Mod 1 MBCET PDF

ME 467
CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING
HANDOUTS
ARVIND P GURUKAMALAM
9995055595 arvindians@gmail.com
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MAR BASELIOS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
REFERENCES
● Cryogenic Systems by Randall F Barron
● NPTEL Cryogenic Engineering by Prof MD Atrey
● Cryogenicsociety.org
● Indian cryogenic council
● British cryogenic council
QUESTION BANK-MODULE 1 (CLICK on QUESTION to GO TO ANSWER SLIDE)
1)Define cryogenics? What is its difference from refrigeration? (2) KTU DEC 2018
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
2)Give an account of historical development of cryogenic technology? (5) KTU DEC 2018
3)Explain any 5 major milestones in the developement of cryogenics? (5)
LOW TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
4)Explain how the ultimate and yield strengths change with cryogenic temperature?(4) KTU MAY 2019
5)Explain how fatigue and impact strengths varies with with cryogenic temperature?(4)
6)Explain ductile brittle transition(DBT) at cryogenic temperatures?(2)
7)Explain how ductility and hardness varies with with cryogenic temperature?(4)
8)Explain how elastic moduli varies with with cryogenic temperature?(2)
THERMAL PROPERTIES
9)Explain the variation of thermal conductivity for pure and impure metals at low temperatures?
10)Explain the significance of debye model and debye characteristic temperature? KTU MAY 2019
11)Describe the variation in the following properties under cryogenic conditions: Thermal conductivity
(2),Coefficient of thermal expansion (2),Specific heats of solids liquids and gases (4)
ELECTRIC & MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
12)Explain the variation of electrical and magnetic properties of materials at cryogenic temperatures? (4)
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY(P 38,39,40,42)
13)Explain the phenomenon of superconductivity? (4) KTU MAY 2019
14)Explain the BCS theory superconductivity? (4)
15)Briefly describe the applications of superconductivity? (4) KTU DEC 2018
16)Explain the terms(1)transition temp (2)critical field (3)critical current of superconductors (4)
17)Explain meissner effect? (4) KTU DEC 2018
18)Explain how properties change when materials change from normal to superconducting state? (5)
19)Explain Type I and Type II superconductors? KTU DEC 2018
PROPERTIES OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS other than HYDROGEN & HELIUM

20) What is a cryogen and what are its properties? (2)
21) Mention the different cryogenic fluids and explain any two in detail (10)
PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN
22) Differentiate between ortho-hydrogen and para-hydrogen? (4) KTU DEC 2018
23) Explain ortho-para conversion of hydrogen in cryogenic systems? KTU DEC 2018
PROPERTIES OF HELIUM
24) Draw the phase diagram for helium and explain the various regions? (4)
25) Sketch and explain the P-T diagram for helium 4.Indicate lambda line, lambda point and critical
point and explain their significance?(10)
26) Define Lambda point? What is Lambda line with reference to helium II in cryogenics? (4)
27) Sketch and explain the variation of specific heat of helium 4 at near absolute temperatures? (4)
28) Explain the phenomenon of super-fluidity with respect to helium?(4)
29) Explain the phenomenon of invisible boiling associated with helium 4?(2)
30) Explain the transfer mechanism in superfluid helium?(2)
31) Explain Fountain effect and Creeping film effect with respect to Helium II in cryogenics? (4)
32) Explain Rollin film and Second sound with respect to Helium II in cryogenics? (4)
33) Explain mechanocaloric effect and thermo mechanical effect in superfluid helium?(4)
34) Explain the various properties of Helium IV?(5) KTU MAY 2019
35) List out the properties of Helium that makes it an ideal cryogenic fluid? (10)
36) Explain the differences between helium I and Helium II? (4)
APPLICATION OF CRYOGENICS
37) Briefly explain the applications of cryogenics in
a. Space KTU DEC 2018
b. Food Processing
c. Super conductivity
d. Electrical Power
e. Biology
f. Medicine
g. Electronics KTU MAY 2019
h. Cutting Tool Industry.
38) Explain the use of cryogenic technology in electric power transmission? (4)
1. Introduction to Cryogenic Systems
2. Historical development
3. Low Temperature properties of Engineering Materials
a. Mechanical properties
b. Thermal properties
c. Electric and magnetic properties
4. Cryogenic fluids and their properties MODULE 1
5. Applications of Cryogenics in: SYLLABUS
a. Space
b. Food Processing
d. Electrical Power
e. Biology
f. Medicine
g. Electronics
● Kryo – Very cold (frost) and Genics – to Introduction To Cryogenic
produce
Systems
● What is Cryogenics?(Definition)
Cryogenics is (defined as) the science and
technology associated with generation of
low temperature below 123 K.
● The Kelvin Temperature Scale K = °C + 273
Cryogenic Engineering & Systems
In the field of cryogenic engineering,
one is concerned with developing and
improving low-temperature
techniques, processes, and equipment.
In general, we shall use the term

cryogenic system to refer to an
interacting group of components
involving low temperatures.
Air liquefaction plants, helium

refrigerators, and storage vessels
with the associated controls are some
examples of cryogenic systems.
Cryogen-Fluid with normal boiling point less than 123 K
T-S diagram of a Cryogen:
Helium
Properties of few Cryogens
Helium at low temperatures-Superfluidity
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT DETAILED LECTURE NOTES
1877-Cailletet and Pictet liquefied oxygen (Pictet 1892).

1879-Linde founded the Linde Eismaschinen AG.
1892-Dewar developed a vacuum-insulated vessel for cryogenic-fluid storage
(Dewar 1927).
1895-Onnes established the Leiden Laboratory. Linde was granted a basic
patent on air liquefaction in Germany.
1902-Claude established l'Air Liquide and developed an air-liquefaction system
using an expansion engine.
1908-Onnes liquefied helium (Onnes 1908).
1911-Onnes discovered superconductivity (Onnes 1913).
1926-Goddard test-fired the first cryogenically propelled rocket. Cooling by

