GR-01278; No of Pages 45

Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Gondwana Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gr

GR Focus Review

The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early
collision of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma)
Richard Spikings a,⁎, Ryan Cochrane b, Diego Villagomez c, Roelant Van der Lelij d, Cristian Vallejo e,
Wilfried Winkler f, Bernado Beate g
a
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Geneva, Rue des Maraichers 13, Geneva 1205, Switzerland
b
Thomson Reuters, London, UK
c
Tectonic Analysis Ltd., Geneva, Switzerland
d
Norges Geologiske Undersøkelse, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
e
Geostrat S.A., Quito, Ecuador
f
ETH Zürich, Geological Institute, ETH Zentrum, NO E 59, Sonneggstrasse 5, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
g
Facultad de Geología, Minas y Petróleos, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, A.P. 17-01-2759, Quito, Ecuador

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Northwestern South America preserves a record of the assembly of western Pangaea, its disassembly and
Received 24 March 2014 initiation of the far western Tethys Wilson Cycle, subsequent Pacific margin magmatism and ocean plateau–
Received in revised form 4 June 2014 continent interaction since the Late Cretaceous. Numerous models have been presented for various time
Accepted 25 June 2014
slices although they are based on either spatially restricted datasets, or dates that are inaccurate estimates
Available online xxxx
of the time of crystallisation. Here we review a very large quantity of geochronological, geochemical,
Handling Editor: M. Santosh thermochronological, sedimentological and palaeomagnetic data that collectively provide tight constraints for
geological models. These data have been collected over a trench (Pacific)-parallel distance of N1500 km
Keywords: (Colombia and Ecuador), and reveal important temporal trends in rifting and subduction. The temporal frame-
Pangaea work for our model constraints are obtained from robust, concordant zircon U-Pb ages of magmatic rocks during
South America 290–75 Ma. The Late Cretaceous thermal history of the margin (b350 °C) is described by 40Ar/39Ar and fission
Tectonic reconstruction track data, and the higher temperature and thus older (pre-75 Ma) history are constrained by apatite U-Pb
Geochronology thermochronology. Variations in the isotopic compositions of Hf (zircon), Nd (whole) and O (quartz) with
Geochemistry
time have been used to track the evolution of the source of magmatism, and are used as proxies for crustal
Thermochronology
thickness. Atomic chemical compositions, combined with isotopes and dense mineral assemblages are used to
differentiate between continental and oceanic environments. These data show that rifting within western
Pangaea started at 240 Ma, leading to sea floor spreading between blocks of Central and South America by
216 Ma. Pacific active margin commenced at 209 Ma, and continued until 115 Ma above an east-dipping subduc-
tion zone that was rolling back, attenuating South America and forming new continental crust. The opening of the
South Atlantic drove South America westwards, compressed the Pacific margin of northwestern South America
at 115 Ma and obducted an exhumed subduction zone. Passive margin conditions prevailed until the Oceanic
Plateau and its overlying intra-oceanic arc (The Rio Cala Arc) collided and accreted to South America at 75 Ma.
© 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of International Association for Gondwana Research.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
2. Geological framework of northwestern South America (Colombia and Ecuador) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4. Triassic: the disassembly of Pangaea and the formation of a passive margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.1. Historical perspective and occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.2. Geochronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.2.1. Cordillera Real of Ecuador and Cordillera Central of Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +41(0)223793176.

E-mail addresses: richard.spikings@unige.ch (R. Spikings), ryan.cochrane@thomsonreuters.com (R. Cochrane), diego.villagomez@gmail.com (D. Villagomez), roelantvdl@gmail.com
(R. Van der Lelij), Cristian.vallejo@yahoo.com (C. Vallejo), wilfried.winkler@erdw.ethz.ch (W. Winkler), bbeate@uio.satnet.net (B. Beate).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
1342-937X/© 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of International Association for Gondwana Research.

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
2 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

4.2.2. Comparison with the ages of Permian and Triassic rocks in Venezuela and Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.3. Geochemistry of the granites and migmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.3.1. Cordillera Real of Ecuador and Cordillera Central of Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.3.2. Comparison with Permian and Triassic rocks in Venezuela and Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.4. Geochemistry of the amphibolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.5. Zircon Hf isotope geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.5.1. Zircon Hf isotope geochemistry of the granites and migmatitic leucosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.5.2. Zircon Hf isotope geochemistry of the amphibolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.5.3. Comparison with Zircon Hf isotope compositions in Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.6. Thermal histories during the Triassic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.7. Interpretation: Permian and Triassic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.7.1. Arc magmatism and metamorphism during 290–240 Ma along western Pangaea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.7.2. Initiating the disassembly of western Pangaea during 240–200 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.8. Conjugate margins to northwestern Gondwana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.9. Rifting between North and South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5. Latest Triassic–Lower Cretaceous: arc magmatism and tectonic switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1. Historical perspective and occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.1. Latest Triassic–Jurassic granitoid intrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.2. Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous rocks to the west of the Jurassic intrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2. Geochronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2.1. Latest Triassic and Jurassic intrusions: Cordillera Real, Cordillera Central and the Santander Massif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2.2. Early Cretaceous magmatic and sedimentary rocks: Cordillera Real and Cordillera Central . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2.3. Comparison with Peru and the Merida Andes of Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.3. Geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.3.1. Latest Triassic–earliest Cretaceous granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.3.2. Early Cretaceous igneous rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.3.3. Comparison with magmatic rocks from Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.4. The tectonic setting during the latest Triassic–Jurassic (210–145 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.4.1. Why is there a gap in the Jurassic arc in Peru? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.5. The tectonic setting during the Early Cretaceous (145–115 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.6. Compression during the Early Cretaceous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.7. The Chaucha Terrane and the Tahamí Terrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.8. Comparison with Peru (145–115 Ma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6. The tectonic history of northwestern South America during 115–75 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.1. The formation of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province and its collision with South America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.1.1. Geochemistry and geochronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.1.2. Time of initial accretion with South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.1.3. The nature of the CLIP–South America suture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
Appendix A. Supplementary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

1. Introduction
The northwestern South American plate hosts a Grenvillian base-
ment, which was modified during the amalgamation and disassembly
of Pangaea, subsequent prolonged active margin magmatism and the
collision of the voluminous Caribbean Large Igneous Province, which
added new crust to South America. This manuscript is mainly a review
of a very large quantity of data, although some new U-Pb (apatite)
and 40Ar/39Ar dates are presented. These data are used to generate
robust constraints for any model that describes the disassembly
and fragmentation of western Pangaea, the subsequent evolution of
the Pacific margin offshore northwestern South America during the
Jurassic–Early Cretaceous, and the early evolution of the Caribbean
region and its interaction with South America. The review is organised
into sections according to geological time, and compares the evolution
of northwestern South America (north of 5°S) with the margin of Peru
during 290–75 Ma.
Wide disagreements exist over the tectonic origin of voluminous
magmatic units, including Triassic anatectites, Jurassic–Early Cretaceous
arc rocks, obducted M-HP/LT rocks and allochthonous units that com-
prise the western cordilleras and the forearc. These contrasting inter-
pretations result in significantly different interpretations for plate
reconstructions during the Triassic–Late Cretaceous (e.g. Litherland
et al., 1994; Spikings et al., 2001; Pratt et al., 2005; Pindell and
Kennan, 2009; Villagómez and Spikings, 2013; Cochrane et al., 2014a).
Contrasting models partly exist because of the misinterpretation of
K/Ar and Rb/Sr dates that were published in the 1980's and 1990's as
accurate estimates of crystallisation age, ignoring the effects of daughter
isotope loss. We discard K/Ar and Rb/Sr dates in favour of recently pub-
lished concordant zircon U-Pb dates, which are more accurate estimates
of crystallisation age. The U-Pb dates are combined with geochemical
and isotope data, sedimentological data and field relationships to
constrain the magmatic source regions and tectonic environment
within which the rocks formed. The tectonic histories are subsequently
investigated using thermochronological and palaeomagnetic data.
We show that western Pangaea started to disassemble by rifting of
continental crust of Central America from South America at ~ 240 Ma,
and that these had completely separated by ~216 Ma. The northwestern
margin of South America remained passive until ~ 209 Ma within
Pangaea, and arc magmatism occurred during 209–114 Ma, accompa-
nying the separation of North and South America at ~ 180 Ma. The
Jurassic magmas formed in a continental arc, which questions previous
interpretations that place the Jurassic trench far from the location of the
Jurassic arcs, due to the presence of suspect continental terranes. We
draw a single east-dipping subduction zone during 209–114 Ma,
which retreated oceanward and extended the South American margin,
culminating in compression that drove rock uplift and exhumation.
Finally, we present evidence for an east-facing intra-oceanic arc, which

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
formed on an intra-oceanic plateau prior to its collision and accretion
with South America at ~ 75 Ma, resulting in growth of the continent.
Our interpretation differs from other models that rely on large-scale
plate reconstructions to constrain the positions of continents and sub-
duction zones.
2. Geological framework of northwestern South America (Colombia
and Ecuador)
The South American Plate forms a relict part of western Gondwana,
and formed during the opening of the Central Atlantic, South Atlantic
and the Inter-American Gap (Gulf of Mexico and the proto-Caribbean)
during 180–120 Ma (E.g. Eagles, 2007). The Atlantic margin remains
passive whereas the western margin became active at ~ 500–480 Ma
(e.g. Pankhurst et al., 2000; Van der Lelij, 2013), soon after the opening
of the Iapetus Ocean during 570–535 Ma (Cawood et al., 2001). The
Northern plate margin formed during rifting from Yucatan in the Middle
Jurassic (Pindell et al., 2005), forming the region of the proto-Caribbean.
At the present time, the Northern Andes are separated from the Central
Andes by the Huancabamba Deflection (at ~6°S), which marks a distinct
change in the strike orientation of the Andean chain (see inset in Fig. 1).
The oldest rocks exposed in northwestern South America are
Grenvillian aged gneisses, which are dispersed in inliers throughout
the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, Santander Massif and the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta (Fig. 1; e.g. Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997), where
they are considered to form part of the Chibcha Terrane (e.g. Toussaint
and Restrepo, 1994), although none crop out in Ecuador. The Phanerozoic
rocks, which form the focus of this review, can be separated into a
relatively undifferentiated oceanic Late Cretaceous sequence, which is
faulted against older, differentiated continental crust.
The Late Cretaceous oceanic rocks form the basement to the Western
Cordillera and the forearcs of Colombia (Calima Terrane; Fig. 1; e.g. Kerr
et al., 1997) and Ecuador (Pallatanga-Piñon Terrane; e.g. Vallejo et al.,
2009). Geochemical, isotopic and geochronological data suggest that
these ultramafic and mafic rocks formed in an oceanic hot-spot setting
during 99–87 Ma (e.g. Kerr et al., 1997; Vallejo et al., 2006; Villagómez
et al., 2011), and that they are equivalent to the oceanic plateau rocks
that form the Caribbean Plate (e.g. Sinton et al., 1998). Field relation-
ships and U-Pb zircon dates show that the oceanic plateau was intruded
by an east-facing intra-oceanic arc prior to their collision with South
America in the Campanian (e.g. Feininger and Bristow, 1980; Vallejo
et al., 2006), although this is not consistent with the plate reconstruc-
tions of Lebrat et al. (1987) and Pindell and Kennan (2009), who suggest
that arcs at this time were west-facing and were also intruding the
continental margin of South America. The accretion of allochthons of
the Caribbean Large Igneous Province added at least 5x106–1x107 km3
of new crust to the South American Plate (Cochrane, 2013).
The Early Cretaceous continental margin hosts N-S trending linear
belts that are exposed within the Cordillera Central of Colombia,
and the Cordillera Real of Ecuador (Fig. 1). Traversing eastwards from
the Campanian suture, these are M-HP/LT complexes of amphibolites,
blueschists and eclogites, Early Cretaceous arc rocks of the
Quebradagrande and Alao sequences, undifferentiated Palaeozoic
rocks, which underwent anatexis in the Triassic, foliated Early
Cretaceous arc plutons, and large unfoliated Jurassic batholiths along
the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central in Colombia, and Cordillera
Real in Ecuador. Further east, the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia has
no equivalent topographic feature in Ecuador, and it includes the high
plains of the Santander Massif in the north (Fig. 1). The Santander
Massif hosts the oldest segment of the latest Triassic–Early Cretaceous
continental arc sequence, which has no equivalent assemblage in
Ecuador. Litherland et al. (1994) suggest that these belts are all in
tectonic contact, and these allochthonous units were juxtaposed during
compression at 140–120 Ma. Alternatively, Pratt et al. (2005) suggest
that the contacts are intrusive, and the rock units within Ecuador are
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
3
autochthonous, which is similar to the model proposed by Villagómez
and Spikings (2013) and Cochrane (2013) for Ecuador and Colombia.
The retro-arc foreland basins of the Middle and Lower Magdallena
Valley basins in Colombia, and the Oriente Basin of Ecuador preserve a
record of the evolution of the margin during the Jurassic–Recent, and
these are utilised throughout the review to support or negate various
hypotheses.
3. Methodology
This review presents a very large quantity of data that was mainly
previously peer reviewed and published, and the details of the method-
ologies used by each study are provided in the respective publications. A
summary of the geochronological data and pertinent geochemical and
isotopic data is presented in Tables 1 and 2, and the complete geochem-
ical dataset used to plot all of the geochemical figures is provided as a
supplementary file.
A majority of the geochronological, isotopic and geochemical
data for the period spanning 290–100 Ma (Mišković et al., 2009;
Villagómez et al., 2011; Cochrane, 2013; Cochrane et al., 2014a,b) was
acquired at laboratories at the Universities of Geneva and Lausanne
(Switzerland), and at the Goethe Universität Frankfurt. Accuracy and
external reproducibility of the methods were determined by analysing
i) Harvard 91500 (Wiedenbeck et al., 1995) and Plešovice zircon
(Sláma et al., 2008) during geochronology, ii) GJ-1 and Plešovice zircon
(Sláma et al., 2008) during Hf isotopic analyses, iii) standard JNdi-1 for
Nd isotopic analyses. Other geochronological analyses were performed
at laboratories at Curtin University, the University of Grenoble (Riel
et al., 2013), the Australian National University (Vinasco et al., 2006;
Restrepo et al., 2011), the University of Arizona (Bustamante et al.,
2010; Cardona et al., 2010; Weber et al., 2010) and Westfälische
Wilhelms-Universität Munster (Lu-Hf; John et al., 2010). All zircon
U-Pb dates that are used in the interpretations are concordant, and
define a single age population with respect to their mean square
weighted deviate statistic. The methodology used for each measure-
ment is highlighted in Tables 1 and 2.
Dense mineral assemblages and fission-track data for the period
after 100 Ma (e.g. Spikings et al., 2000, 2010) were obtained at laborato-
ries at ETH-Zürich. A majority of geochemical and geochronological data
from the Caribbean Large Igneous Province was obtained from laborato-
ries at the University of Geneva (40Ar/39Ar; Luzieux et al., 2006), the
Australian National University (U-Pb; Vallejo et al., 2006), and the
University of Lausanne (Mamberti et al., 2003).
4. Triassic: the disassembly of Pangaea and the formation of a
passive margin
Triassic rocks within the Cordillera Real, Amotape Terrane (Ecuador)
and Cordillera Central (Colombia) are dominated by widely dispersed
outcrops of variably foliated granites, gneissic granites and migmatites,
and less abundant amphibolites, ultramafic rocks and meta-
sedimentary rocks (Fig. 2). Several studies have shown that the
magmatic and metamorphic rocks that formed during the Triassic are
geochemically distinct from younger magmatic rocks, and formed in a
different tectonic environment.
4.1. Historical perspective and occurrence
Triassic rocks within the Cordillera Real and Amotape Terrane of
Ecuador include granitoids of the Tres Lagunas and Moromoro units,
migmatites of the Sabanilla unit, geographically scattered amphibolitic
dykes and sills (Piedras and Monte Olivo units), and sedimentary
rocks of the Piuntza unit (Fig. 2). The granites were first described by
Colony and Sinclair (1932). Mapping by the British Geological Survey
during 1986–1993 linked these occurrences into a semi-continuous
belt, and they were grouped into the Loja Terrane (Litherland et al.,
4 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

GP

Caribbean Plate
SNSM

SM
10°N SP

F
PSB

Venezuela

SM MA

Chocó-
Panamá

CAF
Terrane
OPF MMV

Tahami
GF Terrane
EC

F
Pa
5°N

IF
UMV
WC
CC LB
0m
300
CPV
Huancabamba
F

Calima
SJ

Deflection
Terrane
Nazca Plate Coastal
Batholith
Arequipa
Colombia dg a
Ri azc Terrane
e
N
F

South American Plate

Pu

0° 0m Pallatanga-Piñon
300 Terrane
IAD CR
Carnegie WC SZ
Ridge SLB PF
Ecuador
OB
IF
PB
Triassic Anatectite

RC
Latest Triassic -
Jurassic arc
Amotape
Terrane Early Cretaceous arc
CL
Peru Early Cret. M-HP/LT

80°W 75°W

Fig. 1. Digital elevation model for northwestern South America showing the cordilleras, suspect terranes, main faults and the exposure of Triassic–Early Cretaceous magmatic rocks in Ecuador
and Colombia. Inset shows the location of the Arequipa Terrane in southern Peru, and the Coastal Batholith. Faults: CAF: Cauca-Almaguer Fault, GF: Garrapatas Fault, IF: Ibagué Fault, OPF: Otu-
Pericos Fault, PaF: Palestina Fault, PF: Peltetec Fault, PuF: Pujili Fault, SJF: San-Jeronimo Fault, SMF: Santa Marta Fault. Other abbreviations: CC: Cordillera Central, CL: Celica-Lancones Basin, CPV:
Cauca-Patía Valley, CR: Cordillera Real, GP: Guajira Peninsula, IAD: Interandean Depression, IF: Ingapirca Fault (western boundary of the Guamote Sequence), LB: Llanos Basin, MA: Merida
Andes, MMV: Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, OB: Oriente Basin, PB: Piñon Block, PSB: Plato-San Jorge Basin, RC: Raspas Complex, SLB: San Lorenzo Block, SM: Santander Massif, SP: Sierra
de Perija, SZ: Sub-Andean Zone, UMV: Upper Magdalena Valley Basin, WC: Western Cordillera. Geology from Litherland et al. (1994) and Gómez et al. (2007).

1994) along with undifferentiated Palaeozoic metamorphic rocks of the monzogranites and diorites (Tres Lagunas unit), and medium- to high-
Chiguinda and Agoyan units. The Loja Terrane is bound to the east by the grade, sillimanite and kyanite bearing orthogneisses and migmatites
Llanganates Fault, and to the west by the Baños fault. Triassic igneous and (Sabanilla Unit). Litherland et al. (1994), Noble et al. (1997), Riel
metamorphic lithologies are dominated by cordierite and garnet bearing et al. (2013) and Cochrane et al. (2014a) present a large quantity of

