LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: earth construction methods ......................................................................... 7

Figure 2 dugout houses ................................................................................................. 9

Figure 3:poured earth construction ............................................................................... 9

Figure 4:stacked earth ................................................................................................. 10

Figure 5:direct shaping ............................................................................................... 11

Figure 6:rammed earth ................................................................................................ 11

Figure 7:office building view...................................................................................... 22

Figure 8:plan ............................................................................................................... 22

Figure 9:office building .............................................................................................. 23

Figure 10:construction technique................................................................................ 23

Figure 11:plan ............................................................................................................. 26

Figure 12:plan ............................................................................................................. 26

Figure 13:vault ............................................................................................................ 28

Figure 14:rammed earth .............................................................................................. 28

Figure 15:bamboo piling ............................................................................................. 29

Figure 16rammed earth wall of 240 mm thickness ..................................................... 29

Figure 17:filler slab ..................................................................................................... 29

Figure 18:revathy kalamandir ,tvm ............................................................................. 30

Figure 19:pillars in cob technology ............................................................................ 30

Figure 20:corridor arches ............................................................................................ 31

Figure 21:effect of sand /mud ratio on compressive strength ..................................... 34

Figure 22:effect of hay ratio on compressive strength ................................................ 34

Figure 23:effect of hay ratio on compressive strength a- with hay b - without hay.... 35

Figure 24:effect of lime ratio on compressive strength a-without hay b- with hay .... 36
Figure 25:effect of limecand cement on compressive strength -no hay...................... 37

Figure 26:effect of lime ratio on compressive strength -no sand ................................ 37

Figure 27:effect of lime ratio on compressive strength .............................................. 38

Figure 28:effect of bonding materials on compressive strenth ................................... 38

 1

CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION
“Earth has enough to satisfy every man’s need, but not his greed.”

– Mahatma Gandhi

A sustainable shelter is inevitable for a greener future. Earlier people lived in houses
constructed by themselves using locally available materials in nature. Thus, mud, a soft,
sticky matter resulting from the mixing of earth and water became the most common
material for construction. Mud was being used either in its raw nature for wall
construction or in the form of mud blocks. It was also used as mortar for binding the
building blocks, for plastering the walls and also for flooring in ancient times. The
potential of mud as a building material has been very much explored in the ancient
times and it is still being practised in many of the European, Arab and Egyptian
countries. Mud architecture began in Egypt and developed to its full extent alongside
the Nile (Capaldi, 2011). In Syria, the main construction unit was brick composed of
75% earth, 20 % straw (corn or barley) and 15% water and the mortar used was fine
earth kneaded with water adding corn straw and barley as reinforcement. But, the use
of mud bricks has disappeared in most of the countries. Mud is a good thermal
insulating material in itself. Due to its excellent thermal regulating property ample
comfort was experienced by the inhabitants residing in mud houses. It is a natural cost-
effective material possessing zero embodied energy. Almost all constructions done
using concrete can be done with mud too. Instead of steel reinforcements, bamboo can
be used as reinforcements in mud structures. Despite the above advantages, the concept
of mud housing is gaining only slow popularity. In the state of Kerala, India, mud was
the major construction material till the beginning of 20th century (Gopakumar, 2010).
Most of the ancient palaces of Kerala about 100 years old were made of timber and
laterite. Almost all traditional houses in Kerala (Tharavadu) were made with laterite
blocks plastered with mud and cow dung. Later on with the advent of cement and
concrete, the mud houses slowly gave way to concrete and steel to such an extent that
today mud houses are rare in Kerala apart from the existing traditional mud houses. As
per the census of India the use of traditional materials (mud, laterite and lime) for walls
in Kerala decreased from 63.7% in 1961 to 30.4% in 2001 (Nair, 2006). The census
data is a clear evidence of the slow disappearance of mud houses in Kerala. Architecture
 2

involves use of various construction materials that require a unique construction

technique. But most of these construction techniques are energy intensive techniques.
All the natural resources are depleting which has made it mandatory that we choose
materials and construction systems which require less energy for its execution. Mud
construction system is less energy intensive and very effective in different climatic
conditions. Earth is one of man's oldest building materials and most ancient
civilizations used it in some form. It was easily available, cheap, and strong and
required only simple technology. In Egypt the grain stores of Ramasseum built in adobe
in 1300BC still exist; the Great Wall of China has sections built in rammed earth over
2000 years ago. Iran, India, Nepal, Yemen all have examples of ancient cities and large
buildings built in various forms of earthen construction. It is significant that the oldest
surviving examples of this building form are in the most arid areas of the world. The
strength of unsterilized earth walls comes from the bonding effect of dried clay. If this
becomes wet the strength is lost and indeed the wall will erode or even fail completely.
Different countries have different approaches to this problem. From the earliest times
men-built dwellings that were closest at hand: out of fibres, leaves, stone or unbaked-
sundried-mud. But the onset of the industrial revolution, bricks of baked clay and mass-
produced materials such as cement, steel and glass gradually supplanted the basic
element of traditional construction. The development of transportation made it possible
to bring building materials from far away; while the use of modern components and
specialized use of construction techniques brought about the less of craftsmanship and
art that had given each locale its sense of place. But it is the fact that unbaked mud is
still the most viable building material for one third of world’s population-
predominantly the poor who remain on the side-lines of money economy that depends
on manufactured materials. Furthermore, building with mud has become an important
factor in planning new development. Following the recent energy crisis, technological
progress has been made in certain countries, and the enthusiasm of architects and land
developers has added in the spread of these new techniques. Today we can choose
between conventional ‘international architecture’ and a more ‘down to earth’ approach
that combines reasonable cost with traditional cultural motifs in a modern way
 3