adiabatic demagnetization independently suggested by Giauque and Debye.
1933-Magnetic cooling used to attain temperatures below I K.
1934-Kapitza designed and built the first expansion engine for helium.
Evacuated-powder insulation first used on a commercial scale in cryogenic-fluid
storage vessels.
1952-National Bureau of Standards Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory
established (Brickwedde 1960).
1966-Dilution refrigerator using HeJ-He' mixtures developed (Hall 1966;
Neganov 1966).
1975-Record high superconducting transition temperature (23 K) achieved.
1994-Matsubara developed a 4K cryocooler
Low Temperature Properties Of Engineering
Materials-Need for study?
Properties of materials change, when cooled to cryogenic temperatures.
● Rubber when quenched in LN2, it turns hard and breaks like a brittle
material.
● Wires made of materials like Nb – Ti, exhibit zero resistance when
subjected to very low temperatures (Superconductivity).
Hence, a knowledge of behavior and properties like strength, ductility,
thermal and electrical conductivities etc. of materials is necessary for the
proper design of components/parts.
Material Science
(Prerequisite-SKIP next 4 slides if known)
● Solids are composed of atoms, which are bound together and are arranged in
regular arrays.Solids are broadly classified into two types
1. Metals
2. Non – metals
a. Plastics
b. Glasses
● In cryogenic engineering we are mainly concerned with metals and plastics
● Metals have a highly ordered structure.
● The atoms are arranged in symmetrical crystal lattices.
● Most common of these lattice structures are
1. Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)
2. Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)
3. Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
Lattice Structure of Metals
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)(Cu,Al,Ni,Ag,Au)
• An atom at each of the eight corners and an
atom at the center of each of the six faces. (Total = 14 atoms).
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)(α-Fe,W,Mo,K)
• An atom at each of the eight corners and one atom at the
center of cube.(Total = 9 atoms).
Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)(Cd,Zn,Mg,Ti,Be)
• An atom at each of the twelve corners, an atom at the center
of each of two vertical hexagonal ends and three atoms in way
between the ends of prism. (Total = 17 atoms).
• The above lattice structures decides the number of slip
planes in the crystal.
• Slip directions are the directions within the crystal in which
the planes can slip or move easily one over the other
Slip Planes,Slip Direction and its relevance
● Depending on the type of lattice,
different slip systems are present
in the material.
● Slip occurs on close-packed planes
(slip planes-those containing the
greatest number of atoms per
area), and in close-packed
directions (slip direction-most
atoms per length).
● A slip plane and a slip direction
constitute a slip system.The
magnitude and direction of slip are
represented by the Burgers
vector.
●
Slip Planes,Slip Direction and its relevance
● Real crystals do not have perfect lattice arrangements.There exists always
some dislocations due to some imperfections.
● Dislocations are one-dimensional defects that occur in real crystalline
solids and control their plastic deformation.
● The presence of dislocations permits atomic planes to slip "one atomic row
at a time."
● The presence of dislocations strongly influences many of the properties of
materials.
● The number of slip planes governs the movement of dislocations and this
governs the ductility and the impact strength of any material.
● The FCC structure has maximum number of slip planes, while the BCC has
the least. The HCP structure falls in between the above two lattices.As a
result, the FCC solids are more ductile than the BCC and the HCP
● When a ductile specimen is subjected to a
tensile test, the stress – strain relationship Stress – strain
is developed as shown. curve
● Proportional Limit (PL) is the limit in which
the elongation of the specimen is directly
proportional to stress applied.If this
elongating force is removed, specimen regains
its original shape – elastic behaviour.
● C is called as Yield Point, the stress is Yield
Stress. The point F is the Ultimate Tensile
Stress and G is the breakage point.
● Brittle materials also have a Proportional
Limit.The stress – strain relationship for a
brittle material is as shown (Dotted).
● Stresses when exceeded above PL, the brittle
material breaks.
WHAT HAPPENS TO MATERIALS AT LOW
TEMPERATURES?-DEMONSTRATION!
1. Mechanical properties
a. Ultimate and Yield strength
b. Fatigue Strength
c. Impact Strength
d. Hardness and Ductility LOW TEMPERATURE
e. Elastic Moduli
PROPERTIES OF
2. Thermal properties
a. Thermal conductivity
ENGINEERING
b. Specific heats of solids MATERIALS
c. Specific heats of liquids and gases
d. Coefficient of thermal expansion
3. Electric and magnetic properties
a. Electrical conductivity
b. Superconductivity
Yield Strength & Ultimate Strength
● The Ultimate and Yield strengths of the material largely depend on the
movement of dislocations.
● At lower temperatures, the internal energy of atoms is low.
● As a result, the atoms of the material vibrate less vigorously with less
thermal agitation.
● When these agitations are low, the movement of dislocations is
hampered.
● It requires a very large stress to tear the dislocations from their
equilibrium positions.
● Therefore, materials exhibit high yield and ultimate strengths at low
temperatures.
Yield Strength
It is the stress at which the strain of
a material shows a rapid increase with
an increase in stress, when subjected
to a simple tensile test.
The yield strength of various

commonly used materials increases
with decrease in temperature.
These materials are normally alloys of

iron (steel) and aluminum etc.
Ultimate Strength
Similar to the yield strength, the
ultimate strength of the materials
also increases with decrease in
temperature.
Stainless steel has high ultimate

strength and is mostly preferred at
cryogenic applications.
● Materials exhibit fatigue failure when they
are subjected to fluctuating loads. Fatigue Strength
● These failures can happen even if the
stress applied is much lower than the
ultimate stress values.
● Fatigue strength of a material is the stress
at which the specimen fails after a certain
number of cycles.
● Any fatigue failure begins with a microcrack
initiation.
● At low temperatures, a large stress is
required to stretch the crack due to increase
in ultimate strength.
● Therefore, like the ultimate strength, the
fatigue strength increases as the
temperature decreases.
Fatigue Strength
The fatigue strength of stainless
steel is higher as shown in figure.
In order to avoid fatigue failure,

when a specimen is subjected to
fluctuating loads, the working stress
is maintained below a certain value
called as Endurance Limit.
Eg:Beryllium – Copper alloy is used in