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
geochronological and geochemical data from the igneous and meta-
morphic rocks in Ecuador (Table 1). The Piuntza unit consists of meta-
morphosed and skarnified siliciclastic rocks, tuffs and limestones that
host Triassic bivalves (Litherland et al., 1994). The unit is exposed
beyond the structural limits of the Loja Terrane of Litherland et al.
(1994) along the eastern flank of the southern Cordillera Real (Fig. 2),
where it is surrounded by the Jurassic Zamora Batholith although the
nature of the contact is either unknown or unreported.
Widely dispersed and variably deformed Permian and Triassic
meta-granitoids, ultra-mafic–mafic rocks and metasedimentary rocks
occur within the northern Cordillera Central of Colombia (Fig. 2).
These rocks were initially described by Hall et al. (1972), Feininger
et al. (1972) and González (1980), who considered them to be Permo-
Triassic on the basis of K/Ar dates. Restrepo and Toussaint (1988)
suggested that the Permo-Triassic rocks defined the basement of the
fault-bounded Tahamí Terrane, and placed them within the Cordillera
Central Polymetamorphic Complex (Restrepo and Toussaint, 1982).
The Tahamí Terrane of Restrepo and Toussaint (1988) is bound by the
Otú-Pericos fault to the east, which separates it from Grenvillian aged
metamorphic basement of the Chibcha Terrane (e.g. Ordoñez-Carmona
et al., 1999), and the San Jerónimo Fault to the west, which separates it
from the Quebradagrande Arc (Fig. 1). Maya and González (1995) and
Villagómez et al. (2011) group the Triassic metamorphosed igneous
and sedimentary rocks into the Cajamarca Complex, which will be
adopted in this manuscript. The geological map of Colombia (Gómez
et al., 2007) reveals a paucity of Triassic lithologies within the Cordillera
Central south of the Ibagué Fault (Fig. 2). Vinasco et al. (2006), Martínez
(2007), Cardona et al. (2010), Montes et al. (2010), Weber et al. (2010),
Restrepo et al. (2011), Villagómez et al. (2011) and Cochrane et al.
(2014a) present a large quantity of geochemical data and concordant
zircon U-Pb dates (Table 1, Fig. 2) from the Cajamarca Unit, confirming
the Permo-Triassic crystallisation ages of the igneous rocks. Similar to
the Cordillera Real in Ecuador, the Permo-Triassic rocks of the Cordillera
Central intrude and are faulted against Palaeozoic metamorphic rocks
such as the La Miel Unit (e.g. Restrepo et al., 1991; Villagómez et al.,
2011), although these will not be considered further in this review.
Martínez (2007) report a series of metagabbros and amphibolites in
the northern Cordillera Central, which they attribute to a Triassic
ophiolitic sequence, referred to as the Aburrá Ophiolite (Fig. 2).
Permo-Triassic igneous and metamorphic rocks have also been
recognised in the Guajira Peninsula, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and
at the base of boreholes drilled though the Plato-San Jorge Basin located
north of the Cordillera Central (Cardona et al., 2010; Montes et al., 2010;
Weber et al., 2010; Fig. 1). Granites from the basement of the Plato-San
Jorge Basin are mildly deformed, while the intrusions from the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta are mylonitised.
4.2. Geochronology
4.2.1. Cordillera Real of Ecuador and Cordillera Central of Colombia
Early attempts to date the Permo-Triassic crystalline rocks utilised
the K/Ar and Rb/Sr methods (e.g. Feininger et al., 1972; Hall et al.,
1972 McCourt et al., 1984; Restrepo et al., 1991; Litherland et al.,
1994; Ordoñez and Pimentel, 2002), resulting in a large scatter of ages
spanning between the Permian–Tertiary due to variable degrees of
daughter isotope loss. This review of geochronological work is restricted
to more accurate and peer-reviewed measurements of the crystallisation
ages of granitoids and mafic intrusions, which have been provided by
numerous concordant zircon and few monazite U-Pb dates (Table 1),
obtained using TIMS, SHRIMP and LA-ICPMS. Unless otherwise stated,
the LA-ICPMS and SHRIMP dates that are reported here were obtained
from the rims of zircons, and are considered to date either the most
recent phase of magmatic crystallisation or the most recent metamor-
phic event that crystallised zircon.
Fourteen metagranites and migmatites of the Tres Lagunas and
Sabanilla units in the Cordillera Real and Amotape Complex of
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
5
Ecuador yield concordant zircon and monazite U-Pb dates ranging
between 207.6 ± 9.2 Ma and 247.2 ± 4.3 Ma (Figs. 2 and 3a; Table 1;
Litherland et al., 1994; Aspden et al., 1995; Chew et al., 2008; Riel
et al., 2013; Cochrane et al., 2014a). These dates overlap with concor-
dant zircon U-Pb dates obtained from twenty six gneissic granites and
pegmatites exposed in the Cordillera Central, Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta and the Guajira Peninsula in Colombia, which range between
222 ± 10 Ma and 288.1 ± 4.5 Ma (Vinasco et al., 2006; Cardona et al.,
2010; Montes et al., 2010; Weber et al., 2010; Villagómez et al., 2011;
Restrepo et al., 2011; Cochrane et al., 2014a; Figs. 2 and 3a). A majority
of these crystalline rocks are Triassic, although six rocks from northern
Colombia yield Permian ages. Ordonez-Carmona et al. (2001) report
a Sm-Nd whole rock–garnet isochron date of 226 ± 17 Ma from a
granulite in the Tahamí Terrane, which they interpret as a cooling age
following peak metamorphism. Multi-phase, plateau 40Ar/39Ar dates
(Table 1) from Triassic granites and migmatites in Colombia and
Ecuador (Spikings et al., 2001; Vinasco et al., 2006; Cochrane et al.,
2014a) are younger than the U-Pb dates obtained from the same rocks,
and Triassic dates span between 213.7 ± 0.9 Ma and 243 ± 4 Ma
(Table 1). The 40Ar/39Ar dates reflect the time of cooling of each rock
through mineral-specific argon partial retention zones (i.e. 550–300 °C;
hornblende, muscovite and biotite) subsequent to crystallisation and
metamorphic retrogression.
Concordant zircon U-Pb dates of amphibolites and a plagiogranite
from the Cordillera Real and Cordillera Central range between
216.6 ± 0.4 Ma and 243 ± 4 Ma (Fig. 3d; Noble et al., 1997; Vinasco
et al., 2006; Martínez, 2007; Cochrane et al., 2014a). Within Ecuador,
these are exposed as dykes and sills (e.g. the Piedras and Monte Olivo
units; Fig. 2), whereas they are more massive in the Tahamí Terrane of
the Cordillera Central. The youngest of these ages was obtained from a
plagiogranite that formed by hydrothermal metamorphism of the
Aburrá Ophiolite in northern Colombia, and thus is a minimum age for
the ophiolite (Martínez, 2007).
A majority of U-Pb dates of zircons extracted from meta-granites
and migmatites range between 240 and 230 Ma (Fig. 3a, d), and a com-
parison with latitude (Fig. 3d) does not reveal any trends for the Triassic
period, with the exception of a possible increase in age in far northern
Colombia within the Guajira Peninsula. Permian ages are restricted to
exposures in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and faulted blocks in
the region of the Ibagué Fault (Fig. 2). This may reflect exposure, or per-
haps approximate the primary distribution of Permian magmatic
intrusions.
Some concordant 206Pb/238U dates determined by in-situ methods
were also obtained from the cores of zircon grains that were identified
using cathodoluminescence. A frequency analysis of the distribution of
these older dates from the granitoids and migmatitic leucosomes yields
broad peaks at 420–580 Ma and 950–1200 Ma (Fig. 3b), which are the
ages of protolith rocks and inherited grains. These age peaks are typical
of the distribution of dates obtained from detrital zircons from most
Palaeozoic terranes along western South America (e.g. Chew et al.,
2007). The younger age group broadly corresponds with the age of the
Famatinian Arc, the Braziliano Orogeny and the timing of rifting during
the fragmentation of Rodinia. The Famatinian arc (~ 510–415 Ma;
E.g. see zircon U-Pb ages presented in Pankhurst et al., 2000; Cardona
et al., 2007; Chew et al., 2007; Bahlburg et al., 2009; Mišković et al.,
2009; Villagómez et al., 2011; Van der Lelij, 2013) formed during the
subduction of Pacific lithosphere beneath western South America sub-
sequent to the fragmentation of Rodinia, and has been recorded in
Venezuela, Colombia, Peru and Argentina (see previous citations).
Inherited zircons with U-Pb dates spanning the 450–650 Ma range
also occur in Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Amazon
Foreland Basin in Ecuador (Martin-Gombojav and Winkler;, 2008),
although intrusions of the Famatinian arc have not been recorded in
Ecuador, and within Colombia they are only recorded within the north-
ern Cordillera Central (440–470 Ma; La Miel orthogneiss; Villagómez
et al., 2011), Quetame, Floresta and Santander massifs (Horton et al.,
6 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Table 1
Summary of data collected from Permo-Triassic rocks of Ecuador and Colombia.
206
Sample Unit Lithology Latitude N-S d°m's'' Longitude W d°m's'' Pb/238U age ± 2σ (Ma) MSWD 40
Ar/39Ar age ± 2σ (Ma)

S-type granites and migmatitic leucosomes

Ecuador
Eastern Cordillera
09RC25 Tr. Lagunas metagranite S 1° 23' 51" 78° 21' 15" 233.7 ± 0.8 1.1
09RC31 Tr. Lagunas metagranite S 0° 22' 33" 78° 08' 32" 234.4 ± 0.9 0.8
09RC42 Sabanilla metagranite S 4° 27' 43" 79° 08' 52" 247.2 ± 4.3 3.0
09RC53 Tr. Lagunas metagranite S 3° 9' 24" 78° 48' 45" 231.0 ± 1.9 2.1
09RC44 Sabanilla paragneiss S 4° 29' 02" 79° 08' 55"
09RC45 Sabanilla Paragneiss S 3° 58' 41" 79° 01' 15"
09RC56 Tr. Lagunas metagranite S 1° 23' 57" 78° 22' 08" 235.0 ± 1.5 3.0
11RC03 Agoyan fm. metagranite N 0° 23' 24" 77° 51' 44" 207.6 ± 9.2 1.9
Tres Lagunas Tr. Lagunas granite 227.3 ± 2.2
Amotape Complex
09RC40 Moromoro migmatite S 3° 42' 16" 79° 51' 07" 237.7 ± 5.2 4.6 214.6 ± 0.9m
VI-08-12 La Bocana migmatite 226.0 ± 1.3⁎
PU-08-10 La Bocana migmatite S 3° 42' 58" 80° 03' 18" 223.2 ± 2.2⁎
AV-08-31 La Bocana migmatite 229.3 ± 2.4
AV-08-28d La Bocana migmatite S 3° 40' 41" 79° 54' 14" 225.7 ± 6.5
Moromoro Moromoro granite 227.5 ± 0.8⁎
Colombia
Central Cordillera
10RC04 Cajamarca metagranite N 4° 19' 24" 75° 12' 07" 277.6 ± 1.6 1.2
10RC40 Cajamarca metagranite N 5° 53' 13" 75° 25' 28" 236.1 ± 3.3 3.7 221.8 ± 1.0m
10RC41 Cajamarca metagranite N 6° 01' 08" 75° 07' 28" 234.1 ± 1.2 1.2
10RC42 Cajamarca metagranite N 5° 59' 17" 74° 55' 37" 244.6 ± 2.4 2.3
10RC43 Cajamarca metagranite N 5° 58' 34" 74° 54' 02" 245.0 ± 2.0 0.6 213.7 ± 0.9m
10RC53 Cajamarca metagranite N 7° 00' 56" 75° 22' 28" 236.4 ± 1.8 3.0
10RC66 Cajamarca qtz-Schist N 5° 08' 20" 75° 09' 47"
10RC69 Cajamarca metagranite N 5° 09' 27" 75° 07' 57" 255.7 ± 1.5 1.2
10RC71 Cajamarca pegmatite N 5° 07' 34" 74° 54' 38" 236.0 ± 0.6 0.9
DV65 Cajamarca metagranite N 5° 59' 16" 74° 55' 34" 240.9 ± 1.5 0.6
DV82 Cajamarca metagranite N 4° 17' 16" 75° 13' 59" 275.8 ± 1.5 3.0
DV02 Cajamarca paragneiss N 4° 46' 42" 74° 57' 54" 238–582
DV18 Cajamarca gneiss N 4° 28' 19" 75° 33' 18" 236.2 ± 6.3 0.6
DV19 Cajamarca quartzite N 4° 28' 19" 75° 33' 18" 231–1163
Abejorral Abejorral gneiss 250 ± 10#
Palmitas Palmitas gneiss 240 ± 4#
Amaga Amaga granite 227.6 ± 4.5 1.4
La Honda La Honda granite 218.7 ± 0.3b
El Buey El Buey granite 219.3 ± 0.3m
Manizales Manizales granite 229.7 ± 0.5h
GSI1 Santa Isabel gneiss N 6° 57' 34" 74° 45' 13" 226.7 ± 1.6 1.2
GN1 Nechi gneiss N 8° 10' 13" 74° 46' 55" 236.4 ± 6.6 2.1
PALM-1 Palmas migmatite N 6° 09' 14" 75° 32' 36" 222 ± 10#
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
A14 St. M. mylonite granite 288.1 ± 4.5 1.0
A48 St. M. mylonite granite 276.5 ± 5.1 1.8
EAM-12-05 St. M. mylonite granite 264.9 ± 4.0 0.0
Plato-San Jorge Basin
Cicuco-2a unknown granite N 9° 16' 25" 74° 38' 53" 241.6 ± 3.9 3.9
Cicuco-3 unknown granite N 9° 17' 39" 74° 38' 52" 241.6 ± 3.9 6.0
Lobita 1 unknown granite N 9° 18' 30" 74° 41' 31" 239.6 ± 2.9 0.6
Guajira Peninsular
AVO-03 Uray Gneiss gneiss 247.6 ± 4.1 0.5
AVO-06 Uray Gneiss gneiss 245.6 ± 3.9 0.5
Amphibolites
Ecuador
10RC28 Chinchina amphibolite N 5° 03' 05" 75° 34' 25" 224.7 ± 1.9 0.8
11RC04 Monte Olivo amphibolite N 0° 23' 24" 77° 51' 44"
11RC10 Monte Olivo amphibolite S 1° 23' 56" 78° 22' 52" 231.9 ± 3.2 1.6
11RC14 Piedras amphibolite S 3° 39' 9" 79° 50' 35" 222.7 ± 6.3 1.9
JR148 Piedras amphibolite nr nr 221 ± 17.0
Colombia
10RC39 Santa Elena amphibolite N 5° 54' 06" 75° 24' 31"
10RC39A Santa Elena amphibolite N 5° 53' 52" 75° 24' 37" 239.7 ± 2.4 1.9
10RC50 Tr. Intrusive amphibolite N 6° 09' 26" 75° 44' 31"
AC32B El Picacho plagiogranite 216.6 ± 0.4 0.7
CMK040A El Picacho meta-gabbro
Padua Padua amphibolite 243 ± 4h
Abbreviations: b (biotite), h (hornblende), m (muscovite), wr (whole rock); A/CNK (Molecular Al2O3/CaO + Na2O + K20); (La/Yb)n (normalized to N-MORB)
87
Sr/86Sr 2 s.d. (ext. reproducibility) = 0.0007%; 143Nd/144Nd = b0.0005%; 206Pb/204Pb = 0.12 %.
Dates acquired by LA-ICPMS (Villagómez et al., 2011; Cochrane et al., 2014a), TIMS (Litherland et al., 1994; Aspden et al., 1995), SHRIMP (Vinasco et al., 2006; Restrepo et al., 2011).
⁎Monazite date.
#Date obtained from the youngest zircon when a large spread of zircon ages were obtained due to xenocrystic contamination.

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 7

εHf zircon ± 2σ εNd w.r ± 2σ (87Sr/86Sr)i wr ± 2σ (206Pb/204Pb)i wr ± 2σ δ18O (‰) ± 2σ Th/U zircon ± 2σ A/CNK wr (La/Yb)n wr Publication

10.5 to −3.2 15.3 ± 0.2 0.26 ± 0.1 1.99 13.24 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−11.0 to +3.2 15.1 ± 0.2 0.04 ± 0.1 1.40 13.50 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−5.3 to −0.5 16.8 ± 0.2 0.69 ± 0.5 1.23 10.58 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−2.63 ± 0.43 0.24 ± 0.1 1.19 12.68 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
1.37 4.65 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−6.0 to +1.7 12.1 ± 0.2 0.14 ± 0.1 2.24 6.92 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−16.3 to −9.0 15.1 ± 0.2 0.01 ± 0.0 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
Litherland et al. (1994)

−7.5 to +0.8 0.42 ± 0.5 2.38 11.36 Cochrane (2013)

Riel et al. (2013)
1.85 Riel et al. (2013)
0.13 Riel et al. (2013)
0.10 1.50 Riel et al. (2013)
Aspden et al. (1995)

1.96 ± 0.31 13.6 ± 0.2 1.27 ± 0.6 1.18 16.23 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−6.57 ± 0.66 17.4 ± 0.2 0.08 ± 0.1 1.73 8.19 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−9.5 to −0.2 13.1 ± 0.2 0.23 ± 0.1 1.27 11.49 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−8.2 to +1.4 13.1 ± 0.2 0.35 ± 0.1 1.33 12.00 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−11.7 to −3.1 0.42 ± 0.4 1.36 15.70 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−5.9 to +3.1 15.9 ± 0.2 0.30 ± 0.2 1.56 14.27 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
1.84 12.63 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−3.16 ± 0.7 15.6 ± 0.2 1.10 ± 0.2 1.70 12.81 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−6.0 to +0.4 0.31 ± 0.1 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−5.9 to +0.7 0.26 ± 0.2 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−3.7 to +0.3 0.66 ± 0.1 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
Villagómez et al. (2011)
Villagómez et al. (2011)
Villagómez et al. (2011)
0.82 Vinasco et al. (2006)
0.25 Vinasco et al. (2006)
0.30 Vinasco et al. (2006)
Vinasco et al. (2006)
Vinasco et al. (2006)
Vinasco et al. (2006)
0.19 Restrepo et al. (2011)
0.23 Restrepo et al. (2011)
0.24 Restrepo et al. (2011)

0.73 Cardona et al. (2010)

0.57 Cardona et al. (2010)
Cardona et al. (2010)

nr Montes et al. (2010)

nr Montes et al. (2010)
nr Montes et al. (2010)

0.20 Weber et al. (2010)

0.59 Weber et al. (2010)

13.31 ± 0.25 9.83 0.70354 17.520938 0.20 ± 0.1 0.66 1.41 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
0.61 2.59 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
−6.3 to +11.2 5.03 0.71470 18.707878 0.19 ± 0.1 0.63 1.71 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
15.00 ± 0.29 9.79 0.70271 17.754038 0.32 ± 0.2 0.61 0.81 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
0.52 Noble et al. (1997)

8.98 0.70430 18.119529 0.82 2.34 Cochrane et al. (2014a)

−4.8 to +10.0 4.13 0.70535 18.298843 0.62 2.02 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
10.18 0.70243 16.607997 0.50 0.49 Cochrane et al. (2014a)
3.4 0.70448 0.97 8.00 Martínez (2007)
8.4 0.61 0.64 Martínez (2007)
Vinasco et al. (2006)

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 8
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the

Table 2
Summary of geochronological data collected from Jurassic and Early Cretaceous rocks of the cordilleras of Ecuador and Colombia.
206
Sample Unit Lithology Latitude N-S Longitude W Pb/238U MSWD 40
Ar/39Ar Lu-Hf εHf zircon ± 2σ εNdi w.r ± 2σ (87Sr/86Sr)i Th/U A/ (La/Yb) Publication
d°m's'' d°m's'' age ± 2σ (Ma) (U/Pb) age ± 2σ (Ma) age ± 2σ (MSWD) wr ± 2σ zircon CNK n wr
(Ma), wr
(MSWD)

Jurassic intrusions and volcanic rocks

Ecuador
Eastern Cordillera
09RC57 Azafrán Granodiorite S01° 14' 37" 78° 09' 59" 143.5 ± 1.3 2.2 9.25 ± 0.54(3.6) 5.04 1.07 18.05 Cochrane (2013)
09RC59 Azafrán Monzogranite S01° 14' 37" 78° 09' 27" 140.7 ± 0.7 1.6 8.70 ± 0.37(2.1) 4.61 1.08 22.21 Cochrane (2013)
09RC65 Rosa Florida Quartz diorite N00° 15' 4.0" 77° 19' 23" 182.4 ± 0.6 0.7 2.84 ± 0.24(1.5) 0.44 0.9 14.79 Cochrane (2013)
09RC22 Abitagua Granite S01° 14' 47" 78° 06' 48" 174.0 ± 1.2 1.8 4.74 ± 0.26(0.9) 1.78 1.09 18.93 Cochrane (2013)
09RC60 Abitagua Granodiorite S00° 24' 33" 77° 28' 51" 173.0 ± 1.3 2.8 4.02 ± 0.60(4.1) 1.27 1.07 32.17 Cochrane (2013)
09RC61 Abitagua Monzogranite S00° 22' 19" 77° 29' 45" 169.8 ± 1.1 2 4.89 ± 0.23(1.6) 1.9 1.11 19.59 Cochrane (2013)
09RC43 Zamora Granodiorite S04° 24' 0.0" 79° 04' 49" 131.6 ± 1.1 0.4 6.25 ± 0.88(10) 3.28 1.75 16.82 Cochrane (2013)

R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

09RC46 Zamora Granodiorite S03° 34' 43" 78° 30' 59" 178.1 ± 1.4 3 6.23 ± 0.23(0.8) 2.84 1.06 19.57 Cochrane (2013)
101E Zamora Granodiorite S03° 12' 15" 78° 24' 05" 160.5 ± 1.7h Chiaradia
et al. (2009)
138 Zamora Granodiorite S03° 11' 18" 78° 25' 08" 153.8 ± 1.5h Chiaradia
et al. (2009)
DTR64/ Porphyry Qtz diorite S04° 01' 28" 78° 47' 25" 145.4 ± 0.21 0.46 Chiaradia
69/184 et al. (2009)
MI90 Misahualli Andesite 172.3 ± 2.1h 0.88 16.99 Romeuf et al.
(1995)
Colombia
Central Cordillera
DV04 Ibagué Diorite N04° 47' 00.2" 74° 58' 31.4" 159.2 ± 5.2h Villagómez et al.
(2011)
h
DV05 Ibagué Granodiorite N04° 24' 27.7" 75° 16' 05.3" 166.0 ± 10.0 0.29 153.1 ± 2.0 Villagómez et al.
(2011)
DV06 Ibagué Granite N04° 24' 08.9" 75° 17' 40.3" 182.6 ± 2.4h Villagómez et al.
(2011)
DV07 Ibagué Granite N0°4 24' 25.4" 75° 18' 04.5" 148.9 ± 3.3h Villagómez et al.
(2011)
DV09 Ibagué Granite N04° 24' 29.7" 75° 18' 11.8" 159.6 ± 2.4 0.63 151.8 ± 0.9b Villagómez et al.
(2011)
DV129 Unnamed Granodiorite N01° 10' 02.5" 76° 51' 32.7" 175.8 ± 1.7 1.3 −1.04 ± 0.20(1.6) Cochrane (2013)
DV132 Saldana Agglomerate N01° 07' 55.5" 76° 50' 54.4" 179.0 ± 2.0 1.6 −2.90 ± 1.70(48) Cochrane (2013)
DV137 Unnamed Granite N01° 04' 55.4" 76° 48' 34.1" 173.6 ± 1.5 2.5 −1.86 ± 0.51(3.5) Cochrane (2013)
DV138 Saldana Rhyolite N01° 06' 45.0" 76° 50' 18.6" 181.5 ± 1.6 3 −0.01 ± 0.43(2.3) Cochrane (2013)
10RC02 Ibagué Granite N04° 10' 39" 75° 07' 19" 164.4 ± 1.1 0.8 4.47 ± 0.26(1.1) 1.60 1.07 23.28 Cochrane (2013)
10RC06 Ibagué Granite N04° 28' 12" 74° 35' 07" 168.8 ± 0.7 2.5 2.68 ± 0.19(1.5) 0.32 1.07 Cochrane (2013)
10RC08 Ibagué Granodiorite N04° 14' 48" 75° 09' 47" 156.5 ± 1.1 0.5 7.65 ± 0.24(1.0) 3.86 1.04 22.47 Cochrane (2013)
10RC10 Ibagué Granite N04° 14' 31" 75° 10' 09" 155.7 ± 2.2 3.4 7.44 ± 0.23(1.4) 3.71 1.03 28.45 Cochrane (2013)
10RC78 Segovia Monzogranite N06° 17' 53" 74° 18' 0" 188.9 ± 2.0 1.5 −2.94 ± 0.31(1.5) −3.69 1.00 8.77 Cochrane (2013)
10RC03 Saldana Rhyodacite N04° 10' 39" 75° 07' 19" 158.5 ± 1.0 1.9 3.76 ± 0.45(2.9) 1.12 1.04 18.35 Cochrane (2013)
10RC07 Saldana Qtz porphyry N04° 28' 12" 74° 35' 06" 146.8 ± 1.5 0.8 8.19 ± 0.24(1.3) 4.24 1.11 10.88 Cochrane (2013)
CB0007A Las Minas Monzodiorite N02° 14' 37.5" 75° 48' 22.2" 187.4 ± 2.3 0.62 3.32 0.89 12.66 Bustamante et al.
(2010)
CB0010 Ibagué Granite N02° 24' 04.2" 75° 53' 46.8" 189.1 ± 2.9 0.59 4.32 0.87 13.35 Bustamante et al.
(2010)
Garzón Massif
CB0001 Garzón Granite N02° 11' 28.8" 75° 35' 19.2" 173.9 ± 1.6 1.5 5.32 Bustamante et al.
(2010)
CB0005 Altamira Monzogranite N02° 02' 24.9" 75° 45' 34.8" 179.0 ± 2.2 0.99 2.32 0.91 30.11 Bustamante et al.
(2010)
 Santander Massif
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the