1.1 Aim:

The aim is to study the additives used for increasing the compressive strength
of the mud for the construction and the advantages of mud as a building material over
the other construction materials.

1.2 Objective:

• To understand ideology of earth materials.

• To study the materials used for the mud construction in earlier days and
its current replacement.

• To study the various mud construction techniques.

• To analyse the contemporary earth architecture in respect to its

construction.

• To analyse the additives used for strengthening the mud for its
construction.

• To review the appropriateness of the earth as building material in present

scenario and the advantages of it over other materials.

• To analyse the effect of mud architecture on kerala context.

1.3 Scope:

• To create awareness about earth construction.

• To aware about the current materials used for the mud construction by
replacing the materials of older days.

• To aware the potentials of earth building process.

• The study can create a general awareness about the traditional earth
architecture and its application on present scenario.

1.4 Research methodology:

• Understanding earth construction techniques

 4

• Gathering secondary data’s related to the traditional mud construction.

• data collection for understanding additives used for the construction and
its effects.

• Identifying the techniques related to the mud architecture

• Doing case studies to understand the contemporary explorations and

innovations to overcome the problem and show potentials of earth architecture.

• Analysing the aspects of mud architecture in relation with the climate of

Kerala.

1.5 Limitation:

• The study is limited to the Kerala context.

• The study focuses in the earth construction and innovations in it, to study
the additives used for the mud construction and how to increase the load capacity of
mud.
 5

CHAPTER -2
MUD AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

Traditional unfired earth building materials were the most important

constructions in past societies and it is estimated that today one third of world's
population live in this type of constructions. This conventional material has proved to
be good for building due to its longevity (some buildings remain after hundreds of
years) and his other good qualities such as thermal insulation and low environmental
impact.

2.1 Why mud can be used as a building material?

Mud, a mixture of earth and water, is economical, practical, functional and

attractive. It is easy to work with, and it takes decoration as well. Mud is especially
useful in humid and hot climates. Mud is a natural building material that is found in
abundance, especially where other building materials such as bricks, stone or wood are
scarce due to affordability and or availability. Mud, a mixture of earth and water, is
economical, practical, functional and attractive. It is easy to work with, and it takes
decoration as well. Mud is especially useful in humid and hot climates. Mud is a natural
building material that is found in abundance, especially where other building materials
such as bricks, stone or wood are scarce due to affordability and or availability. The
mud architecture is a great resource that focuses on architecture constructed of mud
brick, rammed earth, compressed earth block and other methods of earthen
construction. The proliferation of concept to use mud and improved techniques in order
to raise the level of living in the population is a very welcome idea. This can go a long
way not only in the form of changing the look of population centres, rural as well as
urban, but also in solving environmental problems and problems related to energy and
other finite resources. Various reasons for using mud as a construction material is
described below:
 6

Energy Consumption in mud construction, minimum fossil fuel energy is

consumed and is naturally abundant throughout the world, where as in brick
construction fossil energy is consumed for manufacturing process and transportation.

Recycling: Recycling of modern materials for building construction is

expensive. Recycling of soil does not need fossil fuel and labour requirement is also
less. The characteristic of recycled soil for construction remains the same whereas in
modern building material it acquires inferior character after recycling.

Abundance: The abundance availability of soil in large areas helps the

economically weaker section of the society to afford the mud construction. It is easily
adaptable and the technology can be transferred easily.

Housing demand: A huge deficit of housing demand in urban and rural areas
linked with limited resources on all fronts make it essential that the housing solution
have to be best effective, through optimal and efficient use of all resources of land and
building material.
 7

CHAPTER -3

EARTH CONSTRUCTION METHODS

There are different techniques with the use of earth for building, many variants
of treating the earth for rising a structure, there are ways even of using earth just as a
part of the structure with no structural purposes. The different uses on earth are shown

Figure 3.1: earth construction methods

A - The use of unbaked earth in monolithic load-bearing form

1 Earth dug out

2 Poured earth

3 Stacked earth

4 Direct shaping

5 Rammed earth

B - The use of unbaked earth in the form of load-bearing masonry

6 Tamped blocks

7 Compressed blocks

8 Cut blocks

9 Sod
 8

10 Extruded earth

11 Machine moulded adobe

12 Hand moulded adobe

13 Hand shaped adobe

C - The use of unbaked earth in conjunction with a load-bearing structure

14 Daubed earth

15 Cob on posts

16 Straw clay

17 Fill-in

18 Layered on flat surface

3.1 Earth dug out

This is maybe the first housing technique used by humanity with earth, due to its
structural simplicity. We dug out the earth in a vertical or horizontal way so the resultant
hole becomes a shelter for humans or animals.