manufacturing of flexure bearings.
The working stress is kept below the
endurance limit to avoid fatigue
failure.
● Charpy and Izod tests are used to
measure the resistance of a
Impact Strength
material to impact loading.The
energy absorbed when the material
is fractured suddenly by a force is
the measure of impact strength.
● In both these tests, the difference
in the height attained by the
hammer pendulum after the impact
(loss in potential energy),
determines the impact strength of
specimen.
● In general, the impact strength of
the materials decreases with
decrease in temperature.
● Few of the materials exhibit Ductile to
Brittle Transition (DBT) at low Ductile Brittle
temperatures. Transition(DBT)
● The temperature at which this occurs is
called as Ductile to Brittle Transition
Temperature (DBTT)
● Carbon steels undergo DBT at
temperatures around 80 to 100 K. This
causes a sudden decrease in the impact
strength of the material at that
temperature.
● This decrease is as shown by the “S” curve in
the figure.Hence, these materials cannot be
used for cryogenic applications.
● Stainless steel is most preferred material
from the impact strength point of view.
Impact Strength
● The impact strength of a material is largely governed by its lattice
structure.
● At low temperatures, the materials with Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
lattice, break easily. This is due to reasons mentioned earlier on the slip
planes and movement of dislocations.
● As a result, the materials with BCC lattice are not preferred for low
temperature applications.
● The materials with Face Centered Cubic (FCC) or Hexagonal lattice
have more slip planes.
● These slip planes assist in plastic deformation (rather than breaking)
and hence increase the impact strength of material even at low
temperatures.
● The materials with FCC and HCP lattices are preferred for cryogenic
applications.
Ductility
● A material which elongates more
than 5% of the original length
before failure is called as ductile
material.
● When a specimen is subjected to
simple tensile test, ductility is given
as the measure of
a. Percentage elongation in the
length of specimen at the
failure (or)
b. Percentage reduction in cross
sectional area of the specimen
at the failure.
Ductility
● In general, the ductility of the
materials decreases with decrease
in the temperature.
● The materials which undergo DBT,
are not preferred due to the
decrease in the ductility.
● For stainless steel, the percentage
elongation is around 30% at 0 K –
meaning fairly ductile for
cryogenic applications.
Hardness
● Hardness is the measure of depth of the standard indentation made on
the surface of the specimen by a standard indenter.
● Common hardness tests include
a. Brinell test
b. Vickers test
c. Rockwell test
● Hardness is directly proportional to the ultimate stress of a material.
● Hence, it follows the same trend, i.e. increases as the temperature is
decreased.
● The three commonly used elastic moduli are
Young’s Modulus,Shear Modulus & Bulk Elastic Moduli
Modulus
● With the decrease in temperature, the
disturbing vibrations and thermal
agitation of molecules decrease.
● These will increase the inter-atomic
forces and thereby, reducing the strain
at low temperatures.
● To produce same strain at low
temperature, greater stress is required.
● In other words, to produce the same stress
at low temperature, less strain is required.
● As a result the Young’s modulus increases.
Elastic Moduli
● The Young’s modulus of various

commonly used materials is as
shown in the adjacent figure.
● The elastic moduli increases
(slightly) with the decrease in
temperature.
● All the three elastic moduli follow
the same trend.
Non – Metals (Plastics)
● Plastics or polymers are made of long
chains of molecules.Each molecule has
thousands of atoms held together and
arranged in tangled arrays.
● The intermolecular forces that unite the
different polymer molecules are van der
Waals force.
● The strength of various commonly used
plastics is as shown. The strength
increases with the decrease in the
temperature.
● Of all the plastics, PTFE (Teflon) is the
only one which can be deformed
plastically to a small degree at 4K.
Non – Metals (Plastics)
● The effect of stress on plastics or
elastomers is very less as compared to
metals.
● These solids yield partly by uncoiling
the long chain of molecules and sliding
over one another.
● This motion is facilitated by the
thermal energy possessed by the
molecules.
● At low temperatures, material
deformation is more difficult due to
decrease in thermal energy.
Points to Remember
● Stainless steel is the best material for the cryogenic applications.
● Carbon steel cannot be used at low temperature as it undergoes a
Ductile to Brittle Transition (DBT).
● Ultimate and Yield strength, fatigue strength of any material increase
at lower temperature
● Impact strength, ductility decrease at lower temperature.
● PTFE (Teflon) can be deformed plastically at 4 K as compared to other
materials.
b. Fatigue Strength
c. Impact Strength
e. Elastic Moduli
PROPERTIES OF
ENGINEERING
c. Specific heats of liquids and
gases
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
● To understand the variation of thermal conductivity at low temperatures,
one must be aware of the different mechanisms for transport of energy
through materials.
● There are three basic mechanisms responsible for conduction of heat
through materials:
1. electron motion,as in metallic conductors;
2. lattice vibrational energy transport, or phonon motion, as in all solids;
3. molecular motion, as in organic solids and gases.
● In liquids, the primary mechanism for conduction heat transfer is the
transfer of molecular vibrational energy;
● Whereas in gases, heat is conducted primarily by transfer of
1. Translational energy (for monatomic gases) and
2. Translational and Rotational energy (for diatomic gases).
Thermal Conductivity-Definition
● Thermal conductivity, kT, is the property of a material which indicates its
ability to conduct heat.
● Using principles of kinetic theory of gases (Eucken 1913), we may obtain a
theoretical expression relating the thermal conductivity to other properties of
the material:
FOR
GASES
● 𝝲= specific heat ratio
● ⍴= density of material
● Cv = specific heat at constant volume
● ṽ = average particle velocity (mean molecular speed)
● ƛ= mean free path of particles, or average distance a particle travels before it
is deflected
Thermal conductivity of Gases and Liquids
● GASES:For all gases the thermal conductivity decreases as the
temperature is lowered.
● Because the product of density and mean free path for a gas is practically
constant, and the specific heat is not a strong function of temperature,
the thermal conductivity of a gas should vary with temperature in the same
manner as the mean molecular speed ṽ, as indicated by the equation in
previous slide.
● Mean molecular speed is directly proportional to absolute temperature
● A decrease in temperature results in a decrease in the mean molecular
speed and, consequently, a decrease in the gas thermal conductivity.
● LIQUIDS:All cryogenic liquids except hydrogen and helium have thermal
conductivities that increase as the temperature is decreased.
● Liquid hydrogen and helium behave in a manner opposite to that of other
liquids in the cryogenic temperature range.
Conduction in Pure Metals
● In general, for solids kT decreases
with the decrease in the temperature.
● However, for pure metals the
variation is slightly different from
that of impure metals and alloys.
● In Pure metals both Electron and
Phonon motion(lattice vibration) cause
heat conduction.
● The contribution of electron motion to
heat conduction is predominant above
LN2 temperature.
● At temperature below LN2, phonon
motion is predominant.
● Conduction mainly depends on the
product of specific heat and mean Conduction in Pure Metals
free path.This product being a
constant above LN2, the kT remains
constant above LN2.
● As the temperature is lowered,
phonon contribution increases and kT
varies as 1/T2.
● It reaches a high value until the
mean free path of the electrons
equals to the dimensions of test
specimen.
● When this condition is reached, the
surface exhibits a resistance causing
the kT to decrease with the further
drop in the temperature.
Conduction in Solids-Impure and Alloy Metals
● Electron and phonon motion are of
same magnitude in impure and alloy
metals.
● The impure metals have
imperfections like grain boundaries
and dislocations.
● An additional scattering of electrons
occur due to grain boundaries and
dislocations which is proportional to
T3 and T2 respectively, at
temperatures lower than θD.(Debye
Temperature)
Conduction in Impure and Alloy Metals
● At low temperatures, scattering
decreases.
● As a result, kT decreases with
decrease in temperature in impure
metals and alloys.
● These materials do not exhibit any
high maxima like that of pure
materials.
b. Fatigue Strength
c. Impact Strength
e. Elastic Moduli
PROPERTIES OF
ENGINEERING
gases
Specific Heat of Solids
● It is the energy required to change the temperature of a
unit mass of substance by 1o C, holding the volume or
pressure as constant.
● Specific heat is a physical property that can be predicted
fairly accurately by mathematical models through
statistical mechanics and quantum theory.
● In 1911, Dulong and Petit observed that the heat capacities
of the solids are independent of temperature.
● Each lattice point absorbs same energy as the every other
lattice point. Therefore, by the principle of equipartition of
energy:
● In thermodynamics, the Debye model is a
method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for
estimating the phonon(lattice vibration of
Debye Model &
atoms) contribution to the specific heat (heat Debye
capacity) in a solid.
● It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice
Temperature
(heat) as phonons in a box, in contrast to the
Einstein model, which treats the solid as many
individual, non-interacting harmonic
oscillators(vibrating atoms).
● The Debye model correctly predicts the low
temperature dependence of the heat capacity,
which is proportional to T3– the Debye T3 law.
● Just like the Einstein model, it also matches the
Dulong–Petit law at high temperatures. But due to
simplifying assumptions, its accuracy suffers at
intermediate temperatures.
Debye Model & Debye Characteristic Temperature
● For solids the Debye model gives a satisfactory representation of the variation
of the specific heat with temperature.The expression for the specific heat of a
monatomic crystalline solid as obtained through the Debye theory is
● where 𝛉D called the Debye characteristic temperature and is a property of the

