point where the prevailing condition can only
develop:
 Maturing, growth and good health or

 Defeat illness
Medical science and psychiatry recognizes a number of types of crisis, with

regard to both crisis situations and crisis response. An extended concept of crisis
is commonly used.
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This includes most of the psychiatry. We have for instance, several development,
maturing or life cycle crises.
In the context of crisis management at sea we commonly think of more specific

crisis, in which this term is limited, such as the psychological crisis in the event of
sudden bereavement.
The concept of stress
The concept of stress may include:
 a stress situation
This is often referred to as a stress, characterized by an event or strain that can

be regarded as considerable. This presupposes that the strain is felt as
considerable by the person exposed to it. An external stimulation and activation
of the person take place (external or internal stimulate)
 stress reaction
These reactions to the above mentioned external or internal stimuli. The

reactions are discussed in detail in a later section of this guide.
 Interplay between the individual and the environment
A stress situation and stress reaction often cause emotions to be activated and
person is exposed to demands and strain. Physiological and bodily alterations
occur. The resources for adaption are exceeded. The resources of the body are
drained, and failing health may occur.
The concept of disaster
This is a many sided-term. Opinions differ as to how big the accident should be before it
is called a disaster.
In medical science it is common to use the concept of disaster when the number of the
injured is so high that the ordinary emergency services are inadequate. This means that
extra outside resources are needed.
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The phenomenon of panic
This is discussed in the section on leaders and rescue personnel. It is important that the
leader does not think that a considerable degree of anxiety is the same as panic. The
discussion of acute stress reaction uses some expressions that should be understood. We
will mention some.
The vegetative nervous system
This is our non-volitional nervous system. It is very easily affected by anxiety. It triggers
a number of hormonal activities.
The psycho-physiological or psychosomatic reactions.
This occurs as the result of above-mentioned hormonal activities. They are bodily
reactions to mental stress, and are thus the response of the body.
The concept of shock
This is used in many different ways. In connection with the admission to hospital after
incidents one may hear things like “It was nothing serious, but the person was in shock”.
A statement like this may be confusing.
If it is psychological shock as part of the acute stress situation, there is something

characteristic about this particular condition. A patient in this condition will have
remarkably few symptoms. He or she is characterized by an absence of symptoms and
will be slightly apathetic. This should not be confused with strong stress reactions, e.g.
strong anxiety reactions.
Trauma phobia
This means that a person experiences a special fear and phobia for the particular place
where or she was involved in an accident, wishing to protect himself/herself against the
thoughts or feelings relating to reliving what happened.
Initial reactions to an emergency
There are four stages in the initial assessment and effective response to a
problem:
 The problem is recognized and defined.
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 Information about the problem is retrieved.
 Possible solutions are produced and assessed.
 A solution is chosen and applied.
The problem recognition and definition phase present special difficulties, as leaders may
have several possible reactions to a severe situation:
 Denial of danger, warning or solution- the denial may be total or partial;

“this cannot happen” or “This is not that serious.” Moreover, if the danger itself
is not denied, possible solutions may be denied; “we cannot handle this. So we
will do nothing.”
 Defensive avoidance- the danger or warning may be fully perceived, but is
seen as so threatening that the leader will not face it. He may start focusing on
something else than the imminent danger or just delegate responsibility for
dealing with it.
 Overwhelmed-this is a state of panic or close to panic. The leader becomes
apathetic or extremely active, but without any ability to take coherent decisions.
It is closely related to denial; when the leader finally has to admit to the realities
of the situation, he is overwhelmed.
 Adequate- the danger or warning is recognized at an early stage, and
preparations to face the danger are immediately put into motion. The ability to
react adequately may be improved by proper training.
A detailed breakup of the regular decisions process may be summarized as

follows:
Thoughts Will/feeling Action
Assess 1. What is it? 2. Does it affect 3. May I do

Me? something about
it?
Mobilize 4. Do I 5. Do I want to 6. Am I ready to do
understand do something something about
it? about it? it?
Realization 7. How shall I 8. Shall I make 9. Act
do it? the decision?
It can be important to know this process, particularly as we may tend to drop some of
the steps in a stressful situation. It may prove useful to put this model through the
motions during drill and exercises and when studying procedures including all kinds of
scenarios that one considers pertinent. In this way, the level consciousness about the
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necessary information, the individual responsibility and the decisions involved may
improve.
3. Leadership in accident and crisis situations
This part contains a discussion of various problems which a leader may exect
to encounter in:
 The victims of the accident

 rescue personnel
 himself in the different phases of an accident
Special emphasis will be placed on how a serious strain on a leader may interfere
with his capacity for perception and attention, rational thinking, resoluteness and
his power to act.
Important finds from research on disaster, on both victim and rescue to and
cope with a disastrous situation is the level of training and experience in handling
physical dangers.
Higher competence will increase survivability, the capacity for rescue, for both
victims and rescuers. And last, but not least, it has been demonstrated that due
to better handling of strain in an emergency, individuals having high competence
will also have fewer mental problems after the accident.
Research has identified how people react before, during and after major life
threatening events and loss of lives. Emergency psychiatry is concerned with
identifying measures that will:
1. increase the ability to hand

2. reduce the risk of mental after-effects
The 3 C’s
The main tasks of a leader relate to “the 3 C’s:
 command (working through others)

 control (maintaining an overall view)
 communication
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In principle, leadership is carried out at three levels which all involve strain
because:
 Operatives tend to become very focused on the here and now“ which is
functionally correct, and it is important to have an element of staff capable of
thinking beyond the immediate situation.
 At staff both “information overload” and the lack of information seem to create
problems, often with a wish to move the staff closer to the scene of the accident,
while the leaders present (e.g. on scene command“/ command from the rear)
are tempted to become operative, to fling themselves into action (King Severre is
said to have been the first Norwegian to command from the rear: the battlefield
had become too big).
 Leading task forces, e. g fire-fighting teams, requires heroic leadership, which
means that it is carried out as in the following example:
The leader “leads” in the true sense of the word. The best person goes first and
takes the greatest risk. The second best goes last to “make the tail short”.
The critical question the leader in this kind of leadership is: are you the right
person to lead us?”
The leader clarifies this during realistic drills, proving himself/herself worthy of
trust, and by himself/herself being convinced that the task can and must be
solved.
Types of accident
In developed countries models for support of victims have been developed for three
types of accident:
 local community accidents