For complementing this technique, usually something more is needed, a cover for the
entrance or stairs if we do it vertically, so then the meteorological conditions cannot
affect the inside of the shelter. This cover usually made with basic materials such as
timber has not to be very important, where a shelter is shown whose construction uses
wood.

There is also the option of horizontal excavating if we have somewhere to excavate on,
such as a hill. There is also the possibility of combine both methods.

For being able of dug out the earth, the soil must be soft enough and we have to assure
the structure will be stable enough, because this method may be very unsafe if
something happens during construction, such as in tunnels'.
 9

Figure 3.1.1 dugout houses

3.2 Poured earth

This method consists in pouring earth on a liquid state into a formwork, just
like concrete. For the mixture to be appropriate and have consistence enough we must
add a lot of cement and water. Basically the mixture is like concrete but with no
standardised earthen components.

This kind of structures may have a lot of shrinkage due to its high water
content that is why is not very extended.

Figure 2.2.1:poured earth construction

 10

3.3 Stacked earth

This method, also known as cob, consists in taking soil in plastic state and shape it
while it is still wet. Usually cob uses straw as a fibre material.

Stacked earth structures are remarkable for its ease to build and the huge moldability,
an experienced worker can create structures

Figure3.3.1:stacked earth

3.4 Direct shaping

As its name says, this method consists in directly shaping the earth on plastic state
directly with the use of hands or very basic tools. In the same way as cob, the resultant
structure will depend on the ability of the worker because he knows the amount of water
and the plasticity required for the building due to its experience.
 11

Figure3.4.1:direct shaping

3.5 Rammed earth

This method consists on setting layers of earth into a formwork and compact it to
increase its density and its compressive strength and then repeat again until the top of
the structure desired. The density of rammed earth is the highest of the unbaked earth
constructions, that is why this method is one of the bests of this kind.

Figure 3.5.1:rammed earth

 12

Rammed earth can also be stabilised with additives such as cement to increase its
resistance, then is known as Stabilised Rammed Earth and this method is even better
than unstabilised one.
 13

CHAPTER-4

ADDITIVES USED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION

The additives are components that when mixed with mud, improve its physical
properties and its performance. These physical properties are: compression strength,
density, porosity, water absorption, depth of penetration, abrasion resistance and
hardness. The common additives can be divided in to three categories: minerals,
synthetic and organic materials. There are two sources of organic materials; a vegetable
source, e.g., straw, palm leaves, and rice husks, and an animal source, e.g., animal hair
and dung) (Torraca, 1988). The additives should be water resistant, not closed pores
and capillaries, and they should have good penetration. They ought to increase the
mechanical strength and abrasion resistance. They must be durable, easily applicable,
cheap, reversible and they should not be chemically hazardous . Most of these additives
are widely available, inexpensive or might be free. The additives quantity varies from
case to case based on the type of the additives and the soil conditions. The precise
quantities of additives derived as a knowledge of experience, particularly from sensory
observation, and field experiment, and by trial and error for each particular situation.
The laboratory tests can be used as guidance for field test. A simple test can be applied
to test the characteristic of the soil. For example, mixing a bucket of dirt with a little
water will indicate how well the soil adheres itself. If it can be molded and rolled into
balls, with a little effort, this might indicate that the dirt is suitable for use. If it pulls
does not form into balls easily, then the sand content is probably too high and the dirt
might needs some additives. Another example, soaking the adobe brick in water, will
indicate its water resistance and whether it needs additives or not.

4.1. Mineral additives:

4.1.1. Sand

Sand is a natural grainy material composed of finely rock and mineral particles. The
composition of sand is extremely inconsistent, depending on its sources and conditions,
but the most common sand consists of silica (silicon dioxide- SiO2), in the form of
quartz.
 14

The size of the sand particles ranges in diameter from 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. Each
particle in this range size is called “sand grain”. Sand is used when the soil has too
much clay to obtain a more uniform grain size distribution. It improves cohesion
between particles of the soil. In addition, it reduces the shrinkage and swelling
characteristics by giving a better pore size distribution and higher density. Sand should
be uniformly mixed with the soil. Therefore, if the mixing is carried out in a dry, humid
or plastic state, the soil first needs to be crushed to break up any lumps present in the
mix. Another solution is to mix the soil in a liquid state.