material, and D(T/𝛉D) is called the Debye function.
● At high temperatures (T > 2θD), specific heat obtained from the above equation
approaches 3R. This is same as Dulong and Petit Value.
● At low temperatures (T < θD/12), the Debye function approaches a constant value
of D(0) =4π4/5.
● The variation is a cubic equation in absolute temperature
at very low temperatures.
Calculation of Cv of solids using Debye Model
The calculation of Cv for a particular material at a particular temperature, T,
involves the following procedure.
1. Refer the table and find the θD.

2. Calculate T/θD and interpolate the value on the graph to obtain Cv/R.
3. Cv can be known by multiplying it with R.
4. If the value of T/θD is less than 1/12, correlation can be used to evaluate
the Cv value directly.
Specific Heat of Liquids and Gases
● LIQUIDS:In general, the specific heat Cv of cryogenic liquids decreases in the
same way that the specific heat of crystalline solids -decreases as the
temperature is lowered.
● At low pressures the specific heat Cp decreases with a decrease in temperature.
● At high pressures in the neighborhood of the critical point, humps in the
specific-heat curve are observed for all cryogenic fluids (in fact for all fluids).
● The specific heat of liquid helium behaves in a peculiar way-it shows a high, sharp
peak in the neighborhood of 2.17 K (3.91oR). The behavior of liquid helium is so
different from that of other liquids that we shall devote a separate section to a
discussion of its properties.
● GASES: at pressures low compared with their critical pressure approach the
ideal-gas state, for which the specific heat Cv is independent of pressure.
● At pressures higher than near ambient, the specific heats of gases vary in a more
complicated manner with temperature and pressure.
● A complete coverage of this effect is beyond the scope of our present discussion.
b. Fatigue Strength
c. Impact Strength
e. Elastic Moduli
PROPERTIES OF
ENGINEERING
gases
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
● Reduction (contraction) in the dimensions
of a material occur when cooled to low
temperatures.
● The linear coefficient of thermal
expansion (ƛt) is the fractional change in
length per unit change in temperature
while the stress is constant.
● Similarly, the volumetric coefficient of
thermal expansion (β) is the fractional
change in volume per unit change in
temperature while the pressure is
constant.
● For isotropic materials β=3ƛt
● The variation of λt for few of the
commonly used materials is as shown.
● In general, the coefficient of
thermal expansion decreases with
the decrease in temperature.
● Most contraction occurs till 80 K.
● The temperature variation of the
coefficient of thermal expansion
may be explained through a
consideration of the intermolecular
forces of a material.
● The variation of Molecular Internal
Energy (U) with the intermolecular
distance (r) is as shown.
● Here, ro is the intermolecular distance
at 0 K.
● The equilibrium spacing depicts the
mean position of the atoms about which
it oscillates.
Coefficient of
● The intermolecular potential-energy Thermal Expansion
curve, as shown,is not symmetrical.
● Therefore, as the molecule acquires
more energy (or as its temperature is
increased), its mean position relative
to its neighbors becomes larger; that
is, the material expands.
● The rate at which the mean spacing of
the atoms increases with temperature
increases as the energy or temperature
of the material increases;
● Thus,the coefficient of thermal
expansion increases as temperature is
increased
b. Fatigue Strength
c. Impact Strength
e. Elastic Moduli
PROPERTIES OF
ENGINEERING
gases
Electrical Conductivity
● It is defined as the electric current per unit cross sectional area
divided by the voltage gradient in the direction of the current flow.
● When an external electric field is applied to an electric conductor, free
electrons in the conductor are forced to move in the direction of the
applied field.
● This motion is opposed by the positive ions of the metal lattice and
impurity atoms present in the material.
● Decreasing the temperature of the conductor decreases the
vibrational energy of the ions, which in turn results in a smaller
interference with electron motion.
● Therefore, the electrical conductivity increases as the temperature is
lowered for metallic conductors.
Electrical Resistivity
● It is the reciprocal of electrical

conductivity
● Electrical resistivity ratio is defined as
● The variation of electrical resistivity