10VDL05 Corcova Granodiorite N07° 06' 03" 73° 00' 36" 193.8 ± 1.8 2.2 −5.47 ± 0.56 −4.98 ± 0.14 0.7088 0.77 1.09 29.10 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL22 Pescadero Granodiorite N06° 49' 48" 72° 59' 27" 199.1 ± 1.3 2.5 −4.72 ± 0.21 −4.44 ± 0.16 0.7082 0.88 1.06 27.25 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL28 Onzaga Granodiorite N06° 22' 31" 72° 49' 06" 200.4 ± 0.7 1.3 −5.21 ± 0.38 0.87 1.01 39.13 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL31 Onzaga Granodiorote N06° 24' 28" 72° 49' 08" 201.0 ± 0.9 2.9 −5.93 ± 0.55 0.79 1.06 26.52 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL32 Mogotes Granodiorite N06° 25' 22" 72° 49' 29" 198.0 ± 0.8 1.3 −6.08 ± 0.35 0.81 1.04 32.65 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL35 Rio Surata Diorite N07° 10' 22" 73° 05' 08" 201.1 ± 1.4 1.9 −5.75 ± 0.57 1.17 1.11 15.73 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL39 Pegmatite N07° 10' 46" 72° 59' 48" 208.8 ± 1.2 2.2 −6.55 ± 0.85 −13.06 ± 3.55 0.7216 0.03 1.05 22.62 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL52 Paramo Rico Tonalite N07° 13' 54" 72° 53' 54" 199.8 ± 1.2 1.2 −4.41 ± 0.20 0.97 1.12 6.23 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL54 Ocana Granite N08° 09' 45" 73° 17' 59" 195.8 ± 1.5 1.2 −5.01 ± 0.39 0.80 1.23 2.25 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL59 Rio Negro Tonalite N07° 17' 13" 73° 08' 46" 196.0 ± 1.1 1.5 −6.11 ± 0.43 1.29 1.05 32.12 Van der Lelij
(2013)
10VDL61 Rio Surata Granodiorite N07° 09' 59" 73° 05' 17" 200.0 ± 1.5 1.2 −5.48 ± 0.55 −7.20 ± 0.09 0.7167 1.13 1.13 15.15 Van der Lelij
(2013)

R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Early Cretaceous metasedimentary, volcanic and H-MP/LT metamorphic rocks
Ecuador
Eastern Cordillera and the Amotape Complex
09RC12 Alao-Paute Sandstone S02° 03' 26.0" 78° 36' 39.6" 163.7 ± 1.6max Cochrane (2013)
11RC13 Upano Greenschist S03° 14' 54" 78° 41' 39" 121.0 ± 0.8 1.4 0.84 Cochrane (2013)
09RC63 Chinguál Monzogranite N 00° 22' 51" 77° 17' 39" 125.3 ± 0.9 2.8 8.15 ± 0.45(3.0) 4.24 1.05 11.2 Cochrane (2013)
SEC16-1 Raspas Blueschist S03° 35' 40.6" 79° 55' 30.5" 126.4 ± 4.0 0.81 7.85 John et al. (2010)
(4.1)
SEC47-4 Raspas Metapelite 129.9 ± 5.6 John et al. (2010)
(2.0)
P
Raspas Metapelite 132 ± 5 Feininger (1980)
Raspas Metapelite 123.9 ± 1.4P Gabriele
(2002)
Raspas Metapelite 129.3 ± 1.3P Gabriele (2002)
09PR47 Peltetec Metabasalt 134.3 ± 12.8Pl 1.14 0.48 2.87 This study
04PR48 Peltetec Gabbro 134.7 ± 0.9Pl 0.56 3.12 This study
Colombia
Central Cordillera
DV176 Quebradagrande Diorite N05° 27 '16.0'' 75° 28' 28.2'' 112.9 ± 0.8 2.3 12.11 ± 0.17(1.4) 1.13 32.81 Cochrane (2013)
DV20 Quebradagrande Tuff N04° 29' 27.8" 75° 34' 02.0" 114.3 ± 3.8 2.00 Villagómez et al.
(2011)
10RC27 Quebradagrande Sandstone N05° 03' 13.3" 75° 34' 04.6" 149.2 ± 6.1max Cochrane (2013)
DV89b Arquía Amphibolite N04° 16' 24.7" 75° 47' 22.2" 112.0 ± 3.7h Villagómez et al.
(2011)
190B Barragán Schist 120.7 ± 0.3m Bustamante et al.
(2012)
Eastern Cordillera
Pa5 Pacho Gabbro N05° 32' 34.4" 74° 09' 10.7" 136.0 ± 0.4h 3 0.70621 Vásques et al.
(2010)
h
Pj7 Pajarito Gabbro N05° 18' 29.3" 72° 42' 7.7" 120.5 ± 0.6 5.4 0.70413 Vásques et al.
(2010)

Abbreviations: b (biotite), h (hornblende), m (muscovite), max (indicates maximum stratigraphic age), P (phengite), Pl (plagioclase); A/CNK (Molecular Al2O3/CaO + Na2O + K20); (La/Yb)n (normalized to N-MORB).
U-Pb zircon dates acquired by LA-ICPMS (Villagómez et al., 2011; Cochrane, 2013; Van der Lelij, 2013), TIMS Chiaradia et al. (2009).
The 40Ar/30Ar date of Bustamante et al. (2012) does not necessarily date the timing of crystallisation of muscovite.
The Lu-Hf dates are isochron dates obtained from more multiple garnet fractions, pyroxene, amphibole and whole rock.

9
10 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
2010; Van der Lelij, 2013). Field relationships (Litherland et al., 1994)
suggest that the mesosomal rocks of the Triassic migmatites and
S-type granites within Ecuador are considered to be sedimentary rocks
of the Palaeozoic, fossil bearing Chiguinda and Isimanchi units of the
Cordillera Real (Fig. 2). These sparsely studied sequences yield a detrital
zircon U-Pb age spectrum that has the same age peaks (Fig. 3c; Chew
et al., 2008), although the tectonic setting within which these sequences
were deposited is undetermined. The Brasiliano metamorphic belts
(Cordani et al., 2003) formed during the late Neoproterozoic amalgam-
ation of Gondwana, and may have supplied some detritus to western
South America. However, these belts are located in eastern South
America, and a lack of evidence for detritus being sourced from the
intervening Amazonia Craton suggests that the Brasiliano Orogenic
belts were not a major source region (Chew et al., 2008). Finally,
all magmatism associated with Neoproterozoic extension is mafic
(e.g. the Puncoviscana fold belt in northwestern Argentina; Omarini
et al., 1999), which led Chew et al. (2008) to suggest that it is unlikely
that these rocks were a major contributor of zircons to Palaeozoic
sequences along western South America.
4.2.2. Comparison with the ages of Permian and Triassic rocks in Venezuela
and Peru
Van der Lelij (2013) report concordant zircon U-Pb dates (LA-
ICPMS) from four granitoid intrusions and a dacitic lava from the Merida
Andes of Venezuela (Fig. 1). These dates range between 202.0 ± 1.8 Ma
(La Quinta Fm.) and 243.5 ± 3.4 Ma, and overlap with dates obtained
from Colombia and Ecuador (Fig. 3d). No Permian concordant zircon
U-Pb dates have been reported from the Merida Andes. Rhyolites and
granites of the El Baul massif in Venezuela yield zircon U-Pb dates that
span between 283.3 ± 2.5 Ma and 291.1 ± 3.1 Ma (Viscarret et al.,
2009), and a zircon U-Pb age of 272.2 ± 2.6 was obtained from a granitic
intrusion in the Paragauana Peninsula (Van der Lelij, 2013).
Voluminous, partly migmatised Late Permian–Triassic magmatic
intrusions are exposed throughout the southern and central Eastern
Cordillera of Peru (Mišković et al., 2009). Zircon U-Pb dates range
between 223 and 285 Ma (Fig. 3d; Mišković et al., 2009; Reitsma, 2012),
with a peak at 240–260 Ma. The crystallisation ages show a southward
younging trend, and the oldest plutons south of 11.5°S are younger than
245 Ma. The Mitu Group of the central and southern Eastern Cordillera
of Peru hosts abundant Triassic sedimentary and volcanic sequences.
Volcanic tuffs in the south yield concordant zircon U-Pb (LA-ICPMS)
dates ranging between 234.3 ± 0.3 Ma and 238.7 ± 1.8 Ma (Mišković
et al., 2009; Reitsma, 2012), and Chew et al. (2005) report a zircon
U-Pb age of 219.7 ± 1.8 Ma from a rhyolite of the Mitu Group in central
Peru. Detrital zircons extracted from oxidised terrigeneous sedimentary
rocks of the Mitu Group yield minimum crystallisation dates ranging
between 217.2 ± 4.1 Ma and 250.7 ± 4.9 Ma, which constrain their
maximum stratigraphic ages (Reitsma, 2012). Several authors propose
that the Mitu Group was deposited within a rift (Mégard, 1978;
Laubacher et al., 1988; Reitsma, 2012), and Reitsma (2012) suggests
that the rift formed in a back-arc basin setting.
Romero et al. (2013) recently published a concordant zircon U-Pb
age of 243 ± 0.1 Ma from a basalt exposed in Macabí Island offshore
northern Peru (~8°S).
4.3. Geochemistry of the granites and migmatites
4.3.1. Cordillera Real of Ecuador and Cordillera Central of Colombia
Major oxide, trace element and Rare Earth Element (REE) abun-
dances and oxygen isotope compositions (Table 1) have been obtained
from Permian and Triassic granites and migmatitic leucosomes from
Colombia (Vinasco et al., 2006; Martínez, 2007; Cardona et al., 2010)
and Ecuador (Litherland et al., 1994; Cochrane et al., 2014a). These
rocks span the boundaries of calcic and alkali-calcic differentiation
trends on the modified alkali-lime index of Peacock (1931; Fig. 4a),
with a compositional range of 62–78 wt% SiO2. The same rocks plot
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
within the high-K calc-alkaline and calc-alkaline fields when comparing
SiO2 with K2O (Fig. 5a). The Triassic anatectites have strongly pera-
luminous Aluminium Saturation Indices (ASI 0.97–2.38; calculated
using Maniar and Piccoli, 1989; Fig. 4b), while the Permian granitoids
tend to cluster at slightly lower peraluminous and mildly metaluminous
values (ASI 0.92–1.73, with a majority b 1.1). The Triassic anatectites
yield elevated δ18O quartz (Fig. 4c), which along with their high ASI in-
dices places these granites and leucosomes within the “S-type granite”
field of Chappell and White (1974) and Harris et al. (1997). N-MORB
normalized trace element abundances of Triassic granitoids from
Ecuador and Colombia are identical (Fig. 4d), suggesting that there are
no significant along-strike changes in the fractionation and assimilation
history of these high-SiO2 melts. The trace elements are enriched in
Light Ion Lithophile Elements (LILE), and negative Nb and Ta anomalies
are present in both the Permian and Triassic granitoids (Fig. 4e, f), sug-
gesting that a subduction-derived component was incorporated into
these rocks. The Triassic granitoids yield slight negative Ba, Eu, Sr and
Ti anomalies, which suggest that plagioclase and Fe-Ti oxides have frac-
tionated, and a positive Pb anomaly that may be derived from a
protolith within the continental crust. In contrast, the Permian granites
do not yield Ba, Eu and Sr anomalies, although they do have negative Ti
anomalies, suggesting that they evolved via a different fractionation
scheme. Trace element concentrations normalized to the composition
of average upper continental crust (Taylor and McLennan, 1995) plot
close to unity, corroborating the S-type character of these rocks
(Fig. 4f). REE abundances in the Triassic granites and leucosomes nor-
malized to N-MORB reveal light-REE enrichment with (La/Yb)n ranging
between 2.3 and 19.8, with a mildly positive correlation with 206Pb-238U
crystallisation age (Fig. 4h). (La/Yb)n ratios from Permian granites yield
a larger range of 8.8–55.1, and the REE concentrations have a larger
range relative to N-MORB, compared to the Triassic rocks (Fig. 4g).
4.3.2. Comparison with Permian and Triassic rocks in Venezuela and Peru
Migmatised granitoids within the Eastern Cordillera of Peru that
crystallised during 285–223 Ma are high-SiO2 granites, mildly meta-
luminous to peraluminous (ASI 0.9–1.1; Fig. 4b), and yield K2O/Na2O
ratios that mainly range between 0.8 and 1.2 (Mišković et al., 2009).
Mišković et al. (2009) report U-Pb zircon ages from monzogranites
in southern Peru (Cordillera de Carabaya) which range between 190
and 216 Ma. These intrusions are geochemically distinct from the
older Permo-Triassic group (223–285 Ma) because they are strongly
peraluminous (ASI 0.98–1.42; Fig. 4b), and yield anomalously high
whole rock K2O/Na2O ratios (0.55–2.22, with a majority N 1.20). Geo-
chemically, the Permian and Triassic migmatites and granites of the
Cordillera Real of Ecuador and the Cordillera Central of Colombia
(K2O/Na2O 0.77–2.93; ASI 0.92–2.38) resemble the Late Triassic granites
of the Eastern Cordillera of Peru. Mišković et al. (2009) combined these
major element characteristics with iron oxide number, SiO2 (e.g. Frost
et al., 2001) and trace element abundances, to classify the Permo-
Triassic (285–223 Ma) and Late Triassic plutons as late- to post-
orogenic.
The shift from a well characterised, calc-alkaline Carboniferous arc in
Peru to Permian post-tectonic alkali feldspar granites (Mišković et al.,
2009) and ultimately alkaline bimodal volcanic rocks of the Mitu
Group is characteristic of lithospheric thinning (e.g. Xu et al., 2007).
Mišković et al. (2009) suggest that the Permo-Triassic granitoids
(223–285 Ma) formed by dehydration melting of the lower crust during
basaltic underplating (e.g. Sisson et al., 2005), which was driven by de-
compression subsequent to break-off of the Carboniferous slab. Granit-
oid intrusions and rift-related magmatism (Dalmayrac et al., 1980)
initiated in the Middle Triassic, forming the Mitu Rift and bimodal volca-
nic rocks of the Mitu Group (Reitsma, 2012). Finally, the highly
peraluminous Late Triassic granites formed by melting of the fertile up-
permost crust, consisting of an igneous protolith and a substantial sed-
imentary component.
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
4.4. Geochemistry of the amphibolites
A comparison of the abundance of K2O and SiO2 (Fig. 5a) in all of the
magmatic rocks that yield Triassic ages reveals the bimodal nature of
magmatism within northwestern South America as part of Pangaea be-
tween 216.6 ± 0.4 Ma and 243 ± 4 Ma (Fig. 3d). Amphibolitic dykes and
massive metagabbros from the Cordillera Real and Amotape Complex of
Ecuador (Chinchina, Monte Olivo and Piedras units) and the Cordillera
Central of Colombia (Santa Elena, Padua and Aburrá) yield low K2O
(b 0.5 wt%) relative to SiO2 (46–55 wt%), placing them within the tho-
leiitic field of Peccerillo and Taylor (1976; Fig. 5a). However, a compar-
ison of the immobile elements Th and Co (Fig. 5b) suggests that
amphibolitic dykes straddle the tholeiite and calc-alkaline fields, while
the massive metagabbros of the Aburrá Ophiolite plot in the tholeiite
field. These discrepancies suggest that the amphibolitic dykes may be
partially altered, although this was not visible in hand specimen or in
thin sections. The amphibolites and metagabbros have values of Zr/
TiO2 that are lower than 0.01 (Fig. 5c), placing them within the sub-
alkaline basalt field, implying that the tholeiitic nature is primary. The
amphibolitic dykes are enriched in Ti relative to V (Fig. 5d), and plot
in the MORB or back arc basin basalt (BABB) field of Shervais (1982).
However, the massive metagabbros of the Aburrá Ophiolite (El Picacho
metagabbros) that yield very low K2O abundances of 0.02–0.12 wt%
(Fig. 5a), plot closer to the arc field. LILE abundances within the
amphibolitic dykes from Colombia and Ecuador (Fig. 5e) are enriched
(up to ~100 times) relative to N-MORB and lack significant Nb and Ta
anomalies. The HFSE elements plot close to parity with N-MORB,
which is consistent with the tectonic discrimination plots. Similarly,
N-MORB normalised REE plots (Fig. 5f) for the amphibolitic dykes plot
close to MORB compositions, although the LREE are slightly enriched
with (La/Yb)n ratios varying between 0.59 and 3.16, while the massive
metagabbros of the Aburrá Ophiolite yield approximately flat REE pat-
terns that are slightly depleted relative to N-MORB. N-MORB normal-
ised La/Yb ratios from all of these rock sequences show a progressive
reduction with crystallisation age from 243 ± 4 Ma to 216.6 ± 0.4 Ma
(Fig. 5g). Finally, whole rock εNdi values for the amphibolitic dykes
and the metagabbros range between 3.40 and 10.18, and become
more juvenile with younger crystallisation ages (Fig. 5h). The most ju-
venile rocks are characteristic of MORB and BABB isotopic compositions.
A single amphibolite from the Monte Olivo unit in the Cordillera Real
of Ecuador yields a whole-rock 87Sr/86Sri of 0.7147 (Fig. 5i), which is ex-
tremely high relative to its 143Nd/144Ndi of 0.5126 and low La/Yb ratio of
1.71 (Cochrane et al., 2014a). This is consistent with low temperature
alteration, which has preferentially mobilized the LILE but had a mini-
mal effect on the REE.
4.5. Zircon Hf isotope geochemistry
Cochrane et al. (2014a) report Hf isotopic compositions from zircons
extracted from eighteen migmatitic leucosomes, more massive granit-
oids and amphibolitic dykes throughout the Cordillera Real of Ecuador
and the Cordillera Central of Colombia (Table 1). The zircons, which
have been dated by LA-ICP-MS (U-Pb), yield a large range of weighted
mean εHfi values of +15 and −20 (Fig. 6), which are consistent with
crustal recycling and the addition of new continental crust (Collins
et al., 2011; Cochrane et al., 2014a).
4.5.1. Zircon Hf isotope geochemistry of the granites and
migmatitic leucosomes
Single leucosomes of migmatites and peraluminous granites gener-
ally yield high, intra-sample variations (e.g. εHfi + 3 to − 11; Fig. 6a)
within coeval magmatic rims that surround variably aged xenocrystic
cores (Cochrane et al., 2014a), and within samples that lack older
cores. These variations are too large for magmatic zircons that
crystallised from a single, well-mixed source (e.g. Gerdes et al., 2002),
and Cochrane et al. (2014a) conclude that they are mainly derived
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
11
from multiple crustal sources, while some variation found in the
xenocrystic bearing zircons may be due to the fractionation of Hf iso-
topes between cores and overgrowths during melting (e.g. Gerdes and
Zeh, 2009). In contrast, a small proportion of granites yield εHfi (zircon)
values that statistically define a single population, suggesting that they
were derived from a distinct, homogeneous source. No correlation is
found between the εHfi values obtained from the rims of xenocryst-
bearing and xenocryst- free zircons, and crystallisation age, which is
not surprising given the heterogeneous nature of the source rocks with-
in the crust. εHfi values obtained from xenocrystic zircon cores (Fig. 6a)
span a large range and are representative of the sedimentary protoliths
that melted to form the anatectites. The large heterogeneity in εHfi cor-
roborates the large range in 238U/206Pb dates of the protoliths.
4.5.2. Zircon Hf isotope geochemistry of the amphibolites
Cochrane et al. (2014a) report εHfi (zircon) values from four am-
phibolites which show a negative correlation with crystallisation age
(Fig. 6b). The two older amphibolitic dykes (240–232 Ma) yield a
large range in εHfi, with juvenile values (7.4 to 10) obtained from
patchy or unzoned (cathodoluminescence) zircons, and crustal compo-
sitions (−3.6 to −4.8) from zircons that exhibit oscillatory zoning, sim-
ilar to the zircons extracted from the anatectites (Fig. 6c). The two
youngest amphibolites (225–223 Ma) define single populations of εHfi
(13.3–15.0) from unzoned zircons, which approach the depleted mantle
array. Crustal contamination of the mafic melts during emplacement
was an important process in the petrogenesis of the older amphibolites
prior to ~225 Ma. However, there is no evidence for the assimilation of
significant continental crust after ~225 Ma. This interpretation is sup-
ported by a negative correlation between εHfi (zircon) and (La/Yb)n,
(Fig. 6b) suggesting that the mafic dykes trend towards MORB compo-
sitions with a depleted mantle source, during 240–223 Ma.
4.5.3. Comparison with Zircon Hf isotope compositions in Peru
Hf isotopic compositions obtained from Permian and Triassic
peraluminous granitoids of the Eastern Cordillera of Peru yield no
clear trends with time, and εHft values range between 6 and − 8
(Fig. 6d; Mišković and Schaltegger, 2009). This range overlaps with
that obtained from Permian and Triassic granitoids of Ecuador and
Colombia, and individual, intra-sample spot analyses show a large
spread, reflecting the heterogeneity of the source rocks. Mean zircon
εHfi values from the Early and Late Triassic of 0.02 ± 1.56 and
−1.96 ± 1.56 suggest that this period was characterised by the addi-
tion of isotopically juvenile, mantle derived magmas, which were un-
derplating previously attenuated continental crust (Mišković and
Schaltegger, 2009). Calculated crustal Hf model ages for the granitoids
within the Eastern Cordillera of Peru range between 1.4 and 1.0 Ga
(Mišković and Schaltegger, 2009), suggesting that the source rocks
were basement that formed within the Sunsas Orogeny during the
amalgamation of Rodinia.
4.6. Thermal histories during the Triassic
Numerous K/Ar dates have been obtained from Palaeozoic and
Triassic magmatic rocks in the Cordillera Real of Ecuador (Litherland
et al., 1994) and the Cordillera Central of Colombia (Feininger et al.,
1972; Hall et al., 1972; McCourt et al., 1984; Aspden et al., 1987).
However, these dates cannot be unambiguously interpreted as
crystallisation ages given the potential for isotopic disturbance by
thermally activated diffusive loss and fluid assisted loss of the daughter
isotopes. Within Ecuador, muscovite, biotite and whole rock K/Ar dates
of the Tres Lagunas Granite and Sabanilla unit (migmatites) range
between 100 and 50 Ma (Litherland et al., 1994), revealing a clear
disturbance to the isotopic system. Unfortunately, we cannot extract
useful time–Temperature (t–T) information from these data because
the degree of daughter isotope loss cannot be quantified. Nevertheless,
12 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