4.1.2. Pozzolana

Pozzolana is another mineral additive, also known as pozzolanic ash, is a fine, sandy
volcanic ash, originally discovered in Italy at Pozzuoli in the region around Vesuvius,
but later at a number of other sites. Pozzolana consists of a siliceous and aluminous
material which reacts with calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) in the presence of water
to form compounds possessing cementitious properties . The Greeks and the Romans
were the earliest societies known to use pozzolanas in lime mortars .Romans engineers
used to grind pozzolana with powdered hydrated lime to use them instead of sand in
concrete and mortared rubblework giving extraordinary strength They mixed two parts
by weight of pozzolana with one part of lime to mortar and concrete in masonry and
brickwork, giving extraordinary strength.

4.1.3. Ashes

Ash is the finest of coal ash particles. Fly ash is the fine powder formed from the mineral
matter in coal. It is components vary considerably depending upon its source, but most
fly ashes contain significant amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and calcium oxide
(CaO). The woody plant ashes cannot be used as additive materials as the ash from the
plants would contain too much of carbon. It can be excepted from that, the ashes which
come from certain plant residues such as rice husks of which the silica contents are
high. Ash can be referred to as either cementitious or pozzolanic material. A
cementitious material is one that hardens when mixed with water. A pozzolanic material
will also harden with water but only after interaction with an alkaline substance such
as lime. These cementitious and pozzolanic properties are what make some ashes useful
 15

as additive materials . Ash is usually added in proportions of 10% by weight. Although

it can improve compressive strength and reduce shrinkage and swelling. It has less
effect on water resistance and low resistance to abrasion.

4.2 Synthetic additives:

4.2.1. Portland cement

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), is the most common type of cement used in building
construction. It is a fine powder which is produced by grinding and heating the Portland
cement clinker in a kiln (more than 90%), and by adding 5% calcium sulfate to controls
the setting time. Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material, consists of two-thirds
of calcium silicates (3CaO.SiO2 and 2CaO.SiO2) by mass, and the other one third
consists of alumina, iron and other compounds. Cement is used to improve the dry
compressive strength and the wet compressive strength. Also cement gives the adobe
brick resistance to erosion, rain and abrasion. To have a good quality, it is important
that the cement is well-mixed with the soil. Based on the type of the soil, some soils
require only a 3% addition of cement, but normally it ranges from 2 to 15%, the higher
the shrinkage of the soil the higher the proportion of cement used.

4.2.2. Hydraulic lime

Hydraulic lime is a calcium carbonate, which can be used to produce mortar and plaster
products. To make hydraulic lime, limestone is mixed with clay under high
temperatures. This process eliminates the moisture from the lime and produces mineral
known as silicates. The remaining limestone and silicates are combined to form
hydraulic lime. Hydraulic lime has a number of advantages. The most important of
them is its ability to cure and harden when wet. It is less dense and very porous, which
allows buildings to "breathe", and does not keep moisture in the brick. Also, Hydraulic
lime has a low modulus of elasticity, resulting in fewer cracks due to expansion and
contraction. In addition, hydraulic lime is used for providing a faster initial set than
hydrated lime.
 16

4.2.3. Hydrated lime

The term Hydrated is used due to reason that the calcium oxide (CaO) has been hydrated
with just enough water to turn the CaO into calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2. The Hydrated
lime makes the clay more cohesive and hard. In addition, Hydrated lime has ability to
absorb carbon dioxide from the air gradually to transform into calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), or limestone. Hydrated Lime should be added to the soil at least 2, but
preferably 8 to 16, hours before the stabilization takes place, to make the soil easier to
work and compact. Lime is suitable to soils that have high proportion of clay, and the
recommended proportion is 3 to 10% but usually at the upper end of this range . Unlike
hydraulic lime, hydrated lime has a medium setting time, but it sets harder by absorbing
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

4.2.4. Gypsum

Gypsum is one of the more common by used mineral which can be found in sedimentary
environments. Pure gypsum is a white to transparent mineral, its chemical term is
calcium sulfate dehydrate, CaSO4•2H2O [7]. When gypsum is heated, it loses about
0.75% of its water and becomes hemihydrates gypsum (CaSO4•½H2O). The
hemihydrates gypsum is a soft mineral and can be easily grinded to a powder which
can be used in building construction. Gypsum is not a common additive to soils. It sets
quickly, and it is not moisture resistant, therefore, it should not be exposed to wet
conditions. Usually it is used with a sandy soil in proportions of between 10 and 20%
[20]. Magnesium oxide Magnesium oxide, or magnesia, is a white solid mineral. It is
formed by an ionic bond between one magnesium and one oxygen atom. It is formed
commercially by heating magnesite to 700-1000 oC. At this temperature, magnesium
carbonate thermally decomposes to produce magnesium oxide and carbon dioxide.
Magnesium oxide is used to increase the compressive strength of mud bricks. However,
magnesium oxide has ability to absorb water molecules from the surrounding
environment. Therefore, Care must be taken to protect magnesium oxide from humidity
and moisture.