ratio for some commonly used materials
is as shown.
● This ratio for a material decreases
with the decrease in the temperature.
b. Fatigue Strength
c. Impact Strength
e. Elastic Moduli
PROPERTIES OF
ENGINEERING
gases
Superconductivity
● In 1911, Onnes discovered the
phenomenon of Superconductivity.
● During his investigation on mercury,
he observed that the resistance
dropped to zero at 4.2 K.
● Superconductivity is the set of
physical properties observed in
certain materials, wherein
○ electrical resistance no longer
exists and
○ from which magnetic flux
fields are expelled.
● Any material exhibiting these properties
is a superconductor. Superconductivity
● Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor,
whose resistance decreases gradually as
its temperature is lowered even down to
near absolute zero, a superconductor
has a characteristic critical
temperature (TC)below which the
resistance drops abruptly to zero.
● An electric current through a loop of
superconducting wire can persist
indefinitely with no power source.
● Most superconductors are materials
that have been cooled to a little above
absolute zero.
Some insights into superconductivity!
Type 1 and Type 2 Superconductors
● Type 1 superconductors are metals and
metalloids that show some
conductivity at room temperature
and become superconductors at very
low temperatures.
● These super conductors can be
explained by something called the BCS
theory. (Named so because it was
proposed by three scientists; Bardeen,
Cooper and Schrieffer.)
● The BCS theory says that when the
material is cold enough, electrons can
form something called “cooper pairs.”
● Basically, as a negative electron passes
BCS Theory
through the lattice of positive atoms,
it attracts the lattice and the lattice
distorts.
● This creates a higher density of
positive charge around the negative
electron.
● This positive charge is strong enough
to pull in another electron (of opposite
spin) between the tunnel of positive
atoms to pair up with the first
electron.
● Together, these electrons pull and push
each other through the lattice without
hitting the lattice.
BCS Theory
● As long as the temperature is cold enough, the cooper pairs stay together
and the lattice is unable to scatter the electrons and cause resistance.
● But as the super conductor heats up, vibrations in the lattice become more
violent and the pair breaks and the electrons hit the lattice and lose energy
(resistance).
● Type 2 superconductors are metallic compounds and alloys that have higher
transition temperatures than type 1 superconductors.
● How they work is still not fully understood and there are different competing
theories based on the molecular structure and quantum mechanics.
● In other words, a nobel prize is up for grabs for whoever can find and prove a
theory of what’s actually going on. Especially if an understanding of such a
theory could help make high temperature superconductors.
Type 1 and Type 2
Superconductors
For Type I superconductors,there is a
single value of the critical
field (the magnetic field strength
required to destroy superconductivity)
at which the transition from superconducting to normal behavior is abrupt.
● For Type II superconductors
(so-called "hard" superconductors), there is a lower critical field HC1, at
which the transition begins, and an upper critical field HC2 at which the
transition is complete.
● Earlier, the materials having transition temperature above 30 K are called as
High Tc or HTS materials. Nowadays, the materials which uses LN2 for their
superconductivity are termed as HTS materials.
Development of SCs
● At room temperature, if a material is subjected to a Meisner
magnetic flux, the flux lines of force penetrate through
Effect
the material. As soon as the material becomes
superconducting, it ejects the magnetic flux lines.
● This phenomenon is called as Meisner Effect and was
first discovered by Meisner and Robert in the year
1933.
● The Meissner effect does not cause the field to be
completely ejected but instead the field penetrates the
superconductor but only to a very small distance,
characterized by a parameter λ, called the London
penetration depth.
● The Meissner effect is a defining characteristic of
superconductivity. For most superconductors, the
London penetration depth is on the order of 100 nm.
Superconductivity Characteristics
There are several properties that change either abruptly or gradually when a
material makes the transition from the normal to the superconducting state. Some
of these properties include:
● Specific heat: The specific heat increases abruptly when a material becomes
superconducting.
● Thermal conductivity:In the presence of a magnetic field, the thermal
conductivity of a pure metal decreases abruptly when the metal becomes
superconducting, although for some alloys (for example, Pb-Bi in a limited range
of compositions) the opposite is true. In the absence of a magnetic field, there
is no discontinuous change in the thermal conductivity, but the slope change is
sharp on the conductivity-temperature curve.
Superconductivity Characteristics
● Thermoelectric effects: All the thermoelectric effects (Peltier, Thomson, and
Seebeck effects) vanish when a material becomes superconducting. A
superconducting thermocouple would not work at all.
● Electric resistance: For Type I superconductors the decrease of resistance to
zero is quite abrupt; however, for Type II superconductors the change is
sometimes spread over a temperature range as large as 1 K.
● Magnetic permeability: The magnetic permeability suddenly decreases to zero
for Type I superconductors (the Meissner effect); however, for Type II
superconductors the Meissner effect is incomplete for magnetic fields greater
than the lower critical field.
NOTE:CRITICAL CURRENT is the current in a superconductive material above

which the material is normal and below which the material is superconducting,
at a specified temperature and in the absence of external magnetic fields.
Superconductivity Applications
1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
(NMR)
● The biggest application for superconductivity is in producing the
large-volume, stable, and high-intensity magnetic fields required for MRI
and NMR.
● The magnets typically use low-temperature superconductors (LTS)
because high-temperature superconductors are not yet cheap enough to
cost-effectively deliver the high, stable, and large-volume fields
required, notwithstanding the need to cool LTS instruments to liquid
helium temperatures.
● Superconductors are also used in high field scientific magnets.(NMR)
2. Particle accelerators and magnetic fusion devices
● Particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider can include many high
field electromagnets requiring large quantities of low-temperature
superconductors(LTS).
● To construct the LHC magnets required more than 28 percent of the world's
niobium-titanium wire production for five years, with large quantities of NbTi
also used in the magnets for the LHC's huge experiment detectors.
● A small number of magnetic fusion devices (mostly tokamaks) have used SC
coils.
● NOTE:A tokamak is a device which uses a powerful magnetic field to confine a
hot plasma in the shape of a torus. The tokamak is one of several types of
magnetic confinement devices being developed to produce controlled
thermonuclear fusion power. As of 2016, it is the leading candidate for a
practical fusion reactor.(Iron Man?)
3. Electric power transmission
Essen, Germany has the world's longest superconducting power cable in
production at 1 kilometer. It is a 10 kV liquid nitrogen cooled cable. The
cable is smaller than an equivalent 110 kV regular cable and the lower
voltage has the additional benefit of smaller transformers.
4. MAGLEV Trains
Maglev Train runs on the principle of Magnetic Levitation.
• When YBCO is cooled to temperatures less than 90 K, it turns diamagnetic.
• MAGLEV train gets levitated from the guide way as a result of
superconducting phenomenon
• This results in no contact motion and therefore no friction.
PROPERTIES OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS
1. Fluids other than hydrogen and helium
a. Liquid Nitrogen (LN2)
b. Liquid Oxygen (LOX)
c. Liquid Methane
d. Liquid Neon
e. Liquid Argon
f. Liquid Fluorine
g. Liquid Air
2. Hydrogen
3. Helium
LIQUID NITROGEN
● (NBP = 77 K, TP = 63 K) colorless, non-magnetic, inert, cheap ,used for
cryogenic conditioning,frozen food industry, high Tc superconductor
cooling.
● It is a clear, colorless fluid that resembles water in appearance. At
standard atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa) liquid nitrogen boils at 77.36 K and
freezes at 63.2 K.
● One of the significant differences between the properties of liquid nitrogen
and water (apart from the difference in normal boiling points) is that the heat
of vaporization of nitrogen is more than an order of magnitude smaller
than that of water.
● At the normal boiling point, liquid nitrogen has a heat of vaporization of 199.3
kJ/kg, while water has a heat of vaporization of 2257 kJ/kg.
● Because nitrogen is the major constituent of air (75.45 percent by weight), it
is produced commercially by distillation of liquid air.
LIQUID OXYGEN
● (NBP=90 K, TP = 54.4 K) Light blue, slightly magnetic, reactive Used as
rocket fuel (shuttle), medical gas storage, steel making.
● It has a characteristic blue color caused by the presence of the polymer or
long-chain molecule O4.
● At 1 atm pressure liquid oxygen boils at 90.18 K and freezes at 54.4 K.
● Oxygen is slightly magnetic (paramagnetic) in contrast to the other cryogenic
fluids, which are nonmagnetic. By measuring the magnetic susceptibility, small
amounts of oxygen may be detected in mixtures of other gases.
● Because of its chemical activity, oxygen presents a safety problem in
handling. Serious explosions have resulted from the combination of oxygen and
hydrocarbon lubricants.
● Oxygen is manufactured in large quantities by distillation of liquid air
because it is the second most abundant substance in air (23.2 percent by
weight).
LIQUID METHANE
● (NBP = 117.7 K, TP = 88.7 K) CH4, LNG is mostly methane. Used as