 industrial accidents
 transport accident
Some overlapping will occur, as there may be elements of a transport accident, i.e
people travelling, in all three of accident. Local community and industrial accidents offer
fewer problems of organizing support, because:
It is usually possible to establish the identity of victims immediately
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The victims have their social network on the scene or close by.
In some transport accidents (such as trains, buses/coaches and ferries) there

may be persons killed, missing and injured whose identity is unknown.
Dangers
We face three types of danger:
 the force of nature

 incorrect actions of human beings (including technical malfunction) and
 the malice of human beings (crime, terror, war)
The latter may be the cause of an apparent accident, a possibility that is easily
forgotten in our peaceful part of the world. Remember that an arsonist caused
the fire on board the “Scandinavian Star”
Unlike natural disaster, man –made accidents are seen as unnecessary,

avoidable. They often strike without warning, in man-made environments, and
somebody is responsible or to blame. “Something has gone wrong”. This should
not have happened”. These circumstances are assumed to explain why such
incidents cause greater mental harm than comparable natural disasters.
The danger situation
The danger situation may involve:
Physical injury: the passengers or crew may be injured as a consequence of the

accident
Danger to human lives: the situation takes such a turn that it is likely to claim human
lives
The experience of witnesses: powerful impressions of human beings in distress who,

for various reasons, cannot be helped
Conflict of choices: who is to receive help, who is to be given lower priority? One
basically tries to help everybody, but the situation may escalate to a level where those in
charge of emergency services may have to make priorities concerning the resources
available and the pay off efforts deployed.
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The task of the leaders is to optimize people’s performance against defined targets
The form of leadership must be determined by the situation. In industrial crises and
during accidents/disaster the situation changes abruptly and radically. Such situations
require more authoritarian and command like form of leadership.
However, leadership in terms of emergency preparedness, when time is not pressing and
the risk is not high, may require group-oriented leadership, which makes the maximum
use of the qualifications of the employees. These conditions underline the importance of
being able to recognize the form of leadership.
Efficient leadership during heavy physical and mental strain requires the leader to master
the strain on him and to be aware and take account of how such strain affects his
subordinates. This article discusses typical reactions and the possible consequences of
unfortunate stress reactions, but also how such unfortunate effects can be mastered.
The phases of accidents
In an accident, typical phases of crisis may usually be identified, such as in the following
survey, arranged in a time perspective:
Phase: The danger is: Handling:

Steady state Remote Preparedness
Crisis Approaching Crises management
Accident-disaster Imminent Survival/rescue
Post-trauma period Passed Post-traumatic
Stress reaction
 shock phase
 reaction phase
 treatment phase
 reorientation
Each of these phases makes special demands on leadership:
 emphasis on everyday preparedness

 The crisis the time immediately preceding the accident, in which the critical
element is whether that can be done to avoid the accident, crisis management.
 the actual accident the strain phase in which survival and rescue are central
crisis 20
 The various phases of the post-trauma period require other leadership measures
in respect of the groups of people who, in different ways and to varying degrees,
are affected by the accident.
The steady state and preparedness
When the danger is remote, many people tend to minimize the risk. Denial of an external
danger is a psychological defense mechanism, which functions as irrational but safety-
inducing protection.
Those who work with matters relating to preparedness are eventually stuck by the
remarkable ability of some people to close their eyes to undesirable and frightening
aspects of reality.
A survey made at a Norwegian industrial enterprise revealed a very strong and

remarkable denial of danger (fire and explosion hazard) among approx. 15% of the
employees.
This attitude may be characterized as the “it can’t happen here” attitude.
This total lack of a feeling of risk is found either in people who have a deviant
personality, e.g they have such low stress tolerance that they are incapable of any form
of rational fear, or in people who have so little training in facing danger that they dare
not imagine what may happen, simply because they feel that they would be powerless if
the danger should occur.
The result is that instead they deny the fact that a potential danger exist. For this reason,
among other, information about risk should always be accompanied by information,
demonstration and preferably drills, which in a convincing manner show that the
individual persons can do something, i.e that the danger can be influenced, and the
situations handled.
The risk in the presence of which people feel helpless and over which they lack control,
i.e he/she “can’t do anything about it” will mobilize a mental defense attitude
characterized by denial. In the four million years of human evolution has naturally been
convenient to close one’s eyes to what human beings cannot influence.
Experiences of handling and mastery reduce the denial attitude, because positive
experiences of being able to do something decisive. An important objective of
education/training is therefore to create positive expectations of response.
crisis 21
Research in Norway has shown that systematic information about stress reactions and
training in how to handle them has this effect. This research documented considerable
improvement in the ability to solve problems under serious stress as a consequence of
the mental preparation (“stress vaccination”).
A common attitude is for the individual to say that “ it may happen here, but I still have a
feeling that I won’t happen to me”, or ?” it may happen to me, but I still have a feeling
that I’ll be all right”. However, these risk assessments are inconsistent with good
preparedness, and they maintain the feeling of personal invulnerability, which makes the
person feel safe.
The own attitude of the management towards preparedness and drills will be of great
importance. If the management participates in drills, then the drills will gradually be seen
defined as “being prepared today for what may happen tomorrow”.
Modern alarm and warning systems have caused a large number of false alarms in may
places, alarms that were real but involving no actual danger. If such alarms become
frequent, it may lead to a gradual dulling of reactivity. The problems facing us here in
terms of preparedness are difficult, as we shall try to prevent people from learning from
experience.
The effects of unnecessary alarms may be reduced, however, by giving of information as

soon as possible afterwards about the reason why the alarm was released. Something
shall be done to reduce the generalization of the individual unnecessary alarm to other
alarm situations.
4. Crisis, crisis management, stress and stress reactions
Crisis management
Crisis management is basically the actions taken by the shipboard management team to
optimize:
 Passenger and crew safety