4.2.5. Soap

Soap is a cleansing agent made from the interaction of fats and oils with alkali. Oils of
the soap are consisting of two main substances; glycerine and a fatty acid. The glycerine
 17

and the sodium salt of the fatty acid are produced by mixing oils with an alkali. The
percentage of mixture of fats and alkalis affect on the hardness, lathering qualities, and
transparency of soap. The suitable oils for making soap can be supplied by tallow,
grease, fish oils, and vegetable oils. To make soil waterproof, soap is mixed with the
soil or applied as a surface finish. It reduces its sensitivity to water by about 25%.
Generally, very small quantities (0.1 or 0.2%) soap is added; however, because it is
washed out by water, it needs periodic re-application if it is applied as a surface finish.

4.2.6. Bitumen

Bitumen is a mixture of organic liquids that is highly thick, black, sticky and completely
soluble in carbon disulphide. Usually, bitumen contains sulphur and other metals such
as nickel, mercury, lead, chromium, vanadium, arsenic and selenium. It can be obtained
by fractional distillation of raw oil, where it is the remaining fraction with the highest
boiling point, as 525°C (977°F). Also, it can be obtained by fractional distillation of
used motor oils. In the other hand, bitumen can now be made from non-petroleum based
such as sugar, molasses, rice, corn and potato starches. It is difficult to mix raw bitumen
with the soil, because it is too thick. There are two methods to make it more fluid for
stabilization purposes; by mixing it with solvent materials, such as diesel fuel or
kerosene or by using emulsifier. Emulsions are produced by dissolving bitumen in
water with the help of an emulsifier. This method is more common and suitable for
many soil types. Emulsion is very fluid and easily mixed with moistened soils. When
the mixture dried, the bitumen forms a thin film coating the soil particles. The main
important factor of adding bitumen is to improve soil cohesion and its water resistance.
However, it should be noted that exceeding the recommended quantity might affect the
soil compressive strength. Normally the quantity of bitumen to be added is: 4 to 6% for
a soil with a high sand content 7 to 12% for soils with low sand content 13 to 20% for
clayey soils. It is recommended that a small quantity of soil is mixed with the bitumen
before mixing it with the remainder. To keep stabilizer more effective, the mixing
should be moderate to avoid breaking down the emulsion.
 18

4.3 Vegetable additives

4.3.1. Fibers:

The fiber is created mainly from the plant cell walls which are mostly composed of
carbohydrates and some other substances. The fibers are used to enhance the tensile
strength, reduce cracking, decrease density and speed up drying. The soil improvement
varies according to the fibers shape, size, strength, amount, elasticity and their bond
strength with soil particles. Recommended proportion ranges between 1 and 4% by
weight. The most commonly used fibers are from wheat, rice or barley. Also, the chaffs
or husks of these crops are acceptable. In addition, there are other vegetable fibers can
be used such as hay, hemp, millet, sisal, filao needles, and elephant grass. One negative
aspect of using vegetable fiber is that it decreases the compressive strength. Also,
vegetable fiber has inconsistent durability. Generally, dry fibers will last a very long
time but when wet they are liable to rot. Furthermore, some vegetable fibers are
attacked by insects, especially termites.

4.3.2. Vegetable Oils and Fats

Vegetable oil is a chemical compound formed from one molecule of trihydric alcohol
and three fatty acids. It is commonly used to improve the soil’s moisture resistance.
The effective additives types are those which indicate a noticeable hardening in contact
with air, and are insoluble in water. Such additives are coconut, cotton and linseed oil
as well as castor. Also, it is found that the Kapok, palmitic oil and shea butter can be
used in some cases. It is worth mentioning that shea butter can repel termites. The
recommended quantity is around 3%, but also it can be painted or sprayed on surfaces.

4.3.3. Tannins

Tannins are polyphenol substances present in the seeds and stems of grapes, the bark
of some trees, and tea leaves. It can be obtained by boiling the proper part of the plants.
Tannins are used to break up clay particles into small particles. So that the clay can coat
the sand grains in the soil more consistently. Also, the tannins can help to reduce
porosity of the soil and to improve its water resistance.

4.3.4. Gum Arabic:

 19

Gum Arabic is a natural gum made of hardened sap which is obtained from the acacia
tree. Also known as gum acacia, chaar gund, char goond or meska. It is a mixture of
two organic substances; saccharides (carbohydrate) and glycoproteins gives it the
properties of adhesion, and bonding. This increases the dry compressive strength, slows
down the water absorption, and reduces the shrinkage. However, it must take into
account that the gum Arabic is soluble in water and has little protection to long-term
moisture exposure. The recommended quantity is 5 to 10% .

4.3.5. Copal

Copal is a resin obtained from a certain type of tropical trees such as manila copal. It
looks hard, but will soften and melt when exposed to a hot flame. It is used to improve
waterproofing property of the soil. It is usually added at 3 to 8% to sandy soils .