a fuel)
● It is the principal component of natural gas.
● It is a clear, colorless liquid that boils at 1 atm at 111.7 K and freezes at
88.7 K.
● Methane forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations ranging
from 5.8 to 13.3 percent by volume.
● Liquid methane has been shipped in large quantities by tanker vessels.
LIQUID NEON
● (NBP = 27 K, TP = 24.6 K) colorless, non-magnetic, inert, rare
Refrigerant for intermediate temperature; HTS Gas Lasers
● It is another gas that can be produced as a by-product of an air
separation plant.
● Liquid neon is a clear, colorless liquid that boils at 1 atm at 27.09 K and
freezes at 24.54 K.
● The boiling point of neon is somewhat above that of liquid hydrogen.
● But the fact that neon is inert, has a larger heat of vaporization per
unit volume, and has a higher density makes it an attractive refrigerant
when compared with hydrogen.
● It has over 40 times the refrigerating capacity (per unit volume) of
liquid helium and three times that of liquid hydrogen.
LIQUID ARGON
● (NBP = 87 K, TP = 68.6 K) colorless, non-magnetic, inert Used for inert
atmosphere during material processing)
● It is a clear, colorless fluid with properties similar to those of liquid nitrogen.
● It is inert and nontoxic.
● At 1 atm pressure liquid argon boils at 87.3 K and freezes at 83.8 K. The
difference between the normal boiling point and the freezing point for argon is
only 3.5 K.
● Argon is present in atmospheric air in a concentration of 1.25 percent by
weight.
● Because the boiling point of argon lies between that of liquid oxygen and that
of liquid nitrogen (slightly closer to that of liquid oxygen), a crude grade of
argon (90 to 95 percent pure) can be obtained by adding a small auxiliary
argon-recovery column in an air-separation plant.
LIQUID FLUORINE
It is a light yellow liquid having a normal boiling point of 85.24 K. At 53.5 K
and 101.3 kPa, liquid fluorine freezes as a yellow solid, but upon subcooling to
45.6 K it transforms to a white solid.
● Fluorine is characterized chemically by its extreme reactivity. Fluorine will
react with almost all inorganic substances. If fluorine comes in contact with
hydrocarbons, it will react hypergolically with a high heat of reaction, which is
sometimes sufficiently high that the metal container for the fluorine is
ignited.
● Metals like low-carbon stainless steel and Monel, which are used in fluorine
systems, develop a protective surface film when brought in contact with
fluorine gas.
● Fluorine is highly toxic.The presence of fluorine in air may be detected by its
sharp, pungent odor for concentrations as low as 1 to 3 ppm.
LIQUID HYDROGEN
● (NBP = 20.3 K, TP = 13.8 K) for normal LH2 Isotopes D2 and T2,
ortho-para conversion a factor in applications Used as rocket fuel;
materials processing, fusion reactors (D & T)
● Liquid hydrogen has a normal boiling point of 20.3 K and a density at the
normal boiling point of only 70.79 kg/m3.
● The density of liquid hydrogen is about one-fourteenth that of water; thus,
liquid hydrogen is one of the lightest of all liquids.
● Liquid hydrogen is an odorless, colorless liquid that alone will not support
combustion. In combination with oxygen or air, however, hydrogen is quite
flammable.
● Natural hydrogen is a mixture of two isotopes:
○ ordinary hydrogen (atomic mass = 1) and
○ deuterium (atomic mass = 2).
VIMP!!!
ORTHO AND PARA HYDROGEN
● One of the properties of hydrogen