76° 75° 74°

Jurassic
Metalluminous granitoids 236.4±6.6
(mainly granodiorite).
Continental arc intrusions 8°N
Triassic OPF
Peraluminous granites and migmatites
236.4±1.8
(e.g. Tres Lagunas Granite, Sabanilla Aburrá Ophiolite
Migmatite) 216.6±0.4 226.7±1.9
Amphibolites and ultramafic rocks 234.1±1.2
222±10*
(e.g. Piedras unit, Monte Olivo unit) Santa Elena
240±4* Amphibolites
244.6±2.4
Palaeozoic - Triassic 245.0±2.0*
227.6±4.5
Undifferentiated para- and 218.7±0.3 213.7±0.9
M
ortho-, schists and gneisses 219.3±0.3 240.9±1.5
(Ecuador: Agoyán, Chiguinda, Piuntza
239.7±2.4 227.6±4.5
units.
236.1±3.3 243±4

SJF
Colombia: Cajamara Unit)
221.8±1.0 255.7±1.5
U-Pb zircon, monazite 250±10*
244.6±2.4 236.0±0.6
LA-ICPMS, intrusions 238 - 2800
U-Pb zircon 224.7±1.9 I 220 - 600
277.3±3.0 IF
SHRIMP, intrusions Chinchina Stock Cajamarca Amphibolites
U-Pb zircon, LA-ICPMS, 236.2±6.3 229.7±0.5
233.7±4.8 - 2.6 Ga detrital zircons,
4°N
220 - 1200
metasedimentary rocks CAF
40Ar/39Ar plateau date
213.7±0.9 hornblende, muscovite,
biotite, intrusions 277.6±1.6 275.8±1.5
Also dated by apatite
247.2±4.3*
U-Pb for t-T analysis
78°W
City
2°N
Colombia
0 100 km
Monte Olivo
Amphibolites
1°N P ed
lat
re
ue
ag
Ib

207.6±9.2

Tres Lagunas
Granite PF 0°
Ecuador
234.4±0.9 Q
235.0±1.5

79°W
233.7±0.8 227.3±2.2

231.9±3.2
LF

2°S
Moromoro Migmatite BF
& Piedras Amphibolite

80°W 231.0±1.9
222.7±6.3 PF
3°S
221±18
223-229
237.7±5.2 Piuntza
214.6±0.9 Unit
227.5±0.8 4°S
L
247.2±4.3* Sabanilla
Migmatite
234±5 - 2600 Zumba
Ophiolite
5°S

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 13

McCourt et al. (1984) and Litherland et al. (1994) interpret these data to
reflect continental collision at ~120 and 65–55 Ma.
Spikings et al. (2000, 2001) and Villagómez and Spikings (2013)
present 40Ar/39Ar (white mica, biotite, alkali feldspar) and fission track
(zircon, apatite) data from Triassic magmatic rocks in Ecuador and
Colombia, which were used to construct t–T paths. However, the colli-
sion of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province with South America at
~75 Ma drove more than 350 °C of cooling, and Triassic thermal histo-
ries were not preserved in the isotopic systems.
Recently, Cochrane et al. (2014b) published apatite U-Pb data from a
Triassic leucosome of the Sabanilla Unit (migmatite 09RC42; Table 1) of
southern Ecuador. The authors demonstrate that Pb was lost from the
apatite grains by thermally activated diffusion, and thus the dates can
be combined with grain sizes and the diffusion properties of Pb in apa-
tite to generate a series of plausible t–T paths (Fig. 7a) using a computed
Monte Carlo algorithm, at temperatures N350 °C. Those paths reveal
rapid cooling subsequent to anatexis at ~250 Ma. The leucosome subse-
quently remained at temperatures lower than the Pb Partial Retention
Zone throughout the Triassic. The same method has been applied to a
peraluminous Triassic granite (10RC43; Table 1; Fig. 7b) from the Caja-
marca Complex of central Colombia. Similarly, the computed t–T paths
also reveal rapid cooling subsequent to Triassic anatexis, after which
the rock was colder than the apatite Pb Partial Retention Zone. Data
from the latter sample are new, although the methodology is identical
to that presented in Cochrane et al. (2014b), and the data are presented
in a supplementary file. Rapid cooling during the Triassic corroborates
the indistinguishable U-Pb dates from apatites with a large range in
grain size (Fig. 7b).
Rapid cooling from anatectic temperatures to less than ~ 380 °C is
probably mainly a consequence of thermal relaxation subsequent to
the removal of the heat source at a local geographic scale. Some compo-
nent of cooling may also be a consequence of exhumation, and given
that the samples remained colder than ~380 °C throughout the remain-
der of the Triassic and the Jurassic, it is likely that these particular sam-
ples were at depths of ≤15 km within the crust after ~ 220 Ma. Rapid
cooling during ~250–220 Ma temporally coincides with a significant in-
crease in zircon εHfi obtained from the amphibolitic dykes (Fig. 7a, b).
4.7. Interpretation: Permian and Triassic
4.7.1. Arc magmatism and metamorphism during 290–240 Ma along
western Pangaea
The exposure of Permian and early Triassic (290–240 Ma) granitoids
within the Northern Andes is restricted to the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta, Guajira Peninsula and the central Cordillera Central within
Colombia, while almost all intrusions within the Cordillera Real and
Amotape Terrane of Ecuador are ≤240 Ma. The Aluminium Saturation
Index of the alkali-calcic to calcic granites that crystallised during
290–240 Ma straddles the peraluminous and metaluminous fields,
while the d18O values of 14%–17‰ suggest that these rocks formed by
partial melting of sedimentary rocks. Zircons yield magmatic Th/U ratios
of 0.26–1.27, suggesting that they have not recrystallized during subse-
quent metamorphic events (Table 1; Fig. 8). The whole rock trace ele-
ment abundances are characteristic of subduction related magmatism.
Magmatism during this period was not accompanied by mafic dyke em-
placement, and all rocks yield N58 wt% SiO2. The 290–240 Ma granites
within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Cardona et al., 2010) and
the Cordillera Central of Colombia (Villagómez et al., 2011) are
interpreted to have formed above an east dipping Pacific subduction
zone beneath Pangaea (Cochrane et al., 2014a; Fig. 8).
Plate reconstructions of western Pangaea during the Permian to
Early Triassic (Elías-Herrera and Ortega-Gutiérrez, 2002; Weber et al.,
2007) juxtapose Acatlán, Oaxaquia and the Chortis Block against
north-western South America (Fig. 9). At the present time, Oaxaquia is
considered to underlie central and southern Mexico, including the
Maya Block. The Maya Block hosts extensive, undeformed Permian
granites, and deformed and foliated Permian granitic gneisses and
migmatites (Chiapas Massif; e.g. Solari et al., 2008), which underwent
rock uplift and erosion during the early Triassic (Schaaf et al., 2002).
The undeformed and deformed Permian granites yield concordant U-
Pb (zircon) dates ranging between 289 and 255 Ma (Yanez et al.,
1991; Solari et al., 2001; Elías-Herrera and Ortega-Gutiérrez, 2002;
Ducea et al., 2004; Weber et al., 2007; Kirsch et al., 2012;
Ortega-Obregon et al., 2013; Kirsch et al., 2014) and are considered to
form part of a continental arc (e.g. Torres et al., 1999). We suggest
that the Permian, peraluminous granitoids exposed within north-
western South America formed within the same tectonic regime, and
are a continuation of the Permian belt that is exposed in southern
Mexico (e.g. Centeno-Garcia and Keppie, 1999; Dickinson and Lawton,
2001; Kirsch et al., 2014). Remnants of Permian magmatism have also
been found within the Sierra de Perijá (Dasch, 1982), Paraguana Penin-
sula (Van der Lelij, 2013) and the El Baul Massif in Venezuela (Viscarret
et al., 2009). The Permian granites and migmatites exposed in Colombia
formed in a different tectonic regime to similar lithologies that formed
during the Triassic, which was dominated by extension (see next
section).
Weber et al. (2007) report concordant zircon U-Pb dates from
migmatites of the Maya Block (Chiapas Massif) of 251.8 ± 3.8–254.0
± 2.3 Ma, which they interpret to be a result of MP-HT metamorphism
during compression, and stacking within an orogenic wedge. The colli-
sion event post-dates the amalgamation of Pangaea, which is recorded
along the diachronous Ouachita-Marathon suture (Fig. 9) that had
formed by the Early Permian. Weber et al. (2007) attribute the compres-
sional event to closure of a marginal basin, which had previously formed
during extension that accompanied Permian arc magmatism. Similarly,
Cardona et al. (2010) attribute anatexis at ~250 Ma in the Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta (Fig. 1) to a compressional event. The cause of compres-
sion has been attributed to either terrane accretion, subduction of thick-
ened, topographically prominent and buoyant oceanic lithosphere (e.g.
Weber et al., 2007), or increased plate coupling during the waning
stages of the amalgamation of Pangaea (Cardona et al., 2010).
The high-SiO2, Permo-Early Triassic granites and alkali feldspar
granites of the Eastern Cordillera of Peru are interpreted to have formed
within a continental arc setting during extensive lithospheric thinning
(Sempere et al., 2002; Mišković et al., 2009). Roll-back is considered to
have driven anti-clockwise rotation of the forearc, dextral displacement
and southward younging of the onset of extension along the Peruvian
arc, all of which commenced at ~280 Ma (Mišković et al., 2009). Perm-
ian arc magmatism in Peru is consistent with arc magmatism that is
sporadically preserved within the Northern Andes, and more abundant-
ly within the conjugate margin that is now exposed in southern Mexico.
Weber et al. (2007) propose that the Permian arc intrusions within the
Maya Block were also emplaced during lithospheric thinning. However,
their interpretation is based on the tectonic-switching model of Collins
(2002), who state that a thinned, hot lithosphere is a prerequisite for
subsequent crustal thickening and anatexis within a period of ~20 My.
Geochemical and isotopic evidence from Permo-Triassic intrusions in
Peru provides no evidence for compression at ~250 Ma (Mišković et al.,
2009). Coeval compression and extension along different regions of the
western margin of Gondwana, within Pangaea, spatially correlates with

Fig. 2. Geology of the Cordillera Real and Amotape Complex of Ecuador, and the Cordillera Central of Colombia, showing the distribution of Palaeozoic and Triassic rocks. The Jurassic
continental arc is also shown for reference. Concordant Permian and Triassic zircon U-Pb and plateau 40Ar/39Ar dates and their uncertainties (±2σ) obtained by various analytical methods
(see Table 1) are shown (see references in Table 1). The Palaeozoic and Triassic rocks within the Cordillera Real of Ecuador are grouped together within the Loja Terrane by Litherland et al.
(1994). Cities, I: Ibagué, L: Loja, M: Medellin, P: Pasto, Q: Quito. Faults. Faults: BF: Baños Fault, CAF: Cauca-Almaguer Faults, LF: Llanganates Fault, OPF: Otú-Pericos Fault, PF: Peltetec Fault.
Map compiled from Litherland et al. (1994) and Gómez et al. (2007).

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
14 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

A Frequency
9

8 Triassic Permian

7
6
Anatectites
5 Colombia (n = 27)
4 Ecuador (n = 14)
3
2
1

0
200 225 250 275 300
206Pb/238U age (Ma)
B C
Frequency Palaeozoic metasedimentary
Frequency units (melanosome)
100 9 480 - 630 Ma
Triassic anatectite 960 - 1200 Ma
Colombia (n = 360) 8
N = 99
Ecuador (n = 288) 7

Permian anatectite 6
Colombia (n = 104) 5
10
4
3
2
1

0 0
220
280
340
400
460
520
580
640
700
760
820
880
940
1000
1060
1120
1180

360
420
480
540
600
660
720
780
840
900
960

1140
1020
1080

1200
1260
1320
1380
1440
206Pb/238U age (Ma) 206Pb/238U age (Ma)
D Zircon U-Pb
age (Ma)±2σ
Ecuador Colombia Venez’ Peru
300
SNSM EBM
290
Permian

280
PP
270

260
GP
250 MA
A
240
Triassic

230

220
Metagranite,
210 migmatite
Amphibolite,
200 plagiogranite
190
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
South North
Latitude (degrees)

Fig. 3. A) 206Pb/238U age histogram for the time of anatexis or metamorphic zircon growth for granites, metagranites and migmatites (leucosomes) in Ecuador and Colombia. B) 206Pb/238U
age histogram for Permian and Triassic S-type granitoids and migmatites (leucosomes) from the Cordillera Real (Ecuador) and the Cordillera Central (Colombia). Ages are single spot
zircon ages determined using LA-ICPMS (Villagómez et al., 2011; Cochrane et al., 2014a), SHRIMP and SIMS (Vinasco et al., 2006; Chew et al., 2008; Restrepo et al., 2011). C) 206Pb/
238
U age histogram for detrital zircons from the Palaeozoic Chiguinda and Isimanchi metasedimentary units of the Cordillera Real of Ecuador (Chew et al., 2008). D) A comparison of
Permian and Triassic concordant zircon and monazite U-Pb dates with latitude along the Cordillera Real of Ecuador, Cordillera Central, Guajira Peninsula and the Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta of Colombia. The ranges of concordant zircon U-Pb dates obtained from granitoid intrusions and volcano-sedimentary rocks from Venezuela (Van der Lelij, 2013) and
the Eastern Cordillera of Peru (Mišković et al., 2009; Reitsma, 2012) are shown for comparison. Data and citations are presented in Table 1. EBM: El Baul Massif, GP: Guajira Peninsula,
MA: Merida Andes, PP: Paraguana Peninsula, SNSM: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 A B C
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the

10 Peru 4.0
Colombia - Triassic Perm.- Mid.
Peraluminous
Na2O + K2O - CaO (wt%)
8 Colombia - Permian Triassic 3.5
Ecuador - Triassic 2.0 I-type S-type

Al/(Ca+Na+K)
3.0
6 Peru

Metalluminous
Al/(Na+K)
Late Triassic 2.5
4 1.5
Alkalic 2.0

2 1.5 Peru
l cic Late Triassic Peraluminous
i- ca l i ne 1.0 1.0
l
0 lka a lka S-type
Peru Metaluminous
A c- Perm.- Mid. Triassic
l Lachlan FB 0.5
Ca Calcic 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-2 0.5
Al/(Ca+Na+K)
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
D SiO2 (wt%) E F 18O (quartz)
1000 10

R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

1000 Ecuador - Triassic Ecuador - Triassic
Ecuador - Triassic Colombia - Permian Colombia - Permian
Colombia - Triassic
100
100

10
1
10 1

0.10 N-MORB
1 UCC
Cs RbBa Th U Nb Ta La Ce Pb Pr Sr Nd Zr Hf SmEu Ti Tb Y TmYb 0.1
Cs Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta La Ce Pr Sr Nd Zr Hf SmEu Ti Tb Y TmYb
H
N-MORB 280
0.1 Colombia
Rb Ba Th Nb La Ce Pb Sr Zr Ti Y
G 270 Ecuador Peru
Perm.- Mid. Triassic
age±2

10 0
Ecuador - Triassic 260
Colombia - Permian
10 250
206Pb/238U

240
1
230

0.1 220
Peru
Late Triassic
N-MORB 210
0.01 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu
(L /Yb)

Fig. 4. Geochemical data from Permian and Triassic granites and migmatitic leucosomes from the Cordillera Real (Sabanilla and Tres Lagunas units), Amotape Complex (Moromoro unit) and the Cordillera Central (Cajamarca unit). Fields for Permo-
Triassic intrusions within the Eastern Cordillera of Peru are from Mišković et al. (2009). Multi-element plots are normalised to N-MORB (Sun and McDonough, 1989) and Upper Continental Crust (UCC; Taylor and McLennan, 1995). Data from
Ecuador: Litherland et al. (1994), Cochrane et al. (2014a). Data from Colombia: Vinasco et al. (2006), Martínez (2007), Cardona et al. (2010), Cochrane et al. (2014a).

15
 16
A B C D
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the

K2 O Th ppm SiO2 wt% V (ppm)

5 10 Ecuador (dykes, sills) 60 500
High-K ARC
Shoshonitic Colombia (dykes, sills) calc-alkaline
4 Colombia (Aburrá Ophiolite)

10
400

=
MORB

Ti/V
3 High-K Andesite
1 BABB
calc-alkaline Calc-alkaline 55

0
=2
Phonolite 300

V
2

Ti/
Rhylite, granodiorite
granite,
Calc-alkaline Sub-alkali =50
Ti/V

Basaltic , diorite

alt
andesite
basalt

li bas
1 200
Tholeiite

dacite,
Tholeiitic 0.1 50 OIB

Alka
andesite
0 00

Basalt
Ti/V=1

Gabbro
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 Bas/Trach/ 100
SiO2 Neph

,
0.01 45 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0.001 0.01 0.1 0 5 10
Co ppm Zr/TiO2 Ti/1000 (ppm)

R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

E F
100 3.5
Ecuador (dykes, sills) N-MORB Ecuador (dykes, sills)
Colombia (dykes, sills) 3.0
Colombia (dykes, sills)
2.5 Colombia (Aburrá Ophiolite)
10
2.0
1.5
1 1.0
0.5
N-MORB 0.0
0.1 La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu
Cs Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta La Ce Pb Pr Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Ti Tb Y Tm Yb
G H I
12
N-MORB

age (Ma)
age (Ma)

240 240

8 Altered

Nd
230 230 amphibolite
206Pb/238U
206Pb/238U

4
220 220

210 210 0
0 1 2 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0.700 0.704 0.708 0.712 0.716
87Sr/86Sri
(La/Yb)n Nd