 Pollution prevention
 Care of material values, including the ship, personal belongings
The actions are carried out with the above order of priority, in a situation where
some or even a majority of technical and organizational functions related to day
to day operation are either inhibited, seriously impaired or totally absent.
crisis 22
Different researcher put varying emphasis on these factors. Some include other
factors as well. Notwithstanding the differences, all agree on the importance of
training to achieve a satisfactory outcome of a crisis. In all accidents that have
been analyze, the personnel that showed the best performance had a high level
of training and experience.
Although person possessing a certain personality may be better suited to handle

crisis than others, training may help to overcome inherent problems with
personal characteristic. Personnel that do not posses one or several characteristic
that have proven to be useful in emergencies may nonetheless achieve a high
degree of ability through training. Alternatively, one may choose to select only
personnel that have the most appropriate characteristic. This is usually done in
the armed forces and in some emergency services, but it is usually not a viable
option in shipping. Thus, training is paramount.
The training should not only be focused at obtaining knowledge and skills.
Building self-confidence should also be an objective as such, as this is vital to the
ability to cope with a stressful situation. Training will inherently help build self-
confidence if applied in the right manner. The instructor abilities are vital,
including proper knowledge of pedagogic principles.
The characteristics of a crisis are at the same times tress factors which are a
strain on a leader, for instance in an industrial crisis. The most important ones
are listed in the left-hand column of the figure below. If the disaster is released,
it contains the same types of strain, but of course to an even more serious
degree.
Negative stress
Factors Reactions
Serious threat Sense Perception Constriction

Danger Selective reinforcement
Responsibility Stress Characterized by
Fear of failing all/nothing
Small Possibility of Reduced Thinking Stereotype
Influencing Capability of Repeating
Rapid change Integrated Rigid
Time Pressure Problem Few alternatives
Little Information Solving Characterize by
Group pressure short-term
crisis 23
Altered perception of time
Feelings Surprise
Anxiety (helplessness)
Imtability
Reduced tolerance of
Disagreement
Paralysis
Primitivization Action: Impulsiveness
Of (motorial)
Decision Making
Process
Escapists’ behavior
The stress factors
Serious threat
The crisis represents a serious threat to important values and objectives, chiefly
human life, health and the environment, and in addition financial, psychological and
social values. Under serious stress the ability to make priorities may be weakened.
Priorities are a clear leadership responsibility. People must be kept on track and
concentrate on what is most important.
We have seen that due to the absence of directives concerning which takes are to be left
out in an emergency, employees have attempted to “manage everything”, with
catastrophic results.
Danger to own life (of operative leaders)
Responsibility stress:
The certainly that unless the crisis is handled, it will cause a major accident, loss of lives
etc.
The times of crisis we have a reduced possibility of influencing, i.e the leader has less
control of events and their consequences than usual.
Rapid Change:
A crisis is often characterized by the fact that several coinciding events create a new and
frequently not envisaged situation. Even though the situation has been envisaged, it is
still seen as surprising by many. The situation may change rapidly and thus require
continuous and varying assessments.
crisis 24
Leaders in an emergency situation often feel that time is pressing. Time pressure is not
always real and is also not a necessary component of a crisis. But the time factor is
essential to the individual’s pattern of stress reactions.
Crises often involve considerable uncertainly in the assessment of the situation and the
existing alternatives for action.
Inadequate information
In a crisis leaders must often make decisions on the basis of inadequate information. In
some crises they may also have an overwhelming amount of information, an
“information overload”, because the mass of information has not been properly
filtered.
Group pressure:
When a group is to attempt to find solutions to a crisis, sub-groups may develop which
exert pressure on other members of the group. A particularly dangerous form of
collective denial is “group thinking” which has been decisive in allowing crisis develop
into disasters.
The stress reactions
These stress factors may trigger more or less specific, inappropriate stress reactions,
which may have a number of consequences:
For instance, the stress of responsibility may cause the leader to shy away from the
responsibility by “abdicating”, either by delegating too much responsibility or by making
himself inaccessible. Reversal, an overwhelming sense of responsibility may cause the
leader to react by working unceasingly, not allowing himself to rest or sleep, thus
contributing to further strain, such as fatigue
What basis mental functions must be intact for problem solving under heavy stress to be
possible?
The leader must be able to:
 Realize that a serious problem exists and make a further identification of the
problem
 Make sure information is gathered
 Formulate alternative solutions and realize the probable consequences of the
various alternatives
 Choose among alternatives
 Implement the solution chosen
crisis 25
As will be obvious, this requires:
 precise power of perception and attention

 rational thinking
 resoluteness
 the ability
In real crisis and emergencies the person’s activities at each of these level is naturally
influenced more or less by the other persons present.
Before we look at the negative consequences of stress, it should be emphasized that a

moderate degree of stress seems to have a positive effect on the individual’s ability to
function. This is true of perception, thinking, resoluteness and ability to act.
In real crisis and emergencies the person’s activities at each of these level is naturally
influenced more or less by other persons present.
An accurate power of perception and attention will be of vital importance to the

recognition that a serious problem exists. This requires two functions:
Firstly, to discover that a change has taken place, and then to realize that the change is
of a threatening character. Nature has made human sensory organs, with their high
sensibility to contrasts, very well suited to discovering even small changes.
This is true of vision, hearing the sense of smell, the sense touch etc. sensory organs,
which, through training or over time, have had the possibility of adapting to impressions;
react faster and more sensitively to the adequate stimuli. If the person feels, threatened
and overwhelmed, sense perception may be entirely blocked in the worst cases. As
mentioned before, the person feels threatened and overwhelmed; sense perception may
be entirely blocked in the worst cases. As mentioned before, the person’s ability to
perceive and be attentive may be reduced if his power of concentration is disturbed.
Another main feature of sense perception under extreme conditions is the fact that what
we perceived first seems to be selectively reinforced. Impressions are formed quickly, but
fade slowly.
We may therefore easily become the prisoner of an aspect of the situation at hand, the
person is struck by the impression”, rather than himself/herself deciding what is to be
noticed. In such situations it is common for leaders to lose some of their information
seeking attitude. Fixation on one aspect of the situation reduces the simultaneous
capacity so that the information, which the leader obtains from the situation, may be all
or nothing. The ability to perceived simultaneous problems may then be drastically
reduced.
crisis 26
Faced with such “information overload”, it is common for the person to begin to leave
out some impressions.
In addition to the fact that the mass of information often creates a quantitative problem,
the threats contained in the information contribute to mobilizing mental defense
mechanisms which may be adversely influence which pieces of information are
perceived.
Because accidents are undesired and because human beings protect themselves against
undesired influences, warning and danger signals may remain undetected, but more
often we see that they are disregarded even though they have been perceived.
In cases of serious stress sense perception becomes stronger than otherwise
characterized by expectations, and attention may become an extension of expectations
and needs. A consequence of this is the people need much more information to notice an
unexpected aspect of the situation than to discover an expected aspect.
Thinking
It has turned out, after many crisis situations, that the crisis management group had
information, which it was not able to use.
In general most people seem to be absorb and retain only 4-8 new units of information,
it is the limitation of the short term memory, which is at work here. It is possible to
increase capacity in a staff by utilizing the whole group and making information visible in
a logbook, on wall charts etc.
A heavy time pressure nevertheless means great problems of organizing information.