that sets it apart from other
substances is that it can exist in two
different molecular forms:
ortho-hydrogen and para-hydrogen.
● The mixture of these two forms at
high temperatures is called normal
hydrogen which is a mixture of 75
percent orthohydrogen and 25 percent
para-hydrogen by volume.
ORTHO AND PARA
HYDROGEN
● The distinction between the two forms
of hydrogen is the relative spin of the
particles that make up the hydrogen
molecule.
● The hydrogen molecule consists of two protons and two electrons. The two
protons possess spin, which gives rise to angular momentum of the nucleus, as
indicated in the above figure.
● When the nuclear spins are in the same direction, the angular momentum
vectors for the two protons are in the same direction. This form of hydrogen is
called ortho-hydrogen.
● When the nuclear spins are in opposite directions, the angular-momentum
vectors point in opposite directions. This form of hydrogen is called
para-hydrogen.
ORTHO-PARA CONVERSION in HYDROGEN
● If hydrogen gas at room temperature is cooled to the normal boiling point
of hydrogen(20.3K), the o-H2 concentration decreases from 75 to 0.2 percent;
that is, there is a conversion of o-H2 to p-H2 as the temperature is
decreased.
● This changeover is not instantaneous but takes place over a definite period of
time because the change is made through energy exchanges by molecular
magnetic interactions. During the transition, the original o-H2 molecules drop
to a lower molecular-energy level.
● Thus the changeover involves the release of a quantity of energy called the
heat of conversion.
● The heat of conversion is related to the change of momentum of the hydrogen
nucleus when it changes direction of spin. This energy released in the
exothermic reaction is greater than the heat of vaporization of liquid
hydrogen.
ORTHO-PARA CONVERSION in HYDROGEN VIMP!!!
● When hydrogen is liquefied, the liquid has practically the room-temperature
composition unless some means is used to speed up the conversion process.
● If the unconverted normal hydrogen is placed in a storage vessel, the heat of
conversion will be released within the container, and the boil-off of the
stored liquid will be considerably larger than one would determine from the
ordinary heat inleak through the vessel insulation.
● Note that the heat of conversion at the normal boiling point of hydrogen is
703.3 kJ/kg and the latent heat of vaporization is 443 kJ /kg.
● The conversion process evolves enough energy to boil away approximately 1
percent of the stored liquid per hour, so the reaction would eventually result
in much of the stored liquid being boiled away.
● For this reason, a catalyst is used to speed up the conversion so that the
energy may be removed during the liquefaction process before the liquid is
placed in the storage vessel.
Different forms of helium
Liquid Helium
● (NBP = 4.2 K, no TP, Tλ = 2.178 K) colorless, inert, superfluid phase; He3
isotope low temperature coolant; superconductivity; He3 refrigeration)
● Helium has two stable isotopes: He4, the most common one, and He3.
● Ordinary helium gas contains about .00013 percent He3, so when we speak of
helium or liquid helium, we shall be referring to He4, unless otherwise
stated.
● Liquid He4 has a normal boiling point of 4.214 K and a density at the normal
boiling point of 124.8 kg/m3 or about one-eighth that of water.
● Liquid helium has no freezing point at a pressure of 101.3 kPa (1 atm). In
fact, liquid helium does not freeze under its own vapor pressure even if the
temperature is reduced to absolute zero.
● At absolute zero, liquid helium 4 must be compressed to a pressure of 2529.8
kPa (24.97 atm) before it will freeze.
Liquid Helium 4-Phase
Diagram
● The heat of vaporization of liquid He4
at the normal boiling point is 20.90
kJ/kg , which is only 1/110 that of
water.
● Although helium is classified as a rare
gas, and it is one of the most difficult
gases to liquefy, its unusual properties
have excited so much interest that
helium has been the object of more
experimental and theoretical
research than any of the other
cryogenic fluids.
Liquid Helium 4-Normal & Superfluid Helium
● As mentioned previously, liquid He4 does not freeze under its own vapor
pressure; therefore, there is no triple point for the solid-liquid-vapor region of
helium as there is for other substances.
● There are two different liquid phases: Liquid helium I, the normal liquid; and
liquid helium II, the superfluid.
● The phase transition curve separating the two liquid phases is called the lambda
line, and the point at which the lambda line intersects the vapor-pressure curve
is called the lambda point, which occurs at a temperature of 2.171 K and a
pressure of 5.073 kPa (0.050 atm).
● The specific heat of liquid helium varies with temperature in an unusual manner
for liquids. At the lambda point, the liquid specific heat increases to a large
value as the temperature is decreased through this point.With a little
imagination, one could say that the form of the specific-heat curve looks
somewhat like the small Greek letter lambda; hence, the name lambda point.
Superfluid & Normal fluid Helium4
● One of the unusual properties of liquid helium II is that it exhibits
superfluidity; under certain conditions, it acts as if it had zero viscosity and
large thermal conductivity.It flows through narrow slits and channels very
rapidly.
● In explaining the behavior of liquid helium II, it has been proposed (Landau
1941) that liquid helium be imagined to be made up of two different fluids: the
ordinary fluid and the superfluid, which possess zero entropy and can move
past other fluids and solid boundaries with zero friction.
● Using this model, liquid helium II has a composition of normal and superfluid
that varies with temperature.
● At absolute zero, the liquid composition is 100 percent superfluid; at the
lambda point, the liquid composition is 100 percent normal fluid.
Superfluid Helium 4-Boiling
● Heat transfer in helium II, is spectacular.
● When a container of liquid helium I is pumped
upon to reduce the pressure above the liquid,
the fluid boils vigorously as the pressure of the liquid decreases.
● During the pumping operation, the temperature of the liquid decreases as the
pressure is decreased and liquid is boiled away.
● When the temperature reaches the lambda point and the fluid becomes
liquid helium II, all boiling action suddenly stops. The liquid becomes clear
and quiet, although it is vaporizing quite rapidly at the surface.
● The thermal conductivity of liquid helium II is so large that vapor bubbles
do not have time to form within the body of the fluid before the heat is
quickly conducted to the surface of the liquid.
● Liquid helium II can have an apparent thermal conductivity as large as 85
kW/m-K –much higher than that of pure copper at room temperature.
Superfluid Helium 4-Transfer Mechanism
● The addition of heat to liquid helium II raises the local temperature of
the liquid around the point where heat is being added, which raises the
concentration of normal molecules and lowers the concentration of
superfluid ones.
● The superfluid then moves to equalize the superfluid concentration
throughout the body of the liquid. Because the superfluid is frictionless,
it can move rapidly;
● Therefore, we see that the high apparent thermal conductivity of
helium II is really due to a fast convection process rather than simply
to conduction.
● This type of transfer mechanism also explains the so-called "fountain
effect" that is observed in liquid helium II (Allen and Jones 1938; Keller
1969).
Helium(4) II(Superfluid)-Fountain Effect
● When heat is added to the powder in the apparatus
shown in figure, the increase in temperature
tends to raise the concentration of normal fluid,
and the superfluid rushes in to equalize the
concentration.
● Normal fluid, because of its viscosity, cannot
leave through the small openings between the
fine powder particles very rapidly.
● The amount of helium quickly builds up within the
tube as a result of this inflow of superfluid, and
finally liquid squirts out the open end of the
capillary tube.
● Fountains as high as 25 cm to 30 cm (10 in. to 12
in.) have been observed.
Helium(4)II(Superfluid)-Rolling/Creeping Film Effect
● If a beaker is filled with liquid helium II from a
larger container, and the beaker is lifted above the
surface of the helium II in the larger container, a
thin film (about 30 nm thick) rolls up the inner wall
of the beaker, over the side, and falls back into
the liquid in the larger container.(Rolling film)
● If the beaker is emptied and placed, say, halfway into
the liquid in the large container, the film of liquid
creeps up the outside of the beaker until the
beaker is filled to a level identical with that of
the liquid in the larger container.(Creeping film)
● The velocity of the Rolling film is dependent upon the
film temperature and somewhat on the condition of
the surface over which the film flows.
Superfluid Helium(4)II-Second Sound
● Second sound is another phenomenon that occurs in liquid helium II.
● Second sound is similar to ordinary sound in that it possesses a
definite velocity (which is different from first or ordinary sound
velocity), standing waves may be set up, and the second sound waves may
be reflected.
● Second sound is different from ordinary sound in that it consists of
temperature waves or local oscillations in temperature, rather than
pressure waves or local oscillations in pressure.
● Second sound was predicted theoretically by Tisza in 1939, some 7 years
before it was measured experimentally by Peshkov.
● The velocity of second sound varies from zero at the lambda point to 239
m/s (783 ft/sec) near absolute zero.
Superfluid Helium(4) II-Thermomechanical Effect
● Consider a flask filled with superfluid helium (LHe –
II) and a heating coil placed inside a differential
container as shown in the figure.
● When the heat is applied to the fluid in the inner
container,the concentration of normal fluid increases.
● The Superfluid component tends to move towards this
region to equalize the concentration.Superfluid being
less viscous, can flow rapidly through the narrow
channel.
● Normal fluid being more viscous, its flow is impeded
by the channel resistance.Due to the induced pressure
difference, a pressure head called Thermo Mechanical
Pressure Head is developed.This head is proportionate
to the temp rise of ΔT in the fluid.
Superfluid Helium(4) II-Mechanocaloric Effect
● Mechanocaloric Effect was discovered in the year
1939.
● The apparatus consists of a round flask filled
with a fine powder and Superfluid Helium (LHe
– II).The flask has an opening at the bottom.
● A resistance thermometer is mounted to detect
the temperature changes, as shown in the figure.
● The Superfluid Helium (LHe - II) being less
viscous flows through the fine powder easily.
As a result, the concentration of normal fluid
increases above the powder.
● Hence, the temperature increases inside the
flask, which is sensed by resistance thermometer.
Helium 3
● Liquid He3 is a clear, colorless fluid having a
normal boiling point of 3.19 K.
● The heat of vaporization of liquid He) at the
normal boiling point is only 8.49 kl/kg -so small
that there was some doubt in the minds of
early investigators that He3 could be liquefied
at atmospheric pressure.
● As in the case of liquid He4, liquid He3 remains
in the liquid state under its own vapor
pressure all the way down to absolute zero.
He) must be compressed to 2930.3 kPa (29.3
atm) at 0.32 K , before it will solidify.
APPLICATIONS – SUMMARY DETAILED LECTURE NOTES
1. Space 6. Biology & Medicine