Fig. 5. Geochemical data from Triassic amphibolitic dykes and metagabbros of the Cordillera Real (Monte Olivo unit), Amotape Complex (Piedras unit) and the Cordillera Central (Cajamarca unit and the Aburrá Ophiolite). Multi-element plots are
normalised to N-MORB (Sun and McDonough, 1989). Data from Ecuador: Litherland et al. (1994), Cochrane et al. (2014a). Data from Colombia: Martínez (2007), Cochrane et al. (2014a).
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
the location of terranes that were outboard of South America (Fig. 9).
This supports a hypothesis that compression at ~ 250 Ma was a con-
sequence of the accretion of terranes that now form the basement of
Central America. Alternatively, varying stress regimes may be a conse-
quence of varied displacement at the ocean–continent plate interface
to the north and south of the Huancabamba deflection.
4.7.2. Initiating the disassembly of western Pangaea during 240–200 Ma
The crustal anatectites of the Cordillera Central of Colombia and the
Cordillera Real of Ecuador that formed during 240–225 Ma yield lower
whole rock (La/Yb)n (Fig. 8), lower zircon Th/U, and are significantly
more peraluminous than the Permian granitoids in Colombia, the East-
ern Cordillera of Peru (Mišković et al., 2009), and the Maya Block of
southern Mexico (Weber et al., 2007). These data are indicative of in-
creased partial melting of pelitic rocks after 240 Ma, forming metamor-
phic zircon (zircon Th/U values of b ~0.1; Rubatto, 2002; Hartmann and
Santos, 2004; Fig. 8) within the anatectites, and perhaps an overall
greater volume of magmatism compared to prior to 240 Ma, which is
reflected by a peak in the quantity of dated samples during 240–
225 Ma (Fig. 3a). Cochrane et al. (2014a) suggest that mafic under-
plating elevated the geothermal gradient, driving fluid expulsion from
the pelitic protoliths and lowering their solidus.
The trace element content of the amphibolitised tholeiitic dykes is
characteristic of a back-arc basin or MORB setting, and the progressive
trend in isotopic compositions towards the depleted mantle, combined
with progressive depletions in incompatible elements during 240–
225 Ma suggests that they were emplaced within a lithosphere that
was thinning. Hafnium isotopic compositions in zircons shows that
mantle derived tholeiites emplaced during 240–232 Ma assimilated iso-
topically evolved continental crust (Figs. 6 and 8), whereas there is little
evidence of the assimilation of significant crust after 225 Ma, when εHfi
approaches depleted mantle compositions.
The geographically widespread occurrence of coeval tholeiitic,
amphibolitised dykes and crustal anatectites supports an extensional
setting, which probably formed within a region of increased heat flow
that is characteristic of an attenuated back-arc basin (e.g. Collins and
Richards, 2008). Cochrane et al. (2014a) suggest that the period be-
tween 240 and 225 Ma was dominated by progressive thinning of the
continental lithosphere during rifting and the disassembly of western
Pangaea (Fig. 8). Mafic underplating and anatexis occurred because of
doming and decompression of the asthenosphere during extension,
and heat convection during the intrusion of mafic magmas into the
crust (Fig. 9). This interpretation is supported by i) the tentatively
mapped Triassic Zumba Ophiolite in the southernmost Cordillera Real
of Ecuador, although its Triassic age is assumed based on its structural
position (Fig. 1; Litherland et al., 1994), and ii) late Middle to Upper
Triassic continental and marine volcano-sedimentary rocks of the
Piuntza Unit that were deposited in rift grabens (Litherland et al.,
1994; Fig. 2). Anatexis during low pressure metamorphism and exten-
sion has been recorded in several locations, including the eastern Mt.
Lofty Ranges (Oliver and Zakowski, 1995) and the southern Menderes
Massif, Turkey (Bozkurt and Park, 1994). Gerbi et al. (2006) utilize ther-
mal modelling to show that crustal scale detachment faulting is re-
quired to provide sufficient heat for low-pressure anatexis. A suspect,
Triassic detachment fault has not been identified within the Eastern
(Ecuador) and Central Cordillera (Colombia), and it is likely that is
was reactivated during subsequent tectonism (see below).
No products of melting continental crust have been found younger
than 225 Ma, and the basaltic amphibolites that formed during and
after 225 Ma yield N-MORB isotopic and geochemical signatures
(Figs. 6 and 8). Cochrane et al. (2014a) suggest that the continental
crust was either extremely thin, or not present, after 225 Ma. Martínez
(2007) document a series of metagabbros, amphibolites and plagio-
granites from the northern Cordillera Central, and utilize petrological
observations, isotopic and geochemical analyses and field mapping
to conclude that they are part of an ophiolitic sequence (the Aburrá
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
17
Ophiolite; Fig. 2) that formed within a back-arc basin. U-Pb dating of
magmatic zircons from the plagiogranite yields an age of ~ 216 Ma
(Table 1) suggesting that seafloor spreading started between ~ 223
and ~ 216 Ma. The youngest plateau 40Ar/39Ar date of 213.7 ± 0.9 Ma
(Fig. 2; Table 1) obtained from an anatectite in Colombia records cooling
below ~300 °C as the margin drifted further from the source of elevated
heat flow, and possibly exhumation during continued extension. Some
regions of the continental margin remained at temperatures that
were sufficiently high to form metamorphic zircon rims until ~207 Ma
(Fig. 3d; Table 1; Cochrane et al., 2014a). The rift and transition to
drift occurred over a period of ~20–25 My (Fig. 8), which is comparable
with the duration of other examples of rifting and the transition to a
drift phase, including the Lau-Havre-Taupo system (south Pacific;
Parson and Wright, 1996), and the west Iberian–Newfoundland con-
jugate margins (Russell and Whitmarsh, 2003). The combination of
bimodal magmatism, an increase in the depleted mantle component
of mafic magmas, increased partial melting of the crust, geochemical
compositions of a back-arc basin or mid-ocean ridge setting, and the for-
mation of oceanic lithosphere at ~216 Ma (Aburrá Ophiolite) is entirely
inconsistent with collisional orogenesis.
Rifting starting at ~240 Ma is consistent with the geochronology and
geochemistry of highly peraluminous granites and volcanic tuffs in the
Eastern Cordillera of Peru. Mišković et al. (2009) suggest that decom-
pression melting generated basaltic magmas at the base of the lower
crust, resulting in crustal melting during 260–200 Ma, ultimately giving
rise to the bimodal Mitu Group within a continental rift. The range
in dates of magmatic rocks of the Mitu Group (217–238 Ma; see
Section 4.2.2) closely overlaps with the timing of rifting within
Ecuador and Colombia. Reitsma (2012) interpret the rift as a back-arc
basin on the assumption that the Triassic arc has been removed by tec-
tonic erosion. There is no evidence for the formation of Triassic oceanic
lithosphere within the Eastern Cordillera of Peru, although the rift foun-
dered during ~220–190 Ma, resulting in the deposition of limestones of
the Pucará Group during thermal sag (Rosas et al., 2007). Extensive
tracts of continental Triassic–Precambrian continental crust, including
the Arequipa Terrane, lie outboard of the Mitu Group, and it is likely
that the rift failed to advance to a drift phase, and remains as an
aulocagen (Fig. 9). In contrast, no Triassic continental crust is found out-
board of the Triassic anatectites within Colombia and Ecuador (Fig. 2),
and this region advanced to the drift phase. The recent discovery of Tri-
assic basalt offshore northern Peru (8°S; Romero et al., 2013) suggests
that this may also be a product of extension of the continental crust.
These rocks are exposed along the Outer Shelf High (Romero et al.,
2013), and no continental crust has been found to the west, suggesting
that the Central American conjugate margin may have extended into
Peru, within Pangaea.
Triassic U-Pb dates obtained from the amphibolites and crustal
anatectites from northern Colombia to southernmost Ecuador reveal
no trend with latitude (Fig. 3d), suggesting that extension and rifting
was not diachronous within the northern Andes. Similarly, Reitsma
(2012) compare U-Pb dates of detrital zircons within the Mitu
Group along the strike of the Eastern Cordillera in central and south-
ern Peru, and conclude that the basal strata were coeval everywhere,
although Triassic plutons young from central towards southern Peru
(Mišković et al., 2009). Rifting along western Pangaea commenced at
~ 240 Ma and affected more than 2500 km of the Gondwanan margin.
Evidence includes Middle to Late Triassic extensional basins that are
dispersed throughout large regions of South America, including
southern Chile, western Argentina (230–246 Ma from the Cuyana
Basin; Franzese and Spalletti, 2001; Barredo et al., 2012), southern
Brazil (Zerfass et al., 2004) and Bolivia (Sempere et al., 2002), sug-
gesting that western Gondwana was placed under tension (e.g.
Ramos, 2009) at ~ 240 Ma, culminating in the fragmentation of
western Pangaea by ~ 180 Ma.
We tentatively suggest that rifting along north western South
America at least initiated within a back-arc basin (Fig. 9). The arc
18 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

A 20
DM
Extension,
10
crustal growth
CHUR
εHfi (zircon) 0

-10

-20 Crustal
Recycling Metagranite zircon cores
-30 Metagranite zircon rims
Amphibolite zircons
-40
150 250 350 550 750 950 1150
206Pb/238U age (Ma)
B
DM
15

10
εHfi (zircon)

εHfi (zircon)
5

N-MORB
0

-5
Range of anatectites
-10
MS
MS
MSWD 0.78 M
MS
MSWD 1.60 MS
S
MSWD 1.90 2 1 0
MSWD
WD 1.90
whole rock
11RC14 10RC28 11RC10 10RC39A (La/Yb)n
220 225 230 235 240
206Pb/238U age (Ma)
C

100 um
100 um

10RC39A 238.3 ± 8.7

εHf = + 8.6 240.0 ± 3.5
234.0 ± 5.8 εHf = - 4.1
εHf = + 8.4

237.5 ± 7.1
241.0 ± 4.0 εHf = + 7.4
εHf = - 3.6 236.9 ± 7.1
εHf = - 4.8

100 μm
235.3 ± 6.1 232.7 ± 6.3
εHf = + 9.1 εHf = +10.0

D Granitoids, zircons, Eastern Cordillera, Peru

6

4
εHfi (zircon)

-2

-4

-6

-8 Eastern Cordillera, Peru

Merida Andes, Venezuela
-10
200 220 240 260 280 300
206Pb/238U age (Ma)

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 19

rocks are preserved along the back-bone to the southern coast of
Mexico, and within the Chaucús complex of central Guatemala (Solari
et al., 2011). These granites yield zircon U-Pb dates spanning from the
Early Permian until ~ 218 Ma (Torres et al., 1999; Keppie et al., 2006;
Solari et al., 2011), and thus they were coincident with rifting. Further-
more, Helbig et al. (2012) describe transitional arc to MORB like meta-
volcanic rocks within the Acatlan Complex (southern Mexico), which
these authors assigned to a back arc setting in the late Triassic. This in-
terpretation is consistent with Martínez (2007) who suggests that the
Aburrá ophiolite formed in a back-arc.
We consider rifting between 240 and 216 Ma within northwest-
ern South America to represent the initial stage of the disassembly
of Pangaea because i) it was geographically extensive along western
Gondwana, ii) it resulted in the formation of oceanic lithosphere to
the west of the future site of the Gulf of Mexico and the locus of sub-
sequent disassembly within Pangaea, giving rise to the Central
Atlantic Magmatic Province at 202 Ma (e.g. Beutel, 2009), and iii) it
overlapped in time with rifting in south eastern North America
(~ 230 Ma; Schlische, 2002). However, it is unclear what caused the
locus of extension to displace eastwards, leading to fragmentation
of Pangaea.
The Pacific margin of northwestern Gondwana remained passive
until ~ 209 Ma, after which a prolonged period of latest Triassic–Early
Cretaceous magmatism (see Section 5) modified the margin of
Colombia and Ecuador, and southernmost Peru.
4.8. Conjugate margins to northwestern Gondwana
Several lines of evidence suggest that the basement to Central
American terranes (e.g. Oaxaquia, which is exposed within the Maya
Block) may have been the conjugate margin to northwestern Gondwa-
na (Fig. 9). These include i) Grenville-aged granulite belts with similar
Pb isotope signatures (Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997; Ruiz et al., 1999; Cam-
eron et al., 2004), ii) anorthosite complexes (Keppie and Gutierrez,
1999; Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010), iii) similar Cambrian fauna
(Cocks and Torsvik, 2002; Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010), and iv) Tri-
assic bimodal magmatism and rift-related sedimentary rocks (Keppie
et al., 2006). Late Triassic (216–197 Ma) tholeiitic basalts in the Guerre-
ro composite terrane of Mexico are interpreted to have formed in a con-
tinental rift (Keppie et al., 2006), and the same authors attribute Late
Triassic rocks of the Oaxaquia Terrane to a back-arc setting. Similarly,
Helbig et al. (2012) suggest that late Triassic volcanic rocks with E-
MORB to MORB characteristics within the Acatlán Complex formed
within a back-arc. Weber et al. (2007) and Cochrane et al. (2014a) use
these similarities to suggest that Oaxaquia and other Mexican terranes
were juxtaposed against northwest Gondwana. A potential obstacle to
this reconstruction is the lack of magmatic rocks in southern Mexico
with crystallisation ages spanning between 230 and 216 Ma. However,
an asymmetric distribution of magmatic rocks across continental rifts
has also been documented across the Nova Scotia–Morocco Rift (latest
Triassic–Jurassic; e.g. Dehler, 2012), where reduced magma production
is related to the proximity of the transform margin (Funck et al., 2004).
Alternatively, Ramos and Aleman (2000) and Ramos (2008) propose
that continental crust of Oaxaquia was located offshore central and
northern Peru, based on correlations between trilobite assemblages. In
this case, the reconstruction of Central American and Mexican basement
relative to South America within Pangaea will need to be revised.
Regardless of the true position of Oaxaquia, Triassic roll-back of
the east-dipping Pacific slab drove widespread extension along
N2500 km of western Gondwana, resulting in complete rifting of
continental crust in the region of northwestern South America.
Tensile forces failed to form oceanic lithosphere further to the
south (e.g. the Mitu Aulocagen; Fig. 9), perhaps because the ortho-
gonal component of roll-back was less severe, or the continental
crust was stronger.
4.9. Rifting between North and South America
The relationship between the timing of rifting that separated North
and South America, and back-arc rifting along western Pangaea is un-
clear. Rifting commenced in south-eastern North America at ~230 Ma
(Schlische, 2002), and possibly also within far southern North America
(e.g. northern Florida; Beutel, 2009). Magmatic injection in the form of
giant dyke swarms (Central Atlantic Magmatic Province) accompanied
rifting within North America at 200 ± 2 Ma (Beutel, 2009 and refer-
ences therein), which coincides with ~ 202 Ma tuffs at the base of the
rift-related, la Quinta Fm. of the Merida Andes, Venezuela (Fig. 1; Van
der Lelij, 2013), and oceanic crust started forming between North and
South America at ~180 Ma. Beutel (2009) utilise finite element model-
ling of stress fields obtained from dyke and rift orientations to suggest
that the separation of North and South America was initiated by the mi-
gration of North America towards the northwest at ~230 Ma, giving rise
to amagmatic rifting within North America, followed by the displace-
ment of South America towards the southwest at ~ 200 Ma, forming
coeval magmatism, rifting, and seafloor formation by ~180 Ma. The re-
lationship between slab-retreat tensional forces that drove extension
along western Gondwana starting at 240 Ma and forces that separated
North and South America is unclear.
5. Latest Triassic–Lower Cretaceous: arc magmatism and
tectonic switching
Jurassic rocks within the Cordillera Real and Cordillera Central are
dominated by extensive granitoid batholiths that form the eastern
flanks of the cordilleras (Fig. 1). A majority of these intrusions are not
metamorphosed or foliated, with the exception of parts of the aerially
extensive Ibagué Batholith in central Colombia, proximal to major
faults, and the Azafrán Batholith in Ecuador. The Jurassic intrusions
are accompanied by coeval volcanic rocks that are mainly exposed
in the foreland basin to the east, and extend from northern Chile to
Colombia (Romeuf et al., 1995). Some of the protoliths of meta-
sedimentary and meta-volcanic rocks located to the west of the batho-
liths may also be Jurassic.
5.1. Historical perspective and occurrence
5.1.1. Latest Triassic–Jurassic granitoid intrusions
Jurassic plutons within the eastern flank of the Cordillera Real in
Ecuador form, from north to south, the undeformed and unmetamor-
phosed Rosa Florida, Abitagua and Zamora batholiths (Fig. 10). The
granitoids were first described by Colony and Sinclair (1932) and Saur
(1950), and the British Geological Survey mapped these intrusions
(Litherland et al., 1994). These rocks are generally coarse, biotite quartz
monzonites, monzogranites and hornblende-biotite granites, granodio-
rites and minor diorites. The batholiths are mainly in faulted contact

Fig. 6. A) Hf (zircon) isotope data (Cochrane et al., 2014a) acquired from rims and xenocrystic cores of Permian and Triassic peraluminous granitoids, migmatitic leucosomes and
amphibolitic dykes and sills of the Amotape Complex, Cordillera Real and the Cordillera Central. εHfi was determined using zircon crystallisation dates determined using LA-ICPMS,
and the CHUR composition (176Lu/177Hf = 0.0336, 176Hf/177Hf = 0.282785; Bouvier et al., 2008). B) Variation in εHfi (zircon) of the amphibolites with zircon crystallisation date and
whole rock (La/Yb)n (N-MORB), showing a trend towards depleted mantle isotopic and geochemical signatures, with time. C) Representative cathodoluminescence images for
amphibolite 10RC39A (Cordillera Central) show that juvenile εHfi values (7.4 to 10) are yielded by patchy or unzoned zircons, whereas less juvenile values (−3.6 to −4.8) are obtained
from oscillatory zoned zircons. D) εHfi (zircon) data from Permo-Triassic granitoids of the Eastern Cordillera of Peru (rims and cores; Mišković et al., 2009), and the Merida Andes (mean
values; Van der Lelij, 2013).

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
20 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

A 09RC42, migmatitic leucosome, Sabanilla Unit, zircon U-Pb 247.2±4.3 Ma

Burial and elevated Collision of
Anatexis heat flow Caribbean Plateau
0 16

εHfi (zircon)
8
200 constrained by
0
Temperature (°C)

(U-Th)/He, FT and
40Ar/39Ar data.
-8
APbPRZ

400
40Ar/39Ar
muscovite

600 Quebradagrande Complex

Azafrán and Chinguál batholiths
Zamora, Abitagua batholiths
Ibague, Segovia batholiths
800 Triassic amphibolitic dykes
Permian Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Cenozoic

300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Time (Ma)
B 10RC43, granite, Cajamarca Complex, zircon U-Pb 245.0±2.0 Ma
Burial and elevated Collision of
Anatexis heat flow Caribbean Plateau
0 16

εHfi (zircon)
8
Temperature (°C)

200 constrained by
(U-Th)/He, FT and 0
40Ar/39Ar data.

206Pb/238U date (Ma)

-8
400
APbPRZ

40Ar/39Ar 240
muscovite 235
230
600
225
50 100 150 200
Effective diffusion radius (μm)
Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Cenozoic

250 200 150 100 50 0

Time (Ma)
C Cordillera Central Cordillera Real
20
40
AHePRZ 60
80 AHePRZ
APAZ
Temperature (°C)

APAZ
100
120
160 140
ArPRZ (kspar) ?
200 ?
180
240 ?
ZPAZ 220
280
260 ? ZPAZ
320
Cretaceous Cenozoic
300 Cretaceous Cenozoic

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Time (Ma) Time (Ma)

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 21

with contemporaneous volcanic rocks of the Misahuallí Fm. to the east,
and they may intrude their volcanic pile in a few locations. Late Jurassic–
Early Cretaceous schists of the Upano Fm. (the Salado Terrane;
Litherland et al., 1994) are juxtaposed against the western margin of
the Jurassic batholiths via the Cosanga Fault (Fig. 10). The foliated and
occasionally gneissic Azafrán Batholith and Chinguál pluton are also
located to the west of the Cosanga Fault, within the Salado Terrane of
Litherland et al. (1994; Fig. 10). These plutons are dominated by diorites
and granodiorites, with minor granite, quartz monzonite and gabbro.
Litherland et al. (1994) present Rb/Sr isochron and K/Ar dates from
all of these intrusive phases, although more accurate estimates of the
crystallisation ages are provided by U-Pb zircon dates (Litherland et al.,
1994; Noble et al., 1997; Chiaradia et al., 2009; Cochrane, 2013). Geo-
chemical analyses of these rocks have been presented by Litherland
et al. (1994) and Cochrane (2013).
Jurassic batholiths extend northwards from Ecuador, and define
the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central in Colombia (Fig. 10). These
include the geographically extensive Ibagué Batholith, and Segovia
batholith, where the lithologies are dominated by hornblende tonalities
and granodiorites (Alvarez, 1983; Aspden et al., 1987). Jurassic intru-
sions also crop out in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta where tonalities
are also common (Alvarez, 1983), and the Santander Massif (Figs. 1 and
10), where the intrusions are mainly biotite monzonites, granodiorites
and granites (Irving, 1975). These intrusions are generally unfoliated,
and they crop out to the east of the Triassic anatectites. Numerous
authors presented a large quantity of K/Ar and Rb/Sr dates from these
intrusions in the 1980's (e.g. Goldsmith et al., 1971; see additional refer-
ences in Aspden et al., 1987), although more accurate zircon U-Pb dates
have been published by Leal-Mejia et al. (2011), Villagómez et al.
(2011), Van der Lelij (2013) and Cochrane (2013).
5.1.2. Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous rocks to the west of the
Jurassic intrusions
A series of poorly dated, Jurassic–Early Cretaceous meta-sedimentary
and meta-volcanic rocks, along with the Azafrán Batholith, is exposed to
the west of the Cosanga Fault in the Cordillera Real of Ecuador, and
similar sequences crop out within the Cordillera Central (Fig. 10). Within
Ecuador, Aspden and Litherland (1992) and Litherland et al. (1994)
utilise structural, metamorphic and geochronological relationships to
group these into several north-south trending, fault bounded terranes,
which accreted via dextral strike-slip transpression. However, Pratt
et al. (2005) re-interpret several of these faults as intrusive contacts,
and suggest that the Cordillera is an eroded and uplifted Palaeozoic
core, flanked by autochthonous Jurassic–Cretaceous sequences.
Meta-turbidites and meta-andesites of the Upano Unit, which were
originally described by Saur (1965), are located west of the Jurassic
batholiths (Fig. 11). Baldock (1982) and Pratt et al. (2005) suggest
that the metasedimentary rocks are equivalent to Cretaceous sedimen-
tary rocks (Hollin and Napo fms.) that are exposed within the region of
the Amazon Foreland Basin (Fig. 1). However, Litherland et al. (1994)
regard the Upano Unit as having a distinctly different history based on
their metamorphic grade, and assign them, along with the Azafrán Bath-
olith, to the fault bounded “Salado” Terrane. Sparse geochronological
analyses include pollen analyses (Riding, 1989), K/Ar dates (Feininger
and Silberman, 1982), and U-Pb zircon dates of the Azafrán Batholith
(Cochrane, 2013). Litherland et al. (1994) consider the Salado Terrane
to have formed within a marginal basin setting. Traversing westwards,
the Upano Unit is faulted against (Litherland et al., 1994; Llanganates
Fault; Figs. 10 and 11) poorly differentiated Palaeozoic metasedi-
mentary rocks and Triassic anatectites (see Section 4) of the Loja
Terrane of Litherland et al. (1994). Pratt et al. (2005) interpret this con-
tact as a metamorphosed intrusive contact. Further west, the Triassic
anatectites are faulted against greenschist grade para-graphitic schists,
and submarine meta-andesites and meta-agglomerates across the
Baños Fault (Fig. 11), which were first described by Sheppard and
Bushnell (1933), and subsequently by numerous workers. There have
been few geochronological determinations, which include K/Ar dates
(Herbert and Pichler, 1983; Litherland et al., 1994) and Jurassic pollen,
spores and acritarchs (Riding, 1989). Bristow (1973) considered these
lithologies to be equivalent to sedimentary rocks that are now exposed
within the Western Cordillera of Ecuador (Yunguilla Fm.), although
Litherland et al. (1994) interpret these to represent a distinct island
arc terrane, and recognise forearc, arc and backarc sequences, which
they refer to as the Alao Arc (Figs. 10 and 11). The western margin of
these sequences is defined by the 1–2 km wide Peltetec fault zone,
which hosts inliers of steeply dipping, anastomosed blocks of peridotite,
olivine gabbros, spilitised dolerites, basalt and volcanoclastic rocks
(Fig. 11). These rocks were initially documented by Litherland et al.
(1987), and are described in detail in Fortey (1990) and Litherland
et al. (1994) who suggest that they define an ophiolitic assemblage,
which they refer to as the Peltetec Unit. Pratt et al. (2005) describe a
stratigraphic transition from the greenschists of the Alao Arc into
metasedimentary rocks located west of the Peltetec Unit, and thus
they rule out the Peltetec Fault as a terrane boundary. This publication
presents new 40Ar/39Ar dates from plagioclase extracted from basalts
of the Peltetec Unit, and we are not aware of any other geochronological
data. Finally, the Peltetec Fault defines the eastern boundary of a series
of gently dipping slates and quartzites, which are exposed in isolated in-
liers. These marine rocks were first reported by Litherland et al. (1994),
and host Jurassic–Early Cretaceous ammonites. Litherland et al. (1994)
named these the ‘Guamote Sequence’ and suggest that they form part
of allochthonous continental crust of the Chaucha Terrane (Figs. 10
and 11), whereas Pratt et al. (2005) suggest that they are a stratigraphic
continuation of the Alao volcanic sequence.
The same sequence of rocks is also exposed with the Amotape
Terrane of southern Ecuador (Fig. 10), which is rotated ~65° clockwise
relative to the Cordillera Real. Here, the Triassic anatectites are faulted
against a complicated mélange of deformed and metamorphosed igne-
ous rocks that are considered to represent an accretionary prism. The
mélange hosts eclogites and blueschists of the Raspas unit (Litherland
et al., 1994; Arculus et al., 1999; Bosch et al., 2002; John et al., 2010),
which may be a tectonic equivalent of the Peltetec Unit.
Metamorphosed igneous and sedimentary rocks of the Quebrada-
grande Unit are juxtaposed, via the San Jerónimo Fault, against the Tri-
assic Cajamarca Unit in the Cordillera Central of Colombia, and thus they
are located in a similar structural position as the Alao Terrane in Ecuador
(Figs. 1 and 10). The Quebradagrande Unit was first described by Botero
(1963) and is exposed in highly deformed inliers along the entire length
of the Cordillera Central. Lithologies are dominated by low-grade meta-
morphosed basalts, andesites and pyroclastic rocks (e.g. Nivia et al.,

Fig. 7. Time (t)–Temperature (T) plots for A) a Triassic leucosome (09RC42), and B) a Triassic peraluminous granite (10RC43) of the southern Cordillera Real, and the northern Cordillera
Central, respectively (locations shown on Fig. 2). 09RC42 is from Cochrane et al. (2014b), and 10RC43 is new data (see supplementary data). 40Ar/39Ar muscovite plateau dates are also
shown, with the closure temperature range determined from the diffusion parameters presented in Harrison et al. (2009). The t–T paths are determined (see text) by a using a computed
Monte Carlo algorithm constrained by the diffusivity and activation energy of diffusion of Pb in apatite (Cherniak et al., 1991), apatite grain size and U-Pb date (determined using TIMS).
The t–T paths colder than 350 °C and younger than 75 Ma are constrained by multi-phase 40Ar/39Ar, fission track and (U-Th)/He data (Spikings et al., 2000, 2001, 2005, 2010). The blue line
is the best-fit solution. The red dashed line has not been computed, and only serves to illustrate heating of a Palaeozoic sedimentary protolith during anatexis. The relationship between
diffusion radius (related to grain size) and U-Pb date is shown for granite 10RC43, and the indistinguishable dates corroborate fast cooling through the APbPRZ (apatite Pb Partial Retention
Zone), and no subsequent reheating into it. εHfi (zircon) are also shown, and reveal i) the trend towards Depleted Mantle during the Triassic, and ii) steadily increasing values throughout
the Jurassic to the middle of the Cretaceous. C) t–T envelopes (1 envelope describes 1 hand specimen) for Early Cretaceous and older rocks of the Cordillera Central of Colombia, and the
Cordillera Real of Ecuador constrained by 40Ar/39Ar, fission track and (U-Th)/He data (Spikings et al., 2000, 2001, 2010; Villagómez and Spikings, 2013). APAZ: Apatite Partial Annealing
Zone, AHePRZ: Apatite Helium Partial Retention Zone, ArPRZ: Argon Partial Retention Zone, ZPAZ: Zircon Partial Annealing Zone.