With training, no identified situations will be unfamiliar.
It seems that under serious stress, which is allowed to work in a negative way, those
character traits that are ordinarily most visible are strengthened.
The most basal character traits and action patterns become dominant. For instance, a
duty oriented leaders become even more closely to his defined task. Action oriented
leaders become even more energetic, passive leaders become more passive,
authoritarian leaders become more authoritarian.
Simple patterns of reactions, learned at an early stage, take over. In strict, hierarchic
systems attaching great importance to career development, the fear of failing can be so
great that it becomes paralyzing or that directives become more important than
exercising situational leadership.
crisis 27
Feelings
Under heavy time pressure and a feeling of having insufficient time to find a solution,
over activation is caused, resulting in unease, high inner tension and failing
concentration. This creates a feeling of helplessness and strong anxiety.
If, on the other, the leader feels that there is enough time, but that the task cannot be
solved, permission may gradually become predominant. Defeat seems unavoidable. In
this case it is hopelessness, which is underlying, often hidden, feeling.
Action
The incapability to act, or forms of escapist behavior, may occur, like the impulse driven
pattern of action where over activation cannot be controlled.
The aggregate effect of the listed negative effect of the listed negative stress reactions
on sense perception, thinking, feeling and the power to act is that the persons have a
weakened ability to solve complex problems.
Modern disasters are increasingly characterized by complex technology and human

beings in an environment which is not natural, but man-made. What is required is not
simple and consistent with uncomplicated flight or fight reactions, but often-complex
problem solving.
5. Control passenger and other personnel during emergency situations
The stage of an emergency
Preparation
The preparation phase of a crisis is the day-to-day operation, which its drills, exercises,
and other pertinent training to meet such a crisis. The crew and passengers should be
prepared by knowing what to do and by having an adequate perception of risk.
The complete requisite for the proper control of passengers during an emergency cannot
very easily be exercised, due to the impracticalities of a full-scale drill or exercise. Thus,
one should give a lot of thought to where different groups of passengers would be
situated at any given time and the possible consequences for crowd management. Drills
and exercises should be geared to reflect this as far as practicable. See also crowd
management.
crisis 28
Warning
In the warning period, there will be a few signals that something is wrong. Not
everybody will pick up these signals. However, some do in particular those with the
proper experience and training. They may enter into early effective actions to counter
the emerging crisis. The signals may be things like:
 unfamiliar or abnormal sounds

 a slight heel
 smell or something is burning
 slightly visible smoke
The early detection and action is quite often essential to be able to counter a crisis in a
satisfactory manner; on average, the most critical period of development for a shipboard
fire is the first 5 minutes. If you are able to use a so called first-strike team to abate the
relatively small fire within these minutes you have averted a grave crisis with the use of
relatively small resources. Go beyond these 5 minute, and the average shipboard fire has
developed into a major firefighting effort.
Proper control of the crewmembers is quite clearly paramount at this stage,

fulfilling the five factors for successful crisis management.
Emergency
When the emergency develop[s, the crew and passengers may receive quite violent and
sudden signals about what is going on. This will have a big impact and will reduce their
capability to act rationally. The signals maybe:
 flames
 thick smoke
 alarm bells
 screaming and shouting
 water ingress
Again crowd management will play an essential part in handling the passengers. The
effort maybe impaired by the reaction patterns during an emergency, if not handled
properly.
Reaction patterns during emergency
An emergency situation implies extreme stress. The immediate reactions to an

emergency are normally shock, anxiety fear, irritation and anger. In addition, you may
experience physically reactions.
crisis 29
The reaction may reduce both the crewmember’s and the passenger’s capacity for
rational thought. i.e., his ability to solve problems, due to:
 lower capacity with regards to attention span, concentration, and memory, which
in turn lead to;
 rigidity-will not assess alternative solutions, and

 miss out on danger signals
 change in the perception of time, and

 over simplifies complex problems
The most usual detrimental actions that have been observed during emergencies aboard
ships are passengers and crew:
 looking for friends, relatives and belongings,

 panicking
 seek safety in cabins, and
 Moving to the upper side when listing.
The family as entity
Family entities should not be separated, as this may cause a searching for family
members and uncertainly in those who search. If families are separated, it is important
to seek to support other passengers by making them look after, for instance, a child that
has been separated from its parents. In a dangerous situation a family entity will feel
solidarity with each other and cope with the situation better than if they are separated.
Consequently, one should avoid breaking up families in case of evacuation, transfer and
launching of survival craft.
Handling accidents/disasters and understanding of situations
Reactions in connection with accidents/disasters will largely depend on a number of

conditions, both before and during the disaster, e.g. what causes it and how it develops.
On the average the following reactions may be expected:
10-30 % active, mastering behavior

Persons are apparently calm, balanced, keep active and help each other
50-75% Apathy, incapability of acting and feeling
Persons react with some irresolution and helplessness
1-3 % Panic
crisis 30
Persons have symptoms of serious breakdown and are characterized by total confusion
panic
 Active, mastering behavior
This group apparently seems calm and balanced; they keep active and help each
other. The group sticks together more easily if it becomes involved in meaningful
activities. They assess the situation realistically, act rationally and appear as the
spontaneous leaders.
 Apathy, incapability of acting and feeling
This group reacts with slight apathy, is characterized by some irresolution and a
lack of visible reactions. In this group some persons (approx.10%) may be
develop apathy so strong that it can be called a total of incapability of feeling
and/or acting. These people will not be able to do anything to save themselves
or others and will be wholly in the power of others. They have given up thinking
and believe that there is no solution.
 Panic/loss of control
This group gets symptoms of serious breakdown and is characterized by total