a. Rocket propulsion a. Cell preservation
b. Cooling of IR sensor b. Cryosurgery
c. Miniature cryocoolers for satellites 7. Cutting tool Industry
d. Space simulation a. Cryogenic Machining
2. Food preservation/processing
8. Mechanical
3. Electronics a. Magnetic Separation
a. Masers b. Manufacturing
b. Superconducting motors c. Heat treatment
c. Superconducting gyroscope d. Recycling
4. Superconductivity 9. High Energy Physics
a. NMR a. ITER
b. MRI b. CERN
c. SQUIDS 10. Gas Industry
d. Superconducting Magnets a. Transportation of gases
5. Electrical Power b. Steel Industry
c. Inert Atmosphere
1)Define cryogenics? What is its difference from refrigeration? (2) KTU DEC 2018
2)Give an account of historical development of cryogenic technology? (5) KTU DEC 2018
3)Explain any 5 major milestones in the developement of cryogenics? (5)
LOW TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
4)Explain how the ultimate and yield strengths change with cryogenic temperature?(4) KTU MAY 2019
5)Explain how fatigue and impact strengths varies with with cryogenic temperature?(4)
6)Explain ductile brittle transition(DBT) at cryogenic temperatures?(2)
7)Explain how ductility and hardness varies with with cryogenic temperature?(4)
8)Explain how elastic moduli varies with with cryogenic temperature?(2)
THERMAL PROPERTIES
9)Explain the variation of thermal conductivity for pure and impure metals at low temperatures?
10)Explain the significance of debye model and debye characteristic temperature? KTU MAY 2019
11)Describe the variation in the following properties under cryogenic conditions: Thermal conductivity
(2),Coefficient of thermal expansion (2),Specific heats of solids liquids and gases (4)
ELECTRIC & MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
12)Explain the variation of electrical and magnetic properties of materials at cryogenic temperatures? (4)
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY(P 38,39,40,42)
13)Explain the phenomenon of superconductivity? (4) KTU MAY 2019
14)Explain the BCS theory superconductivity? (4)
15)Briefly describe the applications of superconductivity? (4) KTU DEC 2018
16)Explain the terms(1)transition temp (2)critical field (3)critical current of superconductors (4)
17)Explain meissner effect? (4) KTU DEC 2018
18)Explain how properties change when materials change from normal to superconducting state? (5)
19)Explain Type I and Type II superconductors? KTU DEC 2018
PROPERTIES OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS other than HYDROGEN & HELIUM

20) What is a cryogen and what are its properties? (2)
21) Mention the different cryogenic fluids and explain any two in detail (10)
PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN
22) Differentiate between ortho-hydrogen and para-hydrogen? (4) KTU DEC 2018
23) Explain ortho-para conversion of hydrogen in cryogenic systems? KTU DEC 2018
PROPERTIES OF HELIUM
24) Draw the phase diagram for helium and explain the various regions? (4)
25) Sketch and explain the P-T diagram for helium 4.Indicate lambda line, lambda point and critical
point and explain their significance?(10)
26) Define Lambda point? What is Lambda line with reference to helium II in cryogenics? (4)
27) Sketch and explain the variation of specific heat of helium 4 at near absolute temperatures? (4)
28) Explain the phenomenon of super-fluidity with respect to helium?(4)
29) Explain the phenomenon of invisible boiling associated with helium 4?(2)
30) Explain the transfer mechanism in superfluid helium?(2)
31) Explain Fountain effect and Creeping film effect with respect to Helium II in cryogenics? (4)
32) Explain Rollin film and Second sound with respect to Helium II in cryogenics? (4)
33) Explain mechanocaloric effect and thermo mechanical effect in superfluid helium?(4)
34) Explain the various properties of Helium IV?(5) KTU MAY 2019
35) List out the properties of Helium that makes it an ideal cryogenic fluid? (10)
36) Explain the differences between helium I and Helium II? (4)
APPLICATION OF CRYOGENICS
37) Briefly explain the applications of cryogenics in
a. Space KTU DEC 2018
b. Food Processing
d. Electrical Power
e. Biology
f. Medicine
g. Electronics KTU MAY 2019
38) Explain the use of cryogenic technology in electric power transmission? (4)
MODULE 1 ENDS HERE!!

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ME 467

PROPERTIES OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS other than HYDROGEN & HELIUM

In general, we shall use the term

Air liquefaction plants, helium

1877-Cailletet and Pictet liquefied oxygen (Pictet 1892).

1926-Goddard test-fired the first cryogenically propelled rocket. Cooling by

The yield strength of various

These materials are normally alloys of

Stainless steel has high ultimate

In order to avoid fatigue failure,

Eg:Beryllium – Copper alloy is used in

● The Young’s modulus of various

● where 𝛉D called the Debye characteristic temperature and is a property of the

1. Refer the table and find the θD.

● It is the reciprocal of electrical

● The variation of electrical resistivity

NOTE:CRITICAL CURRENT is the current in a superconductive material above

● (NBP = 117.7 K, TP = 88.7 K) CH4, LNG is mostly methane. Used as

● One of the properties of hydrogen

1. Space 6. Biology & Medicine

PROPERTIES OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS other than HYDROGEN & HELIUM

MODULE 1 ENDS HERE!!

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