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
22 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

CRUSTAL ANATECTITES AMPHIBOLITES

Tectonic
Th/Uzircon (La/Yb)n εHfizircon εNdi (La/Yb)n stage
0.001 0.1 10 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 20 15 10 5 12 10 8 6 4 0 2

180

Jurassic
190

N-MORB
Active
margin
200

DM
210
DRIFT/
Aburrá Passive
ophiolite margin
220
Triassic

230
RIFT
Time (Ma)

240

250

Ecuador
Zircon
260
Whole rock Early
Colombia anatexis
Zircon Continental
Permian

270 Whole rock Arc?

280

290

Fig. 8. Geochronological and geochemical summary of data from Permian and Triassic crustal anatectites, tholeiitic basaltic sills and dykes, and the Aburrá Ophiolite. These data define
i) Permian to earliest Triassic anatexis (290–240 Ma) during arc magmatism, ii) bimodal magmatism during lithospheric thinning and continental rifting (240–223 Ma), and iii) a passive
margin stage during which oceanic lithosphere was forming (223 Ma–209 Ma). Data are from Vinasco et al. (2006), Martínez (2007) and Cochrane et al. (2014a).

2006; Villagómez et al., 2011; Rodriguez and Zapata, 2013), and marine
metasedimentary rocks that are covered by marine and terrestrial
meta-sedimentary rocks of the Abejorral Fm., which hosts Hauterivian
to lower Albian fossils (González, 1980). The highly deformed nature
of the Quebradagrande Unit lead Maya and Gonzales (1996) to assign
to term Quebradagrande Complex, which will be used in this review.
Fossil evidence suggests that the sedimentary component was depo-
sited during the Berriasian to Aptian (145–112 Ma using the timescale
of Gradstein et al., 2004; see Nivia et al., 2006 and references therein).
Other geochronological analyses include K/Ar dates (Toussaint and
Restrepo, 1978), and concordant U-Pb (zircon) dates (Nivia et al., 2006;
Villagómez et al., 2011; Cochrane, 2013). Geochemical analyses of the
meta-volcanic rocks are presented by Nivia et al. (2006), Villagómez
et al. (2011), Rodriguez and Zapata (2013) and Cochrane (2013). Tec-
tonic interpretations vary from mid-ocean-ridge (e.g. González, 1980;
Bourgois et al., 1987), oceanic arc (Villagómez et al., 2011), continental
arc (Cochrane, 2013) and an intra-cratonic marginal basin (Nivia et al.,
2006). Vásquez and Altenberger (2005) document small, Early Cre-
taceous intrusions within the Colombian Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 1),
which they relate to rifting.
The Quebradagrande Complex is in contact with faulted slices of
mafic igneous rocks that have been metamorphosed under medium-
to high-pressure and low temperature conditions. These rocks are ex-
posed in discontinuous, fault-bounded lenses along the strike of the
Cordillera Central, and include the Arquía (e.g. Restrepo and Toussaint,
1976), Jambaló (Orrego et al., 1980; Bustamante et al., 2011) and
Barragán (e.g. Bustamante et al., 2012) complexes, amongst others
(Fig. 10). These authors describe eclogite and blueschist facies meta-
morphic rocks (epidote glaucophane schists and chlorite-lawsonite
schists), associated with amphibolites, meta-ultramafic rocks, serpenti-
nites and protocataclasites. Rocks exposed in the Jambaló region are
faulted against the eastern margin of the Quebradagrande Complex
(Bustamante et al., 2008), although the Arquía and Barragán sequences
crop out to the west of the Quebradagrande Complex, across the Silvia-
Pijao Fault, and their western margin is limited by the Cauca-Almaguer
Fault (Fig. 10). Early radiometric dates of these rocks were K/Ar analyses
(Feininger and Silberman, 1982), and numerous 40Ar/39Ar dates have
been reported (Bustamante et al., 2008; Villagómez et al., 2011;
Bustamante et al., 2012). The Arquía and Barragán complexes occupy
an equivalent tectonic position as the Peltetec and the Raspas
complexes in the Cordillera Real and Amotape Terrane of Ecuador,
respectively.
5.2. Geochronology
5.2.1. Latest Triassic and Jurassic intrusions: Cordillera Real, Cordillera
Central and the Santander Massif
Goldsmith et al. (1971), McCourt et al. (1984), Aspden et al. (1987)
and Litherland et al. (1994) present Rb/Sr isochron and K/Ar dates from
all of these intrusive phases, although they are not considered to be ac-
curate crystallisation ages given the high potential for daughter isotope
loss. More accurate estimates of the crystallisation ages are provided by

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 23

A A’ Permian - 240 Ma
240 Ma, extension begins Pangaea Ouachita-Marathon-Suture
Back-arc Laurentia
Permian basin formation
Slab arc Mexico
rollback
Oceanic crust O
Lithosphere A
A
Pacific Ch Gondwana
Asthenosphere Ocean A’

240 - 225 Ma Pangaea Peru

Attenuated and underplated Arc

Slab crust
rollback 240- 210(?) Ma

Laurentia
Mexico

A A
O

back
Roll
225 - 216 Ma Central American NW Gondwana
Basement blocks Ch
(Maya?) Continental break-up A’
and ophiolite formation
Mit Gondwana
u(
au
loc
ge
n)

Fig. 9. Schematic reconstruction and cross sections for northwestern South America within western Pangaea during 240–216 Ma, showing the location of the Permian arc, and the Triassic
rift axis. The Permian arc is preserved along the Gondwanan conjugate margin in Mexico, and the Eastern Cordillera of Peru, although few remnants remain in the region of the Northern
Andes. The approximate location of the Mitu Group is shown. The reconstruction is based after Grajales-Nishimura et al. (1999), Golonka and Bocharova (2000), Dickinson and Lawton
(2001), Elías-Herrera and Ortega-Gutiérrez (2002), Weber et al. (2007) and Cochrane et al. (2014a).

concordant U-Pb zircon dates (Fig. 10; Table 2), which range between
194 and 209 Ma in the Santander Massif (Van der Lelij, 2013), 147–
189 Ma in the Cordillera Central (Bustamante et al., 2010; Villagómez
et al., 2011; Cochrane, 2013) and 141–182 Ma in the Cordillera Real
(Chiaradia et al., 2009; Cochrane, 2013). Leal-Mejia et al. (2011) report
a range of zircon U-Pb dates from the Santander Massif and Cordillera
Central (210–149 Ma), although they do not present their data, and
thus they cannot be evaluated. 40Ar/39Ar plateau dates from retentive
phases (hornblende; closure temperature 500–550 °C) are reported
here because they may be reasonable estimates of the time of crystal-
lisation, although they are frequently younger than the U-Pb zircon
dates (Table 2). A comparison of zircon U-Pb age and latitude (Fig. 12)
suggests that the timing of the onset of magmatism may become youn-
ger towards southern Ecuador. However, a better defined trend is seen
when the dates are compared with their distance from the equivalent
Silvia-Pijao and Peltetec Faults (Fig. 11b), indicating that Jurassic
magmatism becomes younger as it approaches the approximate
location of the contemporaneous plate margin. Clearly, latest Triassic
magmatism initiated far from the trench at ~ 210 Ma, and these rocks
are currently exposed within the Santander Massif (209–194 Ma;
Fig. 10; Van der Lelij, 2013) and in the region of Mocoa in the far south-
ern Cordillera Central (Leal-Mejia et al., 2011). Magmatism migrated
westwards at ~ 195 Ma and stabilised within the region that is now
exposed within the Central Cordillera, throughout the Jurassic. The
older magmatic belt (N189 Ma) is not exposed, or did not form in
Ecuador. The earliest Cretaceous (Gradstein et al., 2012) intrusions of
the foliated Azafrán Batholith (141–144 Ma; Table 2) occur to the
west of the mainly unfoliated Jurassic intrusions (Fig. 11) of the Segovia,
Ibagué, Rosa Florida, Abitagua and Zamora batholiths (145–189 Ma).
The range in dates of the unfoliated Jurassic intrusions closely overlaps
with the age of Jurassic arc magmatism recorded in southern Peru
(Fig. 12), Patagonia and northern Chile (195–147 Ma; zircon U-Pb and
K/Ar dates; Scheuber and Gonzalez, 1999; Rapela et al., 2005; Castro
et al., 2011).
5.2.2. Early Cretaceous magmatic and sedimentary rocks: Cordillera Real
and Cordillera Central
A majority of dates obtained from the Upano, Alao Arc, Quebrada-
grande Complex and the mafic and ultramafic rocks of the Peltetec,
Arquia, Barragán and Jambaló complexes are K/Ar and Rb/Sr dates
(E.g. Feininger and Silberman, 1982). A meta-andesite of the Upano
Unit yields a zircon U-Pb crystallisation age of 121.0 ± 0.8 Ma
(Cochrane, 2013). Cochrane (2013) present a U-Pb zircon age for the
Chinguál Batholith of 125.3 ± 0.9 Ma (Fig. 10), which is considered to
reside in the same “Salado Terrane” (Litherland et al., 1994) as the
Upano Unit, and the Azafrán Batholith (141–144 Ma; Table 2).
Cochrane (2013) presents 238U-206Pb dates from the rims and cores of
detrital zircons extracted from a quartzite of the Upano Fm. (Fig. 13),
which reveals a large spread in ages from rims and cores, and the youn-
gest age of 143.3 ± 9.9 Ma constrains the maximum stratigraphic age to
the latest Jurassic. These dates suggest that the contacts between the
Azafrán Batholith and parts of the Upano Unit are unconformable,
supporting the interpretation of Pratt et al. (2005). Age peaks occur at
500–600 Ma, 900–1200 Ma, 1500 Ma and the oldest is ~ 2 Ga. The
maximum stratigraphic age is consistent with pollen assemblages that
have a poorly resolved Early Jurassic–Cretaceous age (Riding, 1989).

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
24 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
No zircon U-Pb dates have been obtained from the meta-volcanic
rocks of the Alao Arc, located west of the Triassic anatectites (Loja Ter-
rane) and the Baños Fault (Fig. 10) within Ecuador. Litherland et al.
(1994) report imprecise K/Ar (hornblende) dates of 115 ± 12 Ma and
142 ± 36 Ma, and pollen assemblages suggest that the volcanoclastic
sedimentary rocks are Middle Jurassic (Riding, 1989). If the pollen oc-
currence is accurately calibrated against absolute time, then the K/Ar
hornblende dates are partially reset. Cochrane (2013) presents 238U-
206
Pb dates from the rims and cores of detrital zircons extracted
from a quartzite of the Alao Arc (Fig. 13), yielding a minimum age of
163.7 ± 1.6 Ma (Table 2), constraining its maximum stratigraphic age.
Similar detrital age populations are found compared to the detrital
dates from the Upano Unit, suggesting that they were supplied by the
same source regions. Furthermore, Early Ordovician acritarchs suggest
that they have been reworked into the Alao arc sequence (Litherland
et al., 1994), corroborating the detrital zircon U-Pb age spectrum
(Fig. 12). We conclude that no reliable age dates exist for the Alao arc,
although it is Middle Jurassic, or younger. Villagómez et al. (2011))
and Cochrane (2013) report concordant zircon U-Pb dates of magmatic
rocks of the Quebradagrande Fm. of 114.3 ± 3.8 Ma (tuff) and 112.9 ±
0.8 Ma (diorite) (Fig. 10; Table 2). Toussaint and Restrepo (1994) report
a K/Ar (whole rock basalt) date of 105 ± 0.8 Ma, although it is likely to
be at least partially reset. The U-Pb dates are consistent with Berriasian
to Aptian (145–112 Ma; Nivia et al., 2006 and references therein) fossil
dates, and a maximum stratigraphic age of ~149 Ma obtained from de-
trital zircons (Fig. 13). Vásquez et al. (2010) report hornblende 40Ar/
39
Ar (plateau) dates of 120.5 ± 0.6 Ma (tuff) and 136.0 ± 0.4 Ma (dio-
rite) from small gabbroic intrusions located in the Eastern Cordillera of
Colombia (Figs. 1 and 11; Table 1).
Dating the crystallisation ages of the mafic and ultramafic protoliths
of the MP-HP/LT rocks of the Arquía, Barragán, Jambaló, Peltetec and
Raspas complexes is problematic due to i) metamorphic overprinting,
and ii) the lack of high-U, low-(common)Pb minerals, which are amena-
ble to U-Pb dating. No U-Pb dates have been published, although this
could be addressed by recent developments in dating baddeleyite (e.g.
Chamberlain et al., 2010), which is stable in mafic rocks. Bustamante
et al. (2012) present a weighted mean 40Ar/39Ar date from three plateau
white mica dates of 120.7 ± 0.6 Ma (Fig. 10; Table 2) from a single
muscovite schist of the Barragán Complex, which they suggest records
retrogression during exhumation. This Early Cretaceous date is similar
to a plateau hornblende 40Ar/39Ar date of 112.0 ± 3.7 Ma (Villagómez
et al., 2011) obtained from the Arquía Complex, which has been
interpreted as the time of retrogression. The only other interpretable
dates from Colombia are plateau 40Ar/39Ar white mica (paragonite and
phengite) dates from blueschists of the Jambaló Complex, which range
between 68 and 62 Ma (Bustamante et al., 2011), which were inter-
preted to record the mylonitic event that was responsible for exhuming
the rocks. Numerous dates have been obtained from eclogites and
blueschists of the Raspas Complex in the Amotape Complex (Ecuador).
Phengite K/Ar (Feininger, 1980) and 40Ar/39Ar dates (Gabriele, 2002) of
132 ± 5 Ma and 123–129 Ma (Fig. 10) were interpreted to record cooling
during retrogression of the eclogites. However, these dates must be
interpreted with caution, given the propensity for phengite in high-
pressure rocks to incorporate excess 40Ar, which is not resolvable by in-
verse isochron analysis (e.g. Sherlock and Kelley, 2002). John et al.
(2010) report Lu-Hf isochron (garnet, whole rock, amphibole, pyroxene)
ages of 126.4 ± 4.0 and 129.9 ± 5.6 Ma, while the older estimate is con-
sidered to be more accurate, given its MSWD of 2.0 (Table 2). These
dates are interpreted to record garnet growth (John et al., 2010),
and overlap with the phengite 40Ar/39Ar dates of Gabriele (2002).
Mafic and ultramafic assemblages of the Peltetec sequence have
only experienced greenschist grade metamorphism, and we present
a plagioclase 40Ar/39Ar plateau dates of 134.7 ± 0.9 Ma and 134 ±
13 Ma (Table 2; details in the supplementary material; Fig. 14),
which we interpret as the minimum crystallisation age of the basaltic
protolith.
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
5.2.3. Comparison with Peru and the Merida Andes of Venezuela
Jurassic magmatic rocks in Peru are limited to the coast of the
Arequipa Terrane (Fig. 1), and in the southernmost Cordillera de
Carabaya (southern Peru, east of the city of Cusco). There is a gap in
exposure of Jurassic magmatic rocks between southernmost Ecuador
at 5°S, and the Paracas Peninsula at ~ 17°S (e.g. Sempere et al., 2002;
Boekhout et al., 2012). The Jurassic arc along coastal southern Peru is
the northern termination of a continuous belt that extends to central
Chile (28°S; Oliveros et al., 2006). The Ilo Batholith intrudes the
Grenvillian basement of the Arequipa Terrane, and the uppermost levels
intrude volcanic rocks of the Chocolate Fm. The batholith yields concor-
dant zircon U-Pb (LA-ICPMS) dates ranging between 152 and 173 Ma
(Boekhout et al., 2012; Fig. 12b), while the Chocolate Fm. yields zircon
U-Pb ages ranging between 216 and b135 Ma (Boekhout et al.,
2013a). Demouy et al. (2012) obtained concordant zircon U-Pb dates
ranging between 161 and 200 Ma from diorites and gabbros from the
western Arequipa Terrane. Mukasa (1986) report zircon U-Pb dates
between 184 and 188 Ma from a gabbro- tonalite unit located in south-
ern coastal Arequipa, and Mišković et al. (2009) present zircon U-Pb
dates from four syenites within the Eastern Cordillera, inboard of the
Arequipa Terrane (Cordillera de Carabaya; Allincapac Complex), which
range between 173 and 195 Ma. These dates suggest that Jurassic arc
magmatism may have been active in southern Peru since ~ 216 Ma,
and throughout the Jurassic, which overlaps with the entire span of Ju-
rassic dates found in the northern Andes (Fig. 12). Demouy et al. (2012)
use the distribution of U-Pb dates from Jurassic plutons to suggest that
the arc axis within Arequipa migrated oceanward at ~ 175 Ma. The
Jurassic intrusions host few xenocrystic cores within the zircons, with
ages clustering at approximately ~ 500–600, ~ 900–1050, and older
(Fig. 12b; Demouy et al., 2012).
Early Cretaceous granitoid intrusions in Peru are concentrated along
the coastline, forming the Coastal Batholith within the Western
Cordillera of Peru, and along coastal Arequipa, although none have
been found in the Eastern Cordillera of Peru (e.g. Mišković et al.,
2009). Early Cretaceous zircon U-Pb crystallisation ages from the Coast-
al Batholith located north of the Arequipa Terrane are ~ 100 Ma
(Mukasa, 1986) and 115–117 Ma (de Haller et al., 2006), which are sim-
ilar to the ages obtained from the Quebradagrande Complex in
Colombia (Table 2; Fig. 12). Boekhout et al. (2012) present concordant
zircon U-Pb dates ranging between 106 and 110 Ma from coastal Are-
quipa, which were originally mapped as the Ilo Batholith, although
they form a distinctly younger age group than the Jurassic granitoids.
A compilation of these dates suggests that there is a magmatic gap in
southern Peru between ~110 and ~132 Ma.
No Cretaceous magmatic rocks have been documented in the Merida
Andes, and this period is characterised by the deposition of sandstones
and marine mudstones (Van der Lelij, 2013).
5.3. Geochemistry
5.3.1. Latest Triassic–earliest Cretaceous granitoids
Latest Triassic to Jurassic (209–141 Ma) granitoids from the Cordillera
Real, Cordillera Central and the Santander Massif, are metaluminous
(Fig. 15a) and plot in the calc-alkaline to alkali-calcic field of Frost et al.
(2001; Fig. 15b), and in the high-K calc-alkaline and calc-alkaline fields
when comparing immobile elements (Fig. 16a). Negative Nb, Ta and Ti
anomalies, combined with enriched LILE relative to HFSE, and LREE
relative to HREE suggest that these rocks formed in a subduction related
setting and they are interpreted as continental arc intrusions (Fig. 15c, d).
Granitoids from the Santander Massif, which were probably located
furthest from the plate margin, are slightly more enriched in LILE and
are more peraluminous that the younger granitoids which intruded clos-
er to the palaeo-trench. The magmas within the Santander Massif may
have assimilated more continental crust, perhaps because they intruded
through thicker crust. Finally, the trace and major elements reveal no
along-strike geochemical differences in the magmas that formed within
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
the Northern Andes (Fig. 15). εNdi (whole rock) values for the latest
Triassic–Jurassic granitoids range between −7.2 and 5.3, and the intru-
sions within the Santander Massif host distinctly less radiogenic Nd
isotopic compositions than younger intrusions located further west
(Fig. 16b). εNdi (whole rock) values from the unfoliated intrusions of
the cordilleras Real and Central (red and black symbols in Fig. 16b) de-
fine no particular trend. εHfi (zircon) has a large range of −6 to 9.25
(Fig. 16c), and a well-defined trend indicates that the isotopic composi-
tion becomes more juvenile as the rocks become younger, although a
large range in εHfi (zircon) can be found in the unfoliated intrusions of
the cordilleras Real and Central, at any given time. The youngest, earliest
Cretaceous foliated intrusions (Chinguál and Azafrán) are located to the
west of the older granitoids, and yield the most juvenile isotopic compo-
sitions. These trends suggest that the latest Triassic–earliest Cretaceous
granitoid intrusions become more juvenile as the intrusions migrate
towards the palaeo-plate margin. The arc intrusions were intruding
through continental crust that was becoming thinner between
~194 Ma and ~ 189 Ma, and during the earliest Cretaceous, starting at
~143 Ma (Azafrán and Chinguál intrusions). This could be interpreted
as extension along the plate margin, or the migration of the arc axis
towards the trench, or a combination of both.
5.3.2. Early Cretaceous igneous rocks
Dacites, andesites, basalts and gabbros of the Quebradagrande
(Colombia) and Alao (Ecuador) sequences are metaluminous and span
a larger range in Aluminium Saturation Index than the Jurassic granit-
oids (Fig. 17a). Tectonic discrimination diagrams suggest that these
rocks formed in a variety of tectonic environments, spanning from
calk-alkaline arc to island arc tholeiite, ocean plateau tholeiite and
MORB compositions (Fig. 17b, c). These observations corroborate i)
the N-MORB normalised REE plot (Fig. 17e) which reveals both N-
MORB-like compositions, and rocks that are enriched in LREE, which is
more characteristic of subduction-related rocks, and ii) N-MORB nor-
malised trace element plot (Fig. 17d), which shows that some samples
have characteristic negative Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies, while these are
missing in the rocks that yield almost flat REE patterns. These rock se-
quences are exposed within faulted blocks, and distinguishing between
rock sequences that form the Quebradagrande Complex and the juxta-
posing Arquía Complex is difficult in the field. Therefore, we suggest
that some of the basalts that yield N-MORB signatures may be a
structurally detached component of the Arquía or Peltetec com-
plexes, which yield MORB and E-MORB signatures (see later), and
are now intercalated within arc rocks of the Quebradagrande and
Alao sequences. εNdi (whole rock; Fig. 16d) from the volcanic rocks
of the Quebradagrande and Alao sequences ranges between − 0.64
and 7.63 (Cochrane, 2013), and there is a general reduction in (La/
Yb)n as εNdi (whole rock) becomes more radiogenic (Fig. 16d). The
least radiogenic basalts within these volcanic sequences are more ju-
venile than the most radiogenic Nd isotopic compositions obtained
from the Jurassic granitoids. Similarly, the single εHfi (zircon) mea-
surement from the Quebradagrande Complex (Cochrane, 2013) is
more radiogenic that the same measurements from the Jurassic
granitoids (Fig. 16c).
Blueschists and amphibolites of the Barragán and Arquía complexes
yield flat REE (N-MORB normalised) multi-element plots ((La/Yb)n
0.74–4.68), and their trace element abundances lack strongly negative
Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies (Fig. 17f, g), contrasting with arc-related andes-
ites and basalts of the Quebradagrande Unit, which is faulted against
their eastern margin. These features are consistent with a tholeiitic frac-
tionation trend (Fig. 16a), and juvenile εNdi (whole rock) values of 3.2
to 9.6 (Arquía Complex only; Fig. 16d), which are more radiogenic
than the Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks of the Quebradagrande unit.
The MP-HP/LT metamorphosed rocks plot in the MORB to E-MORB
field when comparing Nb/La with (La/Sm)n (Fig. 17c), and island arc
to ocean-plateau tholeiite field when comparing La/Yb and Zr/Th
(Fig. 17b). Bustamante et al. (2012) suggest that the protoliths to the
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
25
blueschists and amphibolites of the Barragán Complex were normal
mid-ocean ridge basalts. Similarly, Villagómez et al. (2011) suggest
that the protolith to the amphibolites of the Arquía Complex may
have formed at a mid-ocean ridge.
Metamorphosed ultramafic–mafic rocks of the Raspas and Peltetec
complexes in Ecuador are geochemically similar to the Barragán and
Arquía units in Colombia. Eclogites of the Raspas Complex yield flat
REE profiles when normalised against N-MORB ((La/Yb)n 0.69–2.20;
Arculus et al., 2002; Bosch et al., 2002; John et al., 2010), and their
LILE contents are not significantly enriched relative to the HFSE, while
negative Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies are missing (Fig. 17h, i). The eclogites
plot in the N-MORB field when comparing Nb/La with (La/Sm)n
(Fig. 17c), and in the ocean plateau tholeiite field when comparing La/
Yb and Zr/Th (Fig. 17b). εNdi (whole rock) values for the eclogites are
juvenile, and range between 6.9 and 10.8 (Bosch et al., 2002; Fig. 16d),
corroborating their depleted chemical compositions. In contrast, the
blueschists from the Raspas Complex have enriched LILE relative to
their HFSE, and elevated LREE relative to their HREE ((La/Yb)n 6.0–
7.9; John et al., 2010; Fig. 17h, i). The blueschists plot in the seamount
field when comparing Nb/La with (La/Sm)n (Fig. 17c), and in island
arc tholeiite field when comparing La/Yb and Zr/Th, although they lack
Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies when normalised against N-MORB. John et al.
(2010); Fig. 17h interpret the eclogites as subducted oceanic litho-
sphere that was typical of N-MORB, whereas the protoliths to the
blueschists were considered to be seamounts. Bosch et al. (2002) sug-
gest that the mafic and ultramafic rocks metamorphosed under high-
pressure conditions and originally formed part of an oceanic plateau,
while Arculus et al. (2002) report that the protoliths originated as
both N-MORB, and within an oceanic plateau, and equilibrated with
peak conditions at 1.3–2.0 GPa and ≤ 600 °C. Finally, altered gabbros
and basalts of the Peltetec unit, which is exposed within the Peltetec
Fault Zone (Ecuador; Fig. 11) have received less attention, and the
only available geochemical data are from Litherland et al. (1994), and
new data that are published in this review (supplementary material).
These rocks are generally depleted compared to the other mafic rocks
(45–50 wt% SiO2; Cochrane, 2013; Fig. 17h) that lie in a similar structur-
al position in Ecuador and Colombia, with lower trace element and REE
abundances, and they yield slightly enriched LREE relative to HREE
((La/Yb)n 2.3–4.6; Fig. 17i), while there is a general absence of distinc-
tive Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies when normalised against N-MORB. The
trace element abundances plot close to unity when normalised against
N-MORB, and it is very likely that the LILE trends have been disturbed
by alteration. The gabbros and basalts plot within the calc-alkaline to
tholeiitic field when comparing immobile elements (Fig. 16a), and a
majority of the rocks plot within the MORB–seamount field when com-
paring Nb/La against (La/Sm)n (Fig. 17c). εNdi (whole rock) values for
the Peltetec unit range between 1.1 and 1.2 (this study; Fig. 16b), and
they are less radiogenic than those obtained from other mafic rocks
(45–50 wt% SiO2; Cochrane, 2013) that lie in a similar structural posi-
tion in Ecuador and Colombia. We interpret these data to suggest that
the protolith to these greenschist facies rocks formed either within an
ocean plateau, or perhaps within a back-arc basin setting, as transitional
crust.
5.3.3. Comparison with magmatic rocks from Peru
Granitoids of the Jurassic Ilo Batholith (U-Pb zircon 152–173 Ma; see
above) within the Arequipa Terrane of southern Peru are metaluminous
to slightly peraluminous (Fig. 15a), and show a strong enrichment in
LILE with negative Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies (Boekhout et al., 2012).
εNdi (whole rock) values range between − 5.1 and − 2.4 (Fig. 16),
and εHfi (zircon) range between −9.5 and 7, suggesting that mantle de-
rived melts assimilated a significant amounts of heterogeneous Sunsas-
aged (~ 1 Ga) continental crust (Demouy et al., 2012; Boekhout et al.,
2013b), with perhaps variable depths of melting. The few inherited
xenocrystic cores in Jurassic intrusions corroborate the assimilation of
continental crust (Fig. 12b). These data are consistent with a subduction
26 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