confusion, panic, attempts at escape.
Panic
A panic reaction is characterized by a loss of self control, the control of the will
ceases, overwhelming fear/anxiety leads to attempts at immediate and
inappropriate escape.
Both individual and group panic occur less frequently than we usually think, but
like the total motorial paralysis which is also seen in extreme danger situations,
panic behavior may, unfortunately, claim human lives.
Predisposition factors
 Physical fatigue
 Exhaustion
 Inadequate and poor preparation
 Inadequate training
 The situation occurred a surprise
 The situation is associated with great uncertainly
crisis 31
 The group lacks a group feeling
 Absence of leadership and information
Inadequate rescue services may make things worse for the victims of an
accident, and immature and unstable persons among the victims may develop
strong anxiety reactions, which can have a considerable contagious effect.
Triggering factors
The danger is imminent, there are still possibilities of escape or retreat, but these are
considered to be dwindling. For group panic to be triggered, group solidarity must be
severely weakened so that the individual persons lose the “we” feeling and their
sense of belongings with others.
Characteristic of persons/groups in panic
Panic-stricken people are:
 Credulous
 Suggestible
 Intolerant
 Impulsive
 Very unstable and inefficient in terms of efforts and performance
 Demoralized by the atmosphere of panic
Prevention of panic
Retention of group solidarity, if necessary in smaller units. Natural leaders with authority
who, over time, have won the groups confidence because of their knowledge,
experience, power of judgment and training should lead the group. There is a need for
authoritative and resolute decisions, and also calm, factual information, which will
counteract rumors. A good communications system is important
Positive and appropriate activity increases people’s stress tolerance and reduces fear.
Awareness of the dangers of panic is important, i.e panic increase the risk for both the
individual and the group, unlike what the panic-stricken person may think: that his
reaction is the only way of surviving.
Handling a disaster
The most decisive factor of how successfully the danger is handled once it has occurred
is the level of training/experience in handling dangerous situations.
crisis 32
The firefighting efforts open board the “Scandinavian Star” showed that although
training/experience had been given, this is of little use unless coordinated training has
been provided for the preparedness organization, if there is inadequate knowledge of the
location and the personnel is faced with a huge and complex disaster.
In addition the following is also needed if education/knowledge/experience is to be

utilized fully:
 Strong solidarity among task force members

 Good leadership of task force personnel
 High motivation
 Confidence in equipment
 Medical support
Disaster behavior
Level of competence Anticipated reaction
High 2/3 optimal
1/3 adapted
0 dangerous
Medium 1/6 optimal
2/3 adapted
1/6 dangerous
Low 0 optimal
½ adapted
½ dangerous
The ideal aim for a leader is to:
 Forgo special needs which do not coincide with those of the group
 Stand shoulder by shoulder with the group and what is best for the group
 Turn an “I” mentally into a “we” mentality
 Have the ability and the possibility of co-operation and keeping the group
together
 Have the ability and the will to increase the group’s motivation
 Have the ability to feel pressure and stress without acting
 Give help where needed according to his own judgment
 Have competence and inspire security
 Show appropriate behavior in difficult situations
 Think and assess carefully before action is taken
 Exercise appropriate leadership by:
1. Information, survey and assessment

2. Constructive organization
crisis 33
3. Directing and leading others In active, target-oriented and specific tasks,
4. Knowing when not to take action
 Have proficiency and experience in step-by- step handling of the decision

making process and the act
Briefing
A briefing should at least contain details on the following issues:
 Scenario
 Equipment to be used
 Personnel responsibilities
 Particular safety precautions to be observed
Informal debriefing
When a difficult rescue and help mission has been completed, the personnel should get
together in their respective groups to talk about what they have been through.
This should be routine procedure for all personnel. Any initiatives for such meetings
should come from the leaders of the group. Ideally, all personnel should be aware of the
acute stress reactions and what may be expected after such efforts.
It may be relevant, in an informal debriefing of this kind, to quickly describe the normal
and acute stress reactions and what may be expected after such efforts.
It may be relevant, in an informal debriefing of this kind, to quickly describe the normal
and acute stress reactions. The most important thing, however, is that the group has an
opportunity to share their experiences of the accident before breaking up.
What have been described so far are largely the measures that should be taken shortly
after the accident, i.e on the actual day of the accident. Below we will describe further
action in the wake of an accident, based on various needs:
Informal debriefing may be carried as follows:
 Team affair
 Cover positive as well as negative points
 Not blame individuals
 Be a positive learning experience
 Result in a plan for future improvements
crisis 34
Formal debriefing (group stress debriefing)
The purpose is to:
 Reinforce and amplify the learning experience of the incident

 Prepare the group for other missions
 Clarify misconceptions about the incident and its consequences
 Recognize, accept and discuss related feelings and other stress reactions
 Reduce symptomatology which may counteract long term stress symptoms,
feeling of being burned out, illness and other behavior disorders
 Identify persons at risk
 Increase participants ability to help each other
 Encourage and inform participants
With education, training and support both the formal and informal group leaders can lead
a debriefing.
When and how is stress debriefing carried out?
It is important the basic human needs, such as personal hygiene, supply of liquid, food,
rest and sleep, have been given top priority. Debriefing should be carried out in a safe
place, preferably a place that the group is familiar with.
How is stress debriefing carried out?
The group should not be too large, 10-15 persons is appropriate. The basic rule is that
everyone should be present, but nobody should be forced to speak. What is said at the
session should be treated confidentially.
The purpose of the session is not to find faults. The group leader uses a historical time-
line to make a “roadmap” of the critical events. For every point along the time-line the
who’s what’s/ when’s, where’s and why’s are examined.
The group is encouraged to explain facts, examined the most important strains and
sensory perceptions, and to give vent to their feelings. Do not doubt any discrepancies in
personal accounts. Face all participants as equals.
During a reconstruction of the event the group leader discuss the thoughts, feelings and
actions of the participants and helps them to play an active role to cope with their stress
reactions.
 What did you think?