4.3.6. Sap and latexes

Latex is a milky sap-like fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms) such
as euphorbia, hevea rubber and concentrated sisal juice [2]. It is a complex emulsion
consisting of proteins, alkaloids, starches, sugars, oils, tannins, resins, and gums that
becomes thicker when it is exposed to air. It is usually obtained by injuring the external
tissue of the plants. It comes in different color, white (in most plants), yellow, orange,
or cherry latex. It is mixed with neutral soil to reduce its permeability slightly and
improves its density. The recommended proportions are between 3 and 15% .

4.3.7. Molasses

Molasses can be obtained from certain plants, sugar cane plant, for example. It is
usually extracted by crushing or mashing the effective part of the plants and boiling it.
Molasses contain aldehydes which can be transformed into polymers at high
temperatures. It is added to soil to improve its strength and reduce its permeability.
General content of molasses is about 5% .
 20

4.4. Animal additives

4.4.1. Fibers

Animal fibers (hair, fur and wool) are natural fibers that consist mostly of particular
proteins. They play the similar role as vegetable fibers. It is used to improve adhesion
and impact resistance of the plaster; hair and fur from animals are mixed with plasters
and renders to reduce shrinkage.

4.4.2. Blood

Blood is made up of a liquid portion. Approximately 55 percent of blood is plasma,

which carries the solid cells (red blood cells and white blood cells) and platelets which
help blood clot in case of bleeding. Blood also carries hormones released by the
endocrine glands and carries nutrients from food that has been processed by the
digestive system. The use of bull's blood has been known since Roman times. Blood
can be an effective additive when mixed with lime, polyphenols or tannins. It is used to
increase hardness and water resistance. The blood must be fresh and not in powder
form.

4.4.3. Casein

Proteinic casein, in the form of whey, is a product formed by the souring of milk. It is
used as soil stabilization. Sometimes, it is mixed with other substances such as animal
blood [6]. Also, Casein can be used in painting by mixing it with white lime.

4.4.4. Animal glues

Animal glue is an adhesive that is created by boiling of animal connective tissue for
long time to produce protein colloid glues. These protein colloid glues are formed
through hydrolysis of the fibrous proteins found in skin, bone, and other connective
tissues. The purpose of adding animal glues to soil is to improve its strength and its
property of water resistance.
 21

4.4.5. Oils and fats

Animal oils and fats are extracted from the tissues by steaming or boiling them with
water. In some cases, the extraction is done under increased pressure. Different type of
oils and fats of animal include butter, tallow (the solid fat of cattle, sheep, or horses),
fish oils, and whale oil, can be used as waterproofing agents. Content is variable based
on the soil’s condition.

4.4.6. Urine

Urine is usually consists of 95% water, urea, creatinine, uric acid, salt and ammonia
and other elements and hormones. Urea is the principal component of urine, it is an
organic compound with the chemical term (NH2)2CO. It is found that the urea act as
binding material and it can be used to reduce soil shrinkage, eliminates cracking and
improve the ability of the soil to withstand erosion. The suggested amount varies based
on the percentage of sand in the soil. However, it can replace the mixing water in a
sandy soil. In addition to this, good results were obtained when it was combined with
lime.

4.4.7. Excrements

Waste material, especially fecal matter, that is expelled from the animal body after
digestion. These can contain chemicals such as phosphoric acid, potassium minerals
and fibres. Cow, horse or camel dung is normally used. It improves the cohesion and
plasticity of soils. Sometimes partially dry dung is applied to mud plaster to help stop
the development of cracks. In India, a traditional waterproofing is made by mixing
water with one-part cow dung and five parts earth by weight and applied to fill up
surface cracks. Goat dung can be used to lighten the soil. It is recommended to leave
the mix of a soil and dung to ferment for several days before use. The suggested amount
is up to one third, or up to one half for a finishing mix. These, mineral, synthetic,
vegetable and animal stabilizers, are the most mud additives which are commonly used
in some parts of the world. The main advantage of these additives or stabilizers is their
local availability as a cheap material. In addition, they can be found in abundance, and
they can be produced by very simple processes which do not need high skills.
 22

CHAPTER-5

LITERATURE STUDY

5.1 Office building – Delhi

Figure 5.1.1:office building view

Figure 5.1.2:plan
 23

Figure 5.1.3:office building

This office building was constructed in order to

prove that domed and vaulted rooms built of
earth blocks are conductive to better indoor
climate and can be more economical than
traditional buildings with flat concrete roofs.

The project was built as part of a research group

with a usable area of 115 m2.The central hall acts
as a multi-purpose rooms for seminars, meeting
and exhibition .The three domes built of soil
blocks, utilising a rotational slip form that was
developed by the building research laboratory.

The soil blocks were produced by a manually

operated press.

Figure 5.1.4:construction technique

Fr heating and cooling an earth turned system was installed. Climate conditions require
that the rooms are cooled fron april – September and heated from December –
February.for this purpose a stoneware pipe system installed in a depth of 3.5 m\which
ambient air blown by two fans
 24

The blown air receives nearly constant earth temperature of about 25 deg.c , which
corresponds to the annual mean temperature.this air cools the building in the hot season
and heats it in the cold season.