76° 75° 74° 73°

195.8±1.5
Segovia
Cretaceous (Early) Batholith 202.2±1.0
8°N Santander
Ultramafic - mafic H-MP/LT Massif
metabasalts, metagabbros. 196.0±1.1
Arquía, Barragán complexes (Colombia) 201.1±1.4
Raspas, Peltetec complexes (Ecuador) 199.8±1.2
B 208.8±1.2
Metalluminous volcanic rocks
Alao Arc (Ecuador) 200.0±1.5
Quebradagande Complex (Colombia) A 155.6±6.2 198.3±0.8
Metalluminous granitoids 199.1±1.3
M 188.9±2.0
Continental arc intrusions
Azafrán Batholith, Chinguál Pluton 198.0±0.8
Upano Unit (basalts and turbidites) 112.9±0.8 SPF
201.0±0.9
159.2±5.2 200.4±0.7
Jurassic - latest Triassic 149.2±6.1

SJF
168.8±0.7
Slates, quartzites 5°N 146.8±1.5
Guamote Sequence (Ecuador) 114.3±3.8
I 148.9±3.3
Metalluminous granitoids Barragán
120.7±0.3 IF 166.0±10
Continental arc intrusions
Arquía 182.6±2.4
112.0±3.7 159.6±2.4
164.4±1.1
City 156.5±1.1
Ibagué
Batholith 155.7±2.2
0 100 km 3°N 158.5±1.0

CAF
189.1±2.9
78°W Ibagué
Batholith 187.4±2.3
2°N

175.8±1.7
125.3±0.9 179.0±2.0
P 173.6±1.5
Chinguál
Pluton 181.5±1.6
157.9±7.3 Rosa Florida
LF Batholith
PF 0°
Q 182.4±0.6
Azafrán CF
169.8±1.1
Batholith U-Pb zircon
173.0±1.3 244.6±2.4
79°W LA-ICPMS
140.7±1.7 Abitagua
143.5±1.3 Batholith
277.3±3.0 U-Pb zircon
Y TIMS
168.8±2.2 Y’ 174.0±1.2
155.0±6.1 U-Pb zircon
Z (youngest detrital zircon)
Z’ 233.7±4.8 LA-ICPMS
Peltetec 163.7±1.6
134.7±0.9 metasedimentary rocks
134.3±13 40Ar/39Ar plateau date
80°W 143.3±9.9 213.7±0.9
CF hornblende, muscovite,
3°S phengite, plagioclase
Raspas PF
126.4±4.0 121.0±0.8 244.6±2.4 Lu-Hf isochron
129.9±5.6 BF
178.1±1.4
Raspas 145.4±0.2
123.9±1.4 L
T 153.8±1.5
129.3±1.3
132±5 160.5±1.7
Zamora
131.6±1.1 Batholith
5°S

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 27

A Y Y’
Passive E. Cret. arc Pz - Triassic Jurassic - earliest Cretaceous arc
Margin? basement
Guamote Alao Terrane Loja Salado Terrane Abitagua Batholith
Sequence Terrane
1°21’ S
PF V V V
N V V BF
V LF
V
V CF
3 km

Upano Fm.
Tungurahua
volcano
1°59’ S
E. Cret. arc
Passive
Z Margin? Z’
Guamote Sequence Alao Terrane
V
1°53’ S
V
V
PF V V
V
V
V V
V V
1°59’ S

Peltetec Unit

B
Age (Ma)
Cretaceous ultramafic - mafic complexes
250
Peltetec (Ecuador)
Raspas (Ecuador)
200
Arquía Unit (Colombia)
Gz Barragán Unit (Colombia)
150
Cretaceous Volcanic Rocks
Alao Arc (Ecuador)
100
Quebradagrande Complex (Colombia)
Cretaceous Intrusions
50
0 100 200 300 400 Eastern Cordillera (Colombia)
Distance from suture (km) Jurassic Intrusions
Azafrán and Chinguál (Ecuador)
Zamora, Abitagua (Ecuador)
Ibagué, Segovia (Colombia)
Santander Massif (Colombia)

Fig. 11. A) Strip maps across the central Cordillera Real of Ecuador showing the terrane terminology of Litherland et al. (1994). B) Relationship between zircon U-Pb age and distance from
the Peltetec Fault. The Peltetec Fault is considered to represent the Jurassic-Early Cretaceous palaeo-margin, and is equivalent to the Silvia-Pijao Fault in Colombia. Citations for the age data
are provided in Table 2. Gz: Garzón Massif.

environment within continental crust, and in this sense they appear
to be similar to the Jurassic granitoid intrusions exposed within the
Northern Andes, which yield the same crystallisation ages, although
the Nd isotopic compositions of the Peruvian rocks along the coast of
Arequipa (Fig. 1, inset) are less radiogenic (Fig. 16b). The Ilo Batholith
is currently exposed along the coastline of southern Arequipa, whereas
coeval granitoid intrusions within the Northern Andes are exposed 30–
150 km inland from present-day position of the Jurassic palaeo-margin
(Fig. 11b). Middle Jurassic nepheline syenites of the Allincapac igneous
complex in the Cordillera de Carabaya are more alkali than all Jurassic
igneous rocks found in the northern Andes (Fig. 15a, b), and formed
from SiO2 under-saturated magmas (Mišković et al., 2009), which are
considered to have intruded through thinned continental crust in the
Jurassic back-arc (Mišković et al., 2009).

Fig. 10. Geology of the Cordillera Real and Amotape Complex of Ecuador, and the Cordillera Central and Santander Massif of Colombia, showing the distribution of Jurassic–Early Cretaceous
arcs, obducted mafic–ultramafic rocks, and the Guamote Sequence (the Chaucha Terrane of Litherland et al., 1994). Exposure of the Peltetec Unit is too small to show on the map. The
Palaeozoic sequences and Triassic anatectites are shown for reference. Concordant Jurassic and Cretaceous zircon U-Pb, plateau 40Ar/39Ar and Lu-Hf dates and their uncertainties
(±2σ; see references in Table 2) are shown. Sections Y-Y' and Z-Z' are shown (see Fig. 11). Cities, B: Bucaramanga, I: Ibagué, L: Loja, M: Medellin, P: Pasto, Q: Quito. Faults: BF: Baños
Fault, CF: Cosanga Fault; CAF: Cauca-Almaguer Fault, IF: Ibagué Fault, LF: Llanganates Fault, OPF: Otú-Pericos Fault, PF: Peltetec Fault, SJF: San Jeronimo Fault, SPF: Silvia-Pijao Fault.
Map compiled from Litherland et al. (1994) and Gómez et al. (2007).

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
28 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
The Coastal Batholith of Peru (~115–37 Ma) is bimodal, and is dom-
inated by metaluminous tonalites (N 70 wt% SiO2) with enriched LILE
that are typical of calc-alkaline rocks. εHfi values from the Coastal Bath-
olith range between 5.2 and ~10.0 from rocks with U-Pb zircon ages of
~115 Ma (Polliand et al., 2005; de Haller et al., 2006; Schaltegger unpub-
lished data) along the coastline in Central Peru, and between − 5 and
7.5 (100–110 Ma) within Arequipa (Demouy et al., 2012; Boekhout
et al., 2013b), which are less juvenile than a diorite of similar age
(~ 113 Ma; Cochrane, 2013) from the Quebradagrande Complex
(Table 2; Fig. 16c). εNdi (whole rock) from Early Cretaceous granitoids
along coastal Arequipa range between −4.4 and 0.1 (Boekhout et al.,
2012), which is also less radiogenic than magmatic rocks of a similar
age in the Northern Andes (Fig. 16b).
5.4. The tectonic setting during the latest Triassic–Jurassic (210–145 Ma)
A combination of field studies, concordant zircon U-Pb dates, geo-
chemistry and isotopic data clearly shows that an I-type, metaluminous,
high-K to calc-alkaline continental arc formed within northwestern
South America at ~ 209 Ma, due to subduction of Pacific oceanic litho-
sphere beneath western South America. This time period marks the for-
mation of a new subduction zone inboard of the Central American
terranes that were the Permo-Triassic conjugate margin to northern
South America within Pangaea. Arc magmatism during 194–209 Ma
was focussed within the rocks of the Santander Massif, currently located
280–350 km inboard of the Silvia-Pijao Fault (Fig. 18a). The Peltetec–
Silvia Pijao Fault is the western boundary of the Quebradagrande Com-
plex, and is considered here to represent the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous
continental margin (Fig. 19). These early arc magmas assimilated large
quantities of continental crust, and are highly enriched in LILE, LREE
and non-radiogenic Nd and Hf isotopes. These rocks were coeval with
arc magmatism within southern Peru. The lack of arc magmatism within
Venezuela during 194–209 Ma suggests that it was located more than
400 km from the Pacific active margin, while the inter-American gap
had not yet opened.
The arc axis migrated westwards after ~194 Ma, giving rise to a long-
lived calc-alkaline, metaluminous arc (141–189 Ma) which is defined
by the Segovia, Ibagué, Rosa Florida, Abitagua, Azafrán, Chinguál and Za-
mora batholiths throughout Colombia and Ecuador, and several volcanic
formations (e.g. the Misahuallí Fm. in Ecuador; Figs. 18a and 19). These
intrusions yield more radiogenic Hf and Nd isotopic compositions
(Fig. 16c), and are more metaluminous (Fig. 15a) than during 194–
209 Ma suggesting that they either are derived from a more juvenile
source, or have assimilated less continental crust. A comparison of age
and longitude suggests that these intrusions are also young to the
west over a (present day) distance of ~100 km (Figs. 11b and 18a), tra-
versing the cordilleras Real and Central, with the oldest intrusions oc-
curring in the Segovia Batholith (Colombia), and the youngest in the
foliated Azafrán Batholith (Ecuador). This trend suggests that the arc
axis migrated to the west during 189–141 Ma, albeit at a much slower
rate than during 194–189 Ma. Westward migration of the Middle–
Late Jurassic arc axis by 100 km is similar to the quantity measured by
Boekhout et al. (2012) and Demouy et al. (2012) in the region of Arequi-
pa (from the city of Arequipa towards the coast), although migration at
that location is considered to have started at ~175 Ma. Migration of the
arc axes may be due to either slab steepening and migration relative to
the trench, or migration of the trench and subducted slab to the west,
extending the margin. Given that the younger intrusions yield more
juvenile Nd and Hf isotopic compositions, and are located further to
the west, we suggest that the crust was extending, resulting in progres-
sively less continental contamination of magmas derived from the man-
tle wedge above a subduction zone that was retreating. Unlike the other
Jurassic intrusions, which are generally unfoliated, the younger and
earliest Cretaceous Azafrán and Chinguál intrusions are foliated, and
are located to the west of the Cosanga Fault in Ecuador (Fig. 10). We
hypothesise that the Cosanga Fault may have originated within an
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
extensional system. This interpretation is consistent with i) Sempere
et al. (2002), who utilize sedimentary facies to demonstrate that
the margin of Arequipa was extending throughout the Jurassic, and
Boekhout et al. (2012) report subsidence rates of ~3.5 km/My, ii) Juras-
sic back arc magmatism through thin continental crust (173–195 Ma;
Mišković et al., 2009) in the Cordillera de Carabaya, southern Eastern
Cordillera of Peru, and iii) reconstructions of Pindell and Kennan
(2009), who draw rift zones extending from Central Peru towards
northern Colombia throughout the Jurassic period (Fig. 18b). Jurassic
extensional basins are recognised to the east of the Jurassic intrusions,
which are characterised by grabens with varying rates of subsidence,
along with marine environments (e.g. Bogota Basin) in Colombia
(Fabre, 1984; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1994). Subsidence gave rise to a
2000 m thick sequence of Sinamurian limestones and sandstones of
the Santiago Fm. (Litherland et al., 1994) in the southern Sub-Andean
Zone of Ecuador (Fig. 1), and in northern Peru (Jaillard et al., 1990).
The oldest crystallisation ages at any given location (Fig. 12a) show a
general younging trend from northern Colombia to southern Ecuador,
suggesting that the onset of subduction may have been diachronous
north of the Huancabamba Deflection. However, arc magmatism in
Peru may have started as early as 216 Ma, and occurred until b 135 Ma
(Fig. 18a), as recorded by the Chocolate Fm. and the Ilo Batholith.
Calc-alkaline, metaluminous arc intrusions along coastal Arequipa
were accompanied by coeval, alkali back-arc magmatism in the
Cordillera de Carabaya during 173–195 Ma (Fig. 18a). This time period
broadly corresponds with a westward jump of the arc axis in the Northern
Andes during 194–189 Ma, although coeval arc-back arc relationships
have not been found in the Northern Andes. Clearly, the potentially
diachronous onset of arc magmatism in the Northern Andes cannot be
extended across the Huancabamba Deflection.
The t–T paths generated from apatite U-Pb dates (Fig. 7) shows
that the current surface of the Northern Andes was cooler than 380 °C
throughout the Jurassic, and thus very little information can be obtained
from the U-Pb data. One sample reveals reheating to temperatures N 380
°C commencing at a poorly constrained interval time of ~ 150 Ma,
whereas the other sample reveals no reheating into the apatite lead
partial retention zone (APbPRZ; ~ 380–550 °C). We interpret this as
burial of fault blocks in southern Ecuador at ~ 150 Ma, whereas other
fault blocks were not buried, depending on their structural setting
within the extensional system.
5.4.1. Why is there a gap in the Jurassic arc in Peru?
The Jurassic arc is recorded along the entire length of the Northern
Andes, although it is missing between ~ 6°S and ~ 12°S (northern
Peru). This may be because an arc never formed in northern Peru
(Fig. 18a), implying there was insufficient subduction to create
magma due the angle of the South American Plate margin relative to
the plate convergence direction. Alternatively, there was a Jurassic arc
along the entire Peruvian margin, but it was removed from northern
Peru by either i) tectonic erosion, or ii) lateral displacement. The Jurassic
arc axis in Arequipa crops out along the coastline, ~ 50 km from the
present-day trench, and thus we hypothesise that the Jurassic forearc
has been removed, and did originally form along the entire margin.
The Peruvian and northern Chilean margin has undergone rapid tecton-
ic erosion since at least the Eocene (Clift et al., 2003; Clift and Hartley,
2007). The highest rates are found north of the present day intersection
of the Nazca Ridge with South America, which coincides with the
northern extent of the Arequipa Terrane. Clift et al. (2003) estimate
that flat subduction of the Nazca Ride beneath Peru has removed ~110
km of continental crust since the ridge started subducting at ~ 16 Ma
(Rosenbaum et al., 2005) or ~ 11 Ma (Hampel, 2002), and that 38 km
was eroded during the preceding ~35 Ma. The Nazca Ridge has not yet
subducted beneath the Arequipa Terrane, which may account for the
preservation of the Jurassic arc, and the spatial coincidence supports
this hypothesis.
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 29

A
Zircon U-Pb
age (Ma)±2
Ecuador Colombia Venez’ Peru
210

200
I b a g u é
Segovia
190

no igneous ativity
Rosa
Florida
Zamora
180 Abitagua
Jurassic

170

160
Cordillera Real,
Cordillera Central
150
Santander
Massif
140
Garzón
Massif
130
4 2 0 2 4 6 8
South North
B
Frequency Frequency
80
Cordillera Real
4
70 Cordillera Central
60 Santander Massif
Peru (Arequipa) 3
50

40 2
30
20 1

10
0
0
380
500
620
740
860
980
1100
1220
1340
1460
1580
1700
1820
1940
2060
2180
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220

206Pb/238U age (Ma) 206Pb/238U age (Ma)

Fig. 12. A) A comparison of latest Triassic–Jurassic concordant zircon U-Pb dates with latitude along the Cordillera Real, Cordillera Central, and the Santander and Garzón massifs of
Colombia. The ranges of concordant zircon U-Pb dates obtained from granitoid intrusions and volcano-sedimentary rocks from the Eastern Cordillera (Mišković et al., 2009) and Arequipa
Terrane (Boekhout et al., 2012; Demouy et al., 2012) are shown for comparison. Data and citations are presented in Table 2. B) Age frequency histogram for LA-ICPMS in-situ data (single
spots) for the latest Triassic–Early Cretaceous. C) Age frequency histogram for LA-ICPMS in-situ data (single spots) for the Devonian–Precambrian, revealing a paucity of xenocrystic zircon
cores in the Jurassic arc.