 What did you do?
crisis 35
 How did you react?
 How have you been feeling afterwards?
 What are you thinking and doing now?
Leaders encourage emotional abreaction and prompt the normal grief process. The
group leader also looks for signs and symptoms of malfunction, which may need
further intervention concerning heavy strain and self-help techniques. Individual
follow up is offered.
Co –operation between the company health service and the shop stewards.
I the time immediately following an accident it is important to have close cooperation

between the company health service and the shop stewards at the workplace. The
main purpose of this cooperation is to discover persons at risk after an accident.
It is also necessary to have such co-operation to identify those who need help and to
co-ordinate help services. The co-operation must be formalized so that messages are
relayed from the “shop floor” to the company health service regarding special
reactions in groups or individuals which require some form of intervention.
However, it is important that this information channel is totally transparent to avoid

giving the health service information about individuals, which the individuals
themselves are not aware of. Passivity and isolation from regular work will often
predispose for mental after effects. The use of too much alcohol to subdue reactions
should be discouraged. Group solidarity and activity are the best preventive
measures that can be taken after an accident.
Health examination
After a serious accident it will be relevant to consider whether all those involved
should undergo a health examination as soon as possible. Once again, the purpose is
to be able to give the persons concerned an opportunity to talk about their
experience, and also, based on the reactions of the individuals; to assess whether
special treatment is necessary.
If, a system has been developed as described above, such health examination of all
persons will hardly be necessary. This should nevertheless be considered on the
basis of the situation at hand.
Information meetings called by the management
It is very important that all employees are given the best possible information about
the actual accident and about its causes when these have been identified. In the
crisis 36
case of major accidents, such as if a whole factory is destroyed, it is also important
that the management envisages solutions to the problem. In an industrial accident of
major proportions the uncertainty regarding future work will cause considerable
stress in addition to the strain of witnessing such an accident and any loss of fellow
workers. it will therefore be essential for the management to give guarantees for
future work for the employees. If such guarantees can be given, this should be done
as soon as possible after the accident.
6.Communication
Crisis communication
General remarks
Human beings often have a reduced ability (confusion) to understand complicated

messages in a stressed situation. Keep messages, information and feedback as simple as
possible. It may also be necessary to repeat a message.
If required to talk loudly, one should use a low tone voice. The tendency to raise one’s
vocal pitch as one talks more loudly should be avoided, as allow pitch is easier to
perceive.
In a major crisis the mass of information received on the bridge may seem
overwhelming, unless tasks have been assigned and the need for exchange of
information is reduced. Moreover, the overall crisis management on the bridge should be
organized in a way, which is prepared for further communication of information. The
emergency preparedness management must avoid becoming engaged in communication
only. One must set aside time to assess the situation in its entirety.
Occasionally some information will have been left out when an acute crisis occurs. The
situation may require immediate action on the basis of the limited amount of information
should be assessed against time limits.
Owning to stress reactions and short time limits, a certain amount of incorrect
information may occur. An imminent danger or a warning of such danger may also cause
rumors, something, which in itself result from incorrect information. It is possible to
disregard incorrect information by using the correct information available or by
requesting further information.
Clear and precise instructions and orders
The ability to communicate clear and unambiguous instructions is of the utmost

importance in crisis management. Good communication (good co-operation), for
crisis 37
instance, is required to utilize fully the aids available. Instructions and reports must be
based on the information deeded, and the fact that the ability to communicate is reduced
due to stress and noise should also be taken into account.
In general, one should avoid using instructions consisting of words, which may have an
ambiguous meaning if left out. An example is the word “not”- do not proceed to the
lifeboats”, if not is omitted; the result is the opposite of the intention.
The following four points may be useful to analyze which pieces of information
one needs:
 Situation: describe the present situation to the relevant crewmembers. Avoid

unnecessary details. The situation can be described using anything from a simple
code such as “Code Bravo Deck 3 Zone 3” to a more detailed statement,
depending on what is standard procedure. It may be an advantage to assign a
code to the most common emergencies (those that occur most frequently) to
avoid frightening passengers and not to reduce the need for lengthy messages.
 Tasks: inform the crew of what is to be done if it should become necessary. If
there is a standard procedure, the crew may already be familiar with the tasks
when they received information about the situation.
If instructions are nevertheless needed, it is important to avoid unnecessary

details; personnel (and crew) on the scene must to a certain extent be allowed
to Assess the situation based on their own observations and make the necessary
decisions. The crew members must be allowed to asses and make decisions
themselves concerning the emergency without constantly feeling the need to
communicate the details to receive further guidance.
 Action: awareness of how the tasks are to be carried out if necessary. There
may be a standard procedure to be followed.
 Administration: what procedures have been prepared for this type of situation?
How much support can be counted on from the shipboard preparedness
organization?
Management and communication
Who is in charge of the various stations? If several crew members are present at the
same station, one of them shall take command, and the others shall support him. How
does one communicate with the crew at the station and the preparedness management
as such?
crisis 38
“Closed loop
When giving instructions in an emergency, one should use the “closed loop” as often as
practicable. Instructions given in a “closed loop” mean that the recipient confirms the
message by repeating the key words.
INSTRUCTIONS
SENDER RECIPIENT
CONFIRMATION
The “closed loop” is the same method as is used in day-to-day operation, the seaman at
the helm repeating the course alteration ordered by the officer of the watch on the
bridge.
Open communication
It is necessary to establish communication with the preparedness management to obtain

all necessary information. This communication will also be useful to a certain extent to
counteract stress.
The preparedness management will be encouraged if they are listed to, which will also
make it easier to focus on the tasks to be carried out (rescue work), rather than on fear
in connection with the imminent danger.
Although the nature of this guide does not permit a detailed description of personal
group communication, one should be aware that some characteristic may reduce
communication in day-to-day operations as well as in a crisis.
Some persons get agitated/aggressive from stress, while others do not realize the
importance of and need for immediate and efficient measures to reduce the imminent
danger.
Training including dramatized exercise and drills, gives good results concerning the
establishment of good communications channels in the event of unexpected crisis
situations. In communication between a person on a low vs. a high level in the team,
distance and communication difficulties may for instance be created by factors are shown
below:
crisis 39
Communicator Receiver
Lack self confidence Lack of self confidence