The energy savings results in nearly 38000 k wh per year , about 2/3 0f the total amount.

The saving in building costs in comparison with a conventional building with fat
concrete roof was 22%.
 25

CHAPTER-6

CASE STUDIES
6.1 Manchirad , residence at perumathura ,Tvm

Figure 6.1.1:mancherath,view

The project is an eco friendly house named as mancheraad for an

environmentalist. Today we face climate change , resource depletion, energy decline,
pollution and destruction of our eco systems . the sustainable architecture has the
potential to help address some of the problems that we face as a global society so we
 26

are giving a small model house design seems like a logical way to tackle these problems

Figure 6.1.2:plan

it aims for a continually evolving high quality of life for each resident. Ecologically
responsible, and human relation with our natural environment.

Figure 6.1.3:plan
 27

Mud is environmentally most sustainable material . besides its obvious eco friendly
nature ,its easy availability makes it almost a no cost material, abundantly present,
generally on the site itself. This cost-effective material is also energy efficient. Which
induces low embodied energy and produce less amount carbon.

Figure 6.1.4:interior

Figure 6.1.5:exterior mud walls

 28

Figure 6.1.6: interior details

6.1.1 Construction techniques

Figure6.1.1.1:vault Figure 6.1.1.2:rammed earth

 29

Figure 6.1.1.3:bamboo piling Figure 6.1.1.4:rammed earth wall of 240 mm thick

Figure 6.1.1.5:filler slab

6.2 Revathy Kalamandir, Thiruvananthapuram

Year of construction: 2013

Revathy Kalamandir, a 3D studio building at Thiruvananathapuram in rammed earth

technique is a master piece of Eugene Pandala. It has an area of about 12,000 sq. ft.,
constructed from the soil available at the nearby site. The walls are rough and are left
un-plastered. Stabilisation was done with 5% cement to check water penetration and
termite attack. The pillars are carved aesthetically using cob technology. Lot of
ventilation and jally works are given for proper air circulation. Cavity wall required for
the studio portion was done using rammed earth technique. Cement plastering was
given for the soffit of arches, wall and column bases and top surface of stairs. The
building stands out as an example of the effective utilisation of mud minimising the use
of cement and steel. During its construction phase itself, the building was exposed to
the vagaries of nature for eight long years. Yet, the structure withstood all adverse
climatic conditions and still remains free from cracks and termite attack, radiating its
earthy colour in the lush green KINFRA campus.
 30

Figure 6.2.1:revathy kalamandir ,tvm

Figure6.2.2:pillars in cob technology

 31

Figure 6.2.3:corridor arches

5.2.2 Construction techniques

• Rammed earth technique, cob technology

• 80% sand and 20% clay
• 5% cement
• Bull’s blood, pig’s urine, sticky weeds, fish with slimy secretion
• Non-degradable materials used as Suitable reinforcement materials
• Lime or mud plaster
• Stabilisation with 5% cement, bitumen
• 40% cost reduction
 32

CHAPTER-7

MIXING OF RAW MATERIALS

The raw materials used in this study were mixed together to reach optimum construction
properties for the mud . These properties include compressive strength and water
absorption without sacrificing the superior advantage of the mud, which is heat
performance.

7.1. Sand/Mud Ratio

The effect of the sand/mud ratio on the behavior of the produced brick was investigated
in tests. Each test was carried out on three identical specimens. The tests were
performed to find the effect of the sand/mud ratio on the compression strength of the
mud. The objective of these tests was to reach an optimum ratio to achieve a high
compression strength for the mud blocks .

In this group, tests were done on thirty mud brick specimens with different sand/mud
ratios ranging between 0.05 to 1.0. The total weight of the sand and mud was always
kept constant and equal to 4200 gm for each batch used to make three bricks with a
constant sand/mud ratio. The hay ratio was kept constant in all the specimens for this
group. The hay weight was 20 gm representing 0.48% of the total weight of the mud
and sand.

The required weights of brick ingredients were prepared for each batch. First, the mud,
sand, and hay were mixed in the soil mixer for few minutes, and then water was
gradually added. The mud, sand, and hay were mixed with natural tap water having no
impurities until reaching a homogeneous paste. The mix was then placed and
compacted in steel cubic molds having internal dimensions of 100 × 100 × 100 mm.
After casting the cubic samples, all top surfaces were given a smooth final finish by a
straight edge. The brick specimens were taken out of the moulds right after casting and
left to dry in the air

7.2 Hay Ratio

the sand/mud ratio was kept constant at 0.15 while changing the hay weight from 10
gm to 30 gm, and 50 gm, representing ratios of hay/soil of 0.24%, 0.72%, and 1.20%,
respectively. It should be noted that a hay ratio of 0.48%
 33

7.3 Cement Ratio

the effect of adding cement instead of hay as a bonding material to the basic components
of the brick (sand and mud). The sand/mud ratio was kept constant at 0.15 in the four
tests. The cement ratios considered were 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%,

7.4 Cement and Hay Ratio

the effect of adding cement together with hay as bonding materials was considered. In
sand/mud ratio of 0.15 and a hay ratio of 0.48% were kept constant in all tests of this
group. The cement/soil ratio was varied at 3%, 6%, and 9%,

7.5 Lime Ratio

the effect of adding lime instead of hay as a bonding material to the basic components
of the brick (sand and mud). The sand/mud ratio was again kept constant at 0.15 in the
four tests. The lime ratios considered were 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%,.