An alternative explanation for the Jurassic gap may be provided by require a pivot point and a dextral shear force, which may have been
palaeomagnetic data obtained from Jurassic tuffs (K/Ar dates only; provided by the northward transcurrent migration of crust from Peru.
Bayona et al., 2010) from northern Colombia (Sierra Nevada de Santa Within this context, Jurassic quartzites and slates of the Guamote
Marta and the Santander Massif; Fig. 1). These data suggest that the Sequence, located to the west of the Peltetec Fault in Ecuador (Fig. 11)
tuffs acquired their permanent remnant magnetization at southern may be a remnant of a dismembered terrane (the Chaucha Terrane of
palaeo-latitudes that corresponded with northern Peru and Ecuador Litherland et al., 1994) that was displacing towards to the north. This
during the Early Jurassic, and the fault blocks were at least within the hypothesis is consistent with the reconstructions of Pindell and
vicinity of Colombia by the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous. Bayona Kennan (2009), who invoke a lateral translation of the Tahamí Terrane
et al. (2010) conclude that there has been significant along-margin of the Cordillera Central of Colombia, during the Jurassic–Early Creta-
northward translation of terranes relative to the Amazonian Craton. ceous (Fig. 18b). Lateral translation of terranes along active margins
Therefore, the hypothesis that the Jurassic arc of northern Peru may has been documented in Nova Scotia, within the Rheic Ocean Wilson
have displaced northwards, and is currently partly exposed within Cycle (Gibbons et al., 1996). Factors that oppose this hypothesis are i)
Colombia should also be tested. Northward migration of terranes during the timing of northward displacement proposed by Bayona et al.
the late Jurassic could also account for ~63° of clockwise rotation of the (2010) is based around K/Ar dates, which rarely record crystallisation
Amotape Terrane (southern Ecuador; Fig. 1), which started at ~115 Ma ages and probably do not relate to the time that the remnant mag-
(Mourier et al., 1988; Jaillard et al., 1999). Clockwise rotation would netisation was acquired, and ii) our compilation of zircon U-Pb dates

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
30 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Guamote Sequence (Ecuador) Quebradagrande Complex (Colombia) Upano Unit (Ecuador)

30 1 sandstone 1 sandstone
3 sandstones 7

Silvia-Pijao Fault
Youngest single zircon: 6 Youngest single zircon: Youngest single zircon:
149.2 ± 6.1 Ma, N = 50 6 143.3 ± 9.9 Ma
155 ± 6.1 Ma, N = 262 5
20 5 N = 59
4
N N N4
3
3
10 2
2
1 1
0 0
0
1200
1500
1800

1200
1500
1800
0
300
600
900

2100
2400
2700
0
300
600
900

2100
2400
2700

Llanganates Fault
Alao Arc (Ecuador)
Age (Ma) 14 Age (Ma)
1 sandstone
12 Youngest single zircon:

Peltetec Fault
163.7 ± 1.6 Ma, N = 58
10
N 8
6
4
2

1200
1500
1800
0
300
600
900

2100
2400
2700
3000
Age (Ma)

Fig. 13. Age frequency histograms (zircon LA-ICP-MS) for three sandstones of the Guamote Sequence, and single sandstones from the Quebradagrande complex, Alao Arc and the Upano
Unit. The youngest U-Pb ages constrain the maximum stratigraphic ages of the rocks.

from the Jurassic arc in Colombia shows that they progressively
young to the west, and the Jurassic arc is not duplicated in Colombia
or Ecuador (Fig. 11b). Consequently, we conclude that the Jurassic arc
in Northern Peru either never formed, or has been removed by subduc-
tion erosion.
5.5. The tectonic setting during the Early Cretaceous (145–115 Ma)
The compiled zircon U-Pb dates, geochemistry and isotopic data
clearly show that I-type, metaluminous, high-SiO2 (N 75%; Fig. 15) arc
rocks formed the Azafrán and Chinguál Batholiths, and parts of what is

40Ar/39Ar date
36Ar/40Ar
±2 (Ma)
1400 Inverse isochron age 115.35 ± 43.66 Ma
Metabasalt 09PR47 0.04
40Ar/36Ar intercept 319.7 ± 57.2
1200
MSWD 2.47 step used to calculate age
1000 0.03
step not used
800
0.02
600
400 134.26±12.84 (4 steps)
0.01
200

0 0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
%39Ar released 39Ar/40Ar

40Ar/39Ar date
±2 (Ma) 36Ar/40Ar

Inverse isochron age 134.12 ± 8.65 Ma

Metagabbro 09PR48 0.04 40Ar/36Ar intercept 298.4 ± 42.8
400
MSWD 2.25
0.03
300

134.71±0.89 (5 steps) 0.02

200

0.01
100
0 20 40 60 80 100
%39Ar released 0.00
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
39Ar/40Ar

Fig. 14. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra (plateau dates) and inverse isochron plots from plagioclase extracted from meta-basalts of the Peltetec Unit, Ecuador. Steps with older dates are defined by
gas that is contaminated with excess 40Ar (step heating data are presented in the supplementary files).

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 31

mapped as the Zamora Batholith (granodiorite 09RC43; Table 2; Fig. 19) intrusions (Fig. 16). Scant geochronological data suggest that the
during 144–132 Ma. These units are exposed to the west of the older arc volcanic rocks within the Quebradagrande Unit erupted at ~ 114 Ma,
intrusions in Ecuador, are bound against the Cosanga Fault (Fig. 11) while the volcanoclastic rocks were deposited after ~149 Ma (Fig. 13).
to their east, and exhibit a weak to strong foliation (Pratt et al., 2005). No accurate age estimates of the Alao arc are available although sedi-
The Hf and Nd isotopic compositions (Fig. 16) indicate that they mentation could have occurred after ~ 164 Ma (Fig. 13). K/Ar dates of
crystallised from melts that were more juvenile than the older, un- 115 ± 12 Ma and 142 ± 36 Ma suggest that it could be coeval with
foliated Jurassic intrusions and they are considered by Cochrane the Quebradagrande Complex. This tectonic correlation is supported
(2013) to have erupted through thinned crust (Fig. 19). This interpreta- by its outboard position relative to the Palaeozoic basement, Triassic
tion is consistent with Pratt et al. (2005) who suggest that the foliations anatectites and Jurassic intrusions, and we tentatively assign an Early
formed during pure shear, and Litherland et al. (1994) who suggest that Cretaceous age to the Alao arc.
magmatism within the “Salado Terrane” occurred within a marginal The Alao Arc hosts large volumes of quartz-zircon-tourmaline
basin (Fig. 19). U-Pb dates of detrital zircons sandstones of the Upano rich arenites (Cochrane, 2013), and the U-Pb ages of detrital zircons
Unit suggest that this marginal basin was forming after 143 Ma (Fig. 13) reveal a derivation from cratonic South America. Therefore,
(Fig. 13), which is consistent with the crystallisation ages of the Azafrán the Alao Arc is interpreted to have formed above an east-dipping sub-
and Chinguál plutons. Extension during 144–132 Ma coincides with a duction zone along the thinned fringe of a continental margin, giving
region-wide angular unconformity in the Upper Magdallena Valley rise to isotopically juvenile, mafic volcanic rocks (Cochrane, 2013;
Basin (Fig. 1; Jaimes and de Freitas, 2006), the Oriente Basin in Fig. 19). Extension was sufficient to form MORB-like rocks with tholeiit-
Ecuador (Balkwill et al., 1995) and in northern Peru (Jaillard et al., ic signatures above the subduction zone. Alternatively, the tholeiitic ba-
1990). The older Jurassic intrusions to the east (N 145 Ma; e.g. the salts may form part of the Peltetec Unit (Fig. 11), and were structurally
Abitagua Batholith) were not affected by the extensional system, and emplaced against the calk-alkaline rocks during subsequent compres-
remain unfoliated. sion. This interpretation differs from that of Litherland et al. (1994),
Mafic, calk-alkaline to tholeiitic volcanic rocks of the Alao and who draw the Alao Arc as a Middle Jurassic Island Arc, although this is
Quebradagrande Complexes are preserved to the west of the Azafrán inconsistent with the presence of abundant Precambrian zircons. Simi-
and Chinguál Batholiths, and west of an uplifted core (Pratt et al., larly, the volcanic rocks of the Quebradagrande Complex are associated
2005) of Palaeozoic basement and Triassic migmatites, via the Baños with sedimentary rocks (Abejorral Fm.; E.g. Gómez-Cruz et al., 1995)
Fault (Fig. 11). Major, trace element and REE compositions suggest that host abundant quartz, and Nivia et al. (2006) interpreted this
that these rocks formed within arcs (Fig. 17), although some samples sequence as a thinned marginal basin along a continental margin
yield an affinity with MORB. The volcanic rocks are located outboard (Fig. 19). Villagómez et al. (2011) suggest that the arc rocks erupted
of the Jurassic intrusions (Fig. 11b), and yield juvenile Hf and Nd isotopic through highly attenuated continental crust because i) some basalts
compositions and depleted trace elements relative to the Jurassic yield geochemical signatures that approach seamounts (T-MORB),

A C
4.0 10000
Ecuador (Abitagua, Zamora, Rosa Florida)
Peru (Ilo Batholith) Peraluminous
3.5 Jurassic arc Ecuador (Azafrán, Chinguál)
1000
Colombia (Ibagué, Segovia)
3.0
Colombia (Santander Massif)
Metalluminous
Al/(Na+K)

100
2.5
Ecuador, Colombia
2.0 Triassic anatec tes 10
1.5
1
1.0
Peru (Allincapac) Jurassic back-arc
0.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.1
Cs Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta La Ce Pb Pr Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Ti Tb Y Tm Yb
Al/(Ca+Na+K) D
B 100
Azafrán, Chinguál Batholith
Rosa Florida, Abitagua, Zamora
10
Ibagué, Segovia
10
Na2O + K2O - CaO (wt%)

8 Peru (Allincapac)
Jurassic back-arc

6
1
4
Alkalic
2 c
lci 0.1
i- ca La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu
k al lin
e
0 Al ka
al
lc- Calcic
Peru (Ilo Batholith)
-2 Ca Jurassic arc

50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SiO2 (wt%)

Fig. 15. Geochemical data from Jurassic granites and granodiorites from the Cordillera Real, Cordillera Central and the Santander Massif (Litherland et al., 1994; Romeuf et al., 1995;
Bustamante et al., 2010; Cochrane, 2013; Van der Lelij, 2013). Fields are shown for Jurassic intrusions within the Arequipa Terrane (Boekhout et al., 2012; Demouy et al., 2012) and the
Allincapac Complex Mišković et al. (2009) of Peru. Multi-element plots are normalised to N-MORB (citation).

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
32 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

A B
εNdi (whole rock)
Th (ppm) 6
100 Gz
4

10 2 Gz
High-K calc-alkaline

0
Calc-alkaline
1
-2
Rhyo e, grano
gran

Peru
Coastal Batholith
Bas site, dio
and
lite,
it

-4 Arequipa Terrane
altic
e

0.1
dacit iorite

and ite

Peru
-6
e,

Tholeiite Arequipa Terrane

d

esite
r

0.01 -8
,

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Co (ppm)
Time (Ma)
C D
εHfi (zircon) (La/Yb)n
16 35
DM
14
12 Peru 30
Arequipa Terrane
10 and back-arc
25
8
6 20
4
2 15
0
10
-2 Peru
-4 Coastal Batholith
Arequipa Terrane and 5
-6 North of Arequipa
-8 0
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
εNdi (whole rock)
Time (Ma)

Cretaceous ultramafic - mafic complexes

Peltetec (Ecuador)
Raspas (Ecuador)
Arquía Unit (Colombia)
Barragán Unit (Colombia)
Cretaceous Volcanic Rocks
Alao Arc (Ecuador)
Quebradagrande Complex (Colombia)
Cretaceous Intrusions
Eastern Cordillera (Colombia)
Jurassic Intrusions
Azafrán and Chinguál (Ecuador)
Zamora, Abitagua (Ecuador)
Ibagué, Segovia (Colombia)
Santander Massif (Colombia)

Fig. 16. Geochemical and isotopic data from Jurassic intrusions, Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks, and M-HP/LT mafic and ultramafic rocks of the Amotape Complex and Cordillera Real of
Ecuador, and the Cordillera Central, Santander Massif and the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. See captions for Figs. 15 and 17 for citations. Fields for the Coastal Batholith of Peru are from
data in de Haller et al. (2006), Demouy et al. (2012), Boekhout et al. (2013b), and unpublished data from U. Schaltegger (University of Geneva). Fields for the Arequipa Terrane and Jurassic
back-arc of Peru are from data in Mišković et al. (2009), Demouy et al. (2012), and Boekhout et al. (2013b).

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
ii) most volcanic rocks erupted in submarine conditions, and iii) no con-
tinental detritus is found to the west of the Quebradagrande Complex.
Pindell and Kennan (2009) draw the Quebradagrande Arc as an oceanic
arc above an east dipping subduction zone until 125 Ma, although this
date is not based on robust geochronological evidence from north-
western South America.
The simplest explanation for the geochemical, isotopic and geochro-
nological trends obtained from the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous igne-
ous rocks is that they formed above the same east-dipping subduction
zone, which was retreating oceanward during 209–194 Ma, and after
~ 145 Ma until ~ 114 Ma (E.g. Cochrane, 2013; Fig. 19). Extension of
the continental crust during ~ 145–114 Ma was sufficient to generate
mafic magmas with T-MORB geochemical characteristics and marine
environments, which are found intercalated within the Alao and
Quebradagrande sequences. Kennan and Pindell (2009) refer to this
extensional feature as the Colombian Marginal Seaway. This time corre-
sponds with heating of some fault blocks within the southern Cordillera
Real (Fig. 7a) to temperatures of up to ~500 °C, which was synchronous
with a significant increase in εHFi (zircon) in the magmatic rocks.
Heating is interpreted to be a consequence of sedimentary burial during
extension, combined with an increase in geothermal gradients, which
may have been significant in places due to the proximity of magma.
Other fault blocks (Fig. 7b; e.g. northern Colombia) were not being
heated at this time, presumably because they did not reside in a part
of the extensional system that was being buried. Finally, some faulted
units (e.g. south of the Ibagué Fault in the Cordillera Real; Villagómez
and Spikings, 2013) were cooling at ~140 Ma (Fig. 7c), perhaps because
they were exhumed during extension.
This interpretation is similar to that of Toussaint and Restrepo
(1994), Cooper et al. (1995), Sarmiento-Rojas et al. (2006) and Pindell
and Kennan (2009), who suggest that the rocks of the Eastern Cordillera
of Colombia (Fig. 1) underwent back-arc extension (NNE–SSW exten-
sional axis; e.g. Mora et al., 2006), during the Cretaceous, associated
with an arc that formed rocks which are now exposed within the Cordil-
lera Central (Quebradagrande Complex). Vásquez and Altenberger
(2005) and Vásquez et al. (2010) report that gabbroic intrusions ex-
posed in the Eastern Cordillera formed within a rift setting during
135 Ma and 121 Ma (Table 2; Fig. 11). The MORB and OIB-type chemis-
try of these rocks (Vásquez et al., 2010) suggests that back-arc extension
was significant.
The Guamote Sequence of Litherland et al. (1994) does not host any
magmatic rocks, and is composed of metasedimentary rocks that were
deposited after 155 Ma (Fig. 13). The Braziliano and Sunsas aged U-Pb
ages of detrital zircons shows that the sediments were derived from
cratonic South America. Furthermore, their detrital age signature is in-
distinguishable from that obtained from arenites within the Alao Arc,
Quebradagrande Complex and the Upano Unit (Fig. 13). The Guamote
Sequence is currently separated from the Alao Arc by ultramafic–mafic
rocks of the Peltetec Complex, although it is not unreasonable to suggest
that it once formed a part of the South American Margin, and was
emplaced either by i) strike-slip displacement from more southern
latitudes (see Section 5.7), or by ii) rifting away from north-western
South America, followed by re-accretion (Fig. 19).
Litherland et al. (1994) suggest that prior to 140 Ma, continental
crust of the Chaucha Terrane lay outboard of a west-facing island arc
(Alao Arc), which was separated from South America by oceanic crust
that was subducting beneath South America, forming the Azafrán
Pluton. Subsequently, the same authors suggest that these terranes col-
lided together during 140–120 Ma, during the compressive Peltetec
Event. Similarly, Villagómez and Spikings (2013) suggest that the colli-
sion of a series of seamounts or oceanic plateau blocked the Jurassic sub-
duction zone, terminating the Jurassic arc, and that a new subduction
zone formed outboard of the hypothetical plateau, forming the west-
facing Quebradagrande Arc. However, the data compiled here suggest
that i) arc magmatism during the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous formed
above a single subduction zone, ii) the Quebradagrande Complex was
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
33
a continental arc that erupted through thinned continental crust, and
iii) extension prevailed during the Early Cretaceous. No evidence exists
for a Jurassic oceanic Plateau within Colombia or Ecuador.
The Arquía, Barragán, and Raspas complexes are considered to be
equivalent because i) they are located in similar structural positions,
outboard of Triassic anatectites and volcanic arc rocks, ii) they are com-
posed of basalts and gabbros that have been metamorphosed to varying
degrees under M-HP/LT conditions, iii) they yield peak metamorphic
and retrogression dates that are similar, and iv) they yield MORB–
seamount geochemical signatures. The Raspas Complex now forms
part of the para-autochthonous Amotape Terrane, which detached
from rocks that are now exposed in the Cordillera Real. The Raspas Com-
plex hosts HP-LT rocks of oceanic plateau and MORB affinity (Arculus
et al., 1999; Bosch et al., 2002; John et al., 2010), which were exhumed
following peak metamorphism at 130–126 Ma (John et al., 2010).
Geochemical and isotopic compositions also suggest that the Barragán
(HP-LT) and Arquía (MP-LT) units originated as MORB and seamounts
(Bustamante et al., 2012), while their 40Ar/39Ar dates suggest that
they were exhuming and cooled below ~ 400 °C during 120–112 Ma.
We consider these units to have been metamorphosed within the
same subduction zone, which was exhumed to variable degrees along-
strike of northwestern South America (Fig. 19). Exhumation could
have been triggered by forced return flow (Gerya et al., 2002), which
may have occurred during a compressive event, combined with the
inherent buoyancy of oceanic plateau rocks relative to MOR-derived
lithosphere.
Rifting of northwestern South America during the Early Cretaceous
may have been sufficient to detach continental slivers (e.g. the Chaucha
Terrane in Ecuador), and we suggest that the greenschist facies ultra-
mafic–mafic rocks of the Peltetec Complex formed during advanced
continental rifting as E-MORB crust. The Peltetec Complex has not
been metamorphosed in a subduction zone, and its current structural
position between the Guamote Sequence and the Alao Arc in Ecuador
indicates they were obducted during a compressional event. Their
40
Ar/39Ar dates suggest that they formed at ~ 134 Ma, and hence they
formed before the subduction channel that hosted the Arquía, Barragán
and Raspas complexes was exhumed.
5.6. Compression during the Early Cretaceous
Dense mineral assemblages and detrital zircon fission track dates
with very short lag-times suggests that rocks deposited within the
Upper Magdalena Valley (Fig. 1; Vergara and Prössl, 1994; Sarmiento
and Rangel, 2004) and Oriente (Ruiz et al., 2007; Martin-Gombojav
and Winkler, 2008) basins during 120–115 Ma were derived from an
exhuming cordillera located to the west. Restrepo et al. (2009) suggest
that Aptian–middle Albian sandstones of the Abejorral Fm., which are
located along the western flank of the Cordillera Central, were derived
from a proto-Central Cordillera to the east. Time–Temperature paths
for some faulted blocks suggest that they cooled rapidly at 117–
107 Ma (Fig. 7c), while other faulted units appear to have continued
the heating trend from earlier in the Cretaceous (Fig. 7a). Villagomez
et al. (2013) interpret these data as evidence for compression, which ex-
humed some fault blocks, forming a proto-Cordillera Central. This time
period coincides with the timing of retrogression of the east-dipping
subduction zone during exhumation, and compression at this time
obducted blueschists and eclogites of the Raspas, Arquía and Barragán
complexes onto the South American margin. Compression may have
occurred due to an increase in the convergence rates of the oceanic
Caribbean Plate (Kennan and Pindell