Lack of understanding Authoritarian
Of situation
Does not accept responsibility Does not accept responsibility
Personal dislike Aggressive
The team members should find a balance between the assertiveness of each team
members, facilitating information exchange, and the authority of the captain or other
person in charge. One should also take into account the possibility that parts of the
communication system may collapse in an emergency, and alternative methods of
communication may be required.
Communication with passengers
Information to the passenger should be kept to facts and avoid using frightening
expressions. Communication with passenger discovers a warning signal (warning lamp)
at an early stage of a crisis.
Information t the passenger can be as follows:
 Situation : describe the present situation. Avoid unnecessary details. Keep to the
facts, be precise and calming.
 Directions: explain what the passengers should do.
 Action: explain how they should do it, if necessary.
The message should be repeated regularly, and one should at the same time make sure
that everyone has understood it and create an impression of order and discipline.
7. Post trauma period
The following groups of people may be said to be victims of the disaster:
The facilities
These must be found, identified shielded from the media, and the next-of-kin must be
notified. The mourning ceremony is important, as is the presence and participation of
leaders. The importance of emotional leadership and symbolic leadership is often
underestimated.
crisis 40
The bereaved
The bereaved often have a strong need to be informed by others who experienced the
accident, about what happened, about rescue work, resuscitation attempts etc. if several
persons have been killed, the bereaved may find support in each other. The leaders
should meet the bereaved. If grief is seen as something highly personal and private, it
may be necessary to shield the bereaved from the media.
The survivors
The victims of a shipping accident may have their place of residence far away from the
scene of the accident, and far apart. They will want to return home as soon as possible,
and preventive follow-up work must take this into consideration.
Physical injured
These should be visited at the hospitals, or flowers should be sent to them.
They should be informed of the consequences of the accident, and contact with them
should be maintained.
No major physical injuries
In the shock-phase:
Shielding, physical contact, physical examination, help to contact their families. Caution
should be exercised with regard to interviews with reporters. If possible, one of the
survivors whose media group, or be present at après conference, if relevant. Inform
about normal reactions, and give simple advice about coping techniques.
In the reaction phase:
Phase characterized by re-living the accident, with anxiety symptoms, sleep problems,
nightmares, jumpiness, fear of the scene of the accident, social withdrawal, brooding,
depression, survival guilt feeling, irritability, aggression. The company of other survivors
of the accident is important. Avoid isolation and long-term passivity.
Emotional first aid

Emotional first aid is primarily based on behaving humanely towards our fellow human
beings, an giving them time to work through their experiences. Key words for what first
aid can contain:
 Accept feeling
crisis 41
 Accept the fact that symptoms are strong normal reactions requiring help
 Meaningful activities
 Show optimistic attitude
 Do not blame others
 Share the experience of the accident with others
 Early help is important
Rescue personnel
Debriefing to:
1. Prevent mental problems

2. Maximize the learning effects of the experience
3. Debriefing consist of:
 going through the various stages of the event in the group

 sharing impressions, thoughts, and feelings which had to be
controlled/subdued during rescue efforts. Recognizing and preferably
sharing with others the feelings that linger or are easily activated after
the accident.
 Company personnel being involved may need active support to be able
to function at work. An important support function is to be able to talk
about what happened. Depending on their personal characteristics, and
the situation in which they found themselves during the crisis, follow up
over time may be necessary. If the persons concerned show signs of
“post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)”, professional aid may be
required.
Responsibilities
A major accident usually creates closer solidarity and mobilizes the will to contribute, and
puts aside previous conflicts, at least for a few weeks. Hunting for scapegoats is a sign of
danger! Active information to the media. Onrush from the media: firstly in order to report
from the scene of the accident and interview survivors, secondly to examine
causes/responsibilities/guilt: how could something like this happen? An appropriate
answer has been: “this is an accident that should never have happened”. The leader
should allow himself to feel and express the tragedy and sadness of it, express grief and
the fact that everyone feels affected by it. That emotional reaction must now be allowed
to dominate. Resist pressure to give simple and quick explanations. Technical analyses
and legal matters etc. must be discussed at a later stage.
The media will ask: “what measures will be taken to avoid anything like this happening
again??” if these measures have not been clarified, reference should be made to the
crisis 42
investigation/accident analysis which will give the answer concerning causes, and which
will take some time, but no efforts will be spared.
Persons feeling responsible or pointed out as responsible should not be isolated, pacified
or go on sick leave unnecessarily. Conversations, togetherness, and meaningful activities
help. If one cannot support a person’s cause, one can always give support on the human
level, expert interest, understanding and compassion.
Types of cargo units including vehicles to be carried
Ro-ro ships have to be able to carry many different types of wheeled cargo from small
cars to 45 ton trailers and, in special cases, loads several hundred of tons. It is almost
impossible to device a lashing system that I deal for all these cases.
Intended stowage pattern for the cargo units including vehicles and mass of the cargo
units and vehicles condition for carriage by sea, free of defects, which could affect their
structural strength and in good working order if they are to be driven on to or off the
ship.
Since the cargo is driven on/off the ship and, once on board, stowed tightly together, it is
often difficult to position the lashing and other arrangements for securing the cargo in
the nest possible locations, under the section relating to suitability for transport b sea,
the Code of Practice advises the shippers, forwarding agents, road hauliers and any other
party presenting road vehicles for shipment, should appreciate that vehicles can be
subjected to forces of great magnitudes, particularly in the transverse direction and
especially in adverse weather conditions. It is importance for them to ensure that;
a) Freight vehicles of more than 3.5 tons must be provided with an adequate
number of accessible securing points of sufficient strength, which are also
located also located as to ensure effective restraint of freight vehicles by the
lashing. (This refers to lashing points on the vehicle, which will be used to secure
the vehicle to ro-ro deck)
b) Semi trailers are of adequate strength withstand the loading imposed by the use
of trestles or similar devices. Semi trailers should have, within the area of the
kingpin, sufficient strength and space for a trestle to be located to allow safe
storage prior to winching of the semi trailer-towing vehicle. The area of trestle
location should be suitably marked on both sides.
c) Supporting legs on semi trailers are especially designed to support semi trailer
during sea transport are clearly marked.
crisis 43
d) Where jacks are used on freight vehicle the jacking up positions on the chassis
are strengthened and clearly.
e) Refrigerate freight vehicles of more than 3.5 tons, with flush-insulated

undersides should have jacking points especially fitted and marked to avoid
damage to insulation.
f) Freight vehicles designed to transport loads likely to have an adheres effect on

their stability, such as hanging meat, have a means of neutralizing the
suspension system.
g) Adequate number of securing points to enable the cargo to be adequately secure

to them so as to withstand the forces which may arises during sea transport.
Procedures for opening and securing hull openings
The requirements for opening, closing and securing hull openings are set out in ,SOLAS
1974 with amendments, Chapter II-1, in particular Regulations 15,17,20,1-4 and 23.2.
Furthermore, National Regulation agreements may apply. An overview of the
International Class and Regional requirements.
Ships classed with IACS shall be provided with an operating and maintenance manual for
bow, side and stem doors, as set out in DNV Rules for the Classification of Ships, Part 5,
Ch. 2 Sec. 3. The manual shall contain necessary information on:
Plans and particulars related to the doors
Conditions which were established or presumed at the time of the design, e.g service
area restrictions. Maximum acceptable clearances in supports etc.
Systematic maintenance and function testing
Identification of faults, and
Register of inspection and repairs
On ships not covered by IACS requirements or similar, the procedures for handling
doors should be based on the international rules and supplier’s user’s manual. The
operation and maintenance manual or the procedure, respectively, provides a basis
for a training programmed.
crisis 44
On board Ro-ro passenger vessel and other passenger ships it is standing
order by the master that;
No ramp/shell door to be open without the officer on watch have been informed and full
expressed authorization given
One deck crew to attend at all times when ramp/shell door is open
The ramp/shell door to be closed as soon as the work is completed or interrupted