7.6 Lime and Hay Ratio

, the effect of adding lime and hay as bonding materials was considered. In tests. a
sand/mud ratio of 0.15 and a hay ratio of 0.48% were kept constant in all tests of this
group. The lime/soil ratio was varied at 3%, 6%, and 9%,

7.7 Lime, Hay, and Bitumen

the effect of adding lime, hay, and bitumen as bonding materials was considered.
sand/mud ratio of 0.15 and a hay ratio of 0.48% were kept constant in all tests of
thisgroup. The lime/soil ratio was varied at 3% and 6%. Bitumen was added to the
specimen until the whole mixture turned black

7.8 Lime and Hay (No Sand)

the effect of removing the sand from the mixture was considered. The specimens of this
group consisted of mud, water, lime, and hay only. The weight of the sand was
exchanged for the same weight in mud. This resulted in a ratio of hay to mud of 0.48%
as in the previous groups. The lime ratios were 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%, respectively.

7.9 Steel Fibers

examined the effect of adding steel fibers instead of hay as a bonding material to the
basic components (sand and mud). The sand/mud ratio used in this test was 0.15. The
fibers ratio considered was 0.48%, which is the same ratio of hay used in the other tests
 34

7.10 Lime, Hay, and Steel Filings

the effect of adding steel filings to the lime and hay as bonding materials, along with
the basic components of the brick (sand and mud). The sand/mud ratio used in this test
was 0.15. The lime ratio was 12%, the hay ratio was 0.48%, while the filings ratio was
9.5%

Figure 7.1:effect of sand /mud ratio on compressive strength

Figure 7.2:effect of hay ratio on compressive strength

 35

(a)

[b]

Figure 7.3:effect of hay ratio on compressive strength a- with hay b - without hay
 36

(a)

(b)

Figure7.4:effect of lime ratio on compressive strength a-without hay b- with hay

 37

Figure7.5:effect of limecand cement on compressive strength -no hay

Figure 3:effect of lime ratio on compressive strength -no sand

 38

Figure 4:effect of lime ratio on compressive strength

Figure 7.8:effect of bonding materials on compressive strength

 39

Table:7.1 mud additives

7.11 Findings

The optimum sand to mud ratio was 0.15 by weight. Increasing this ratio above 0.15
led to a decrease in the compressive strength of the mud blocks.

2) Adding hay to the basic sample of mud, sand, and water had a great effect on the
compressive strength of the produced block. The optimum ratio of hay was 0.48% of
the total weight of the sand and mud. Adding cement to the basic contents of the brick
sample led to an increase in the compressive capacity of the produced mud block.
However, increasing the cement ratio might not be preferable due to its negative impact
on thermal performance.

3) In case of basic specimens with hay, adding an extra bonding material such as lime
or cement slightly increased the load capacity up to a certain limit, then compressive
strength decreases.
 40

4) Using steel fibers or steel filings as bonding materials did provide a notable increase
in the load capacity of the mud block.

5) The results showed that the major change in compressive strength was achieved in
Group 3, where hay was replaced by cement as a binding material.
 41

CHAPTER-8

CONCLUSION

This study about the additives used to increase the compressive strength of the
mud for the construction, identified that hay can be used for this purpose to get the
required strength without affecting the property of mud.

Architecture relates to sustainability where it extends to its maximum potential

, which is proven as an environment friendly solution . as it tends to be a fresh source
of raw substance derived to a finished final product . it exports the maximum quality
od fustainablity and eco friendly proposal of solutions. The adiitives as well as related
all sort of mix contents to one substance tends to be on a relation with the same . where
it does not leave any balance in the system . purely soluble form of mix relates to the
same condition. On the same the factors relate to the main components. It also suites to
the function of living habitat which responds and co operate to the given condition of
the statement to be made .

Living conditions becomes more soluble to the same where it extends to the
response of the materials as well as to the situating conditions.it also makes a huge
contribution where it relates to a massive change for the situation of taking factor
relating to be done . this demands to beat and to respond to the climatic factor as well
as to be situating to the changes and being more sustainable .

On increase of compressive strength it relates to be made to be done to increase

where floor hights increased result to additional accommodation and as a solution done
to solve for the whole .
 42

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, T. (2005) ‘Investigation of fibre reinforced mud brick as a building material’,

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https://dataplasmid.wordpress.Com/2011 (accessed 23 July 2015).

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Chandra, S., Eklund, L. and Villarreal, R.R. (1998) ‘Use of cactus in mortars
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