completed.
The bridge indicators and closed circuit television (cctv) show whether the doors are
opened or closed
All activities in ro-ro deck, the openings and closing of the doors to be longed by the
officer on watch
All doors to be kept closed and locked until secured alongside at next part
All communication relating to doors and ramps must be clear and a positive
acknowledgement received by the master
Legislations, Codes and Agreements Affecting RO-Ro Passenger Ships
Dangerous Goods:
IMO A. 648 (16)-General Principles for Ships Reporting Systems and Ship Reporting
Requirements Including Guidelines for Reporting Incidents Involving Dangerous Goods,
Harmful, Substances and/or Marine Pollutants
Cargo Securing:
SOLAS 1974 with Amendments, Chapter VI-Carriage of Cargoes, Part General Provisions,
Regulations 5 Stowage and Securing
Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing, IMO Resolution A. 714 (17)
adopted on 6 November 1991
Opening, Closing and Securing Hull Openings:
SOLAS 1974 with amendments Chapter II-1, in particular regulation 15, 17, 20, 20.1-4
and 23.2
DNV Rules for the Classification of Ships, Part 5, Chap 2, Sect. 3 –Bow
crisis 45
Doors and Part 3, Ch 1, Sec.2- Side stern Doors
Ro-ro Deck Atmosphere
Solas 1974 with amendments Chapter II-2, Regulations 37 and 38
MSC/Cir. 729-Design Guidelines and Operational Recommendations for Ventilation

System in RO-RO Cargo Spaces
Stability and Stress Requirements and Limitations
The movement of cargo on the vehicle deck can affect the intact stability of the ship,
causing it to list. The sudden in rush of water following the damage to the hull or failure
of watertight doors can be even more serious and rapid. The fact RO-ro ships have a
very large superstructure compared with other means that they can be more affected by
wind and bad weather.
Stability, trim and stress calculations are normally included in the ships officers abilities
based on education and shipboard manuals.
Loading and Embarkation Procedures
Loading and embarkation procedures may be particular to each ship and the particular
equipments and designs of the vessel. Competence with records to loading and
embarkation may be ensured by familiarization, coaching and self study of pertinent
procedures and operations manual. The embarkation of handicapped passengers or
passengers needing special assistance may require special equipments and/or an
embarkation system designed for such passengers.
Large groups of passenger in relatively confined areas should be avoided as far as

possible, see also crowd management.
The loading and embarkation on the car deck requires particular safeguards. First and
foremost, relatively low speed limits should be enforced. Moreover, lorries, cars with
caravans and similar vehicles in which the drivers field of vision is obstructed, must not
be allowed to move around on the deck without supervisions. The driver of such vehicles
should receive clear orders to stop if they lose sight of their supervisor. The supervisor
should receive clear orders to stop if they lose sight of their supervisor. The supervisor
should have a uniform or apparel that makes his position clear. He ought to be able to
communicate clearly with hand signals.
crisis 46

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GLOBE MARITIME TRAINING CENTER

Passenger information required on all passenger ships from January 1 of 1999

Since January 1 of 1999 a regulation of which to record details of passenger on board

The order to provide information of passengers was part of a package of amendments to

Requirement for seafarer’s training on passenger ships

Following the Estonia ferry disaster, amendments to the revised International

The amendments also include an additional Regulation V/3 on Mandatory minimum

“Global competence comes with Quality Training”

I. ORGANIZATION OF EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

Limitation of the availability of resources

II. INTRODUCTION TO TERMS RELATING TO CRISIS MANAGEMENT ANDRESPONSE

The concept of crisis

IV. CRISIS, CRISIS MANAGEMENT, STRESS AND STRESS REACTION

V. CONTROL PASSENGER AND OTHER PERSONNEL DURING EMERGENCY

VII. Post-trauma period

“Global competence comes with Quality Training”

1. Organization of emergency procedures

Knowledge of the ship’s layout and arrangement

“Global competence comes with Quality Training”

 Away from the scene of fire

“Global competence comes with Quality Training”

The notion of safety on board includes two main elements:

Shipboard preparedness may be defined as the possibilities at the crew’s disposal to

 Technical arrangements and systems

“Global competence comes with Quality Training”

The preparedness organization shall be an instrument of damage control for the

Adaptation of emergency preparedness plan (s)

“Global competence comes with Quality Training”

When trying to ensure adherence to procedures, it may be useful to know that

The use of emergency preparedness plans

The importance of drills and training

The preparedness plan is in itself no guarantee against undesired events, nor is it a

A general summary of the effect of training and drills:

1. Improve survival capability and rescue capability

1. Technology: testing functionality of relevant equipment. Does it function? Does

Optimum use of resources

Shipboard emergency preparedness is essentially different in many ways from a shore-

Available resources may generally be divided into the following categories:

Technical arrangements and systems:

 Communication equipment, mobile, stationary for internal and external use

“Global competence comes with Quality Training”

The individual crewmembers knowledge and proficiency in controlling or handling the

What is this-how can we influence, limit, and prevent, escalation?

Which are the relevant sources to employ?

Whether the measure decided on functioned according to plan or whether

In the development of ship board emergency preparedness plans it is important

“Global competence comes with Quality Training”

The organization of help and assistance needed by shipping in emergencies is being

The availability of such organized help and assistance will on several

 Position of the ship

Limitations on the availability of resources

 The massive demands in scenario in question

If crewmembers are incapacitated, the ability to make a co-coordinated effort

External assistance may also be limited or non-existent, depending on the

Quality- “I better do this myself. I do it better.”

Comfort-“I’m sure that it gets done if I do it myself.”

Risk- “He may make mistake. I better do it myself.”

It is vital to overcome these problems to be able to delegate without undue

2. Introduction to terms relating to crisis management and response

The concept of crisis

 Maturing, growth and good health or

Medical science and psychiatry recognizes a number of types of crisis, with

“Global competence comes with Quality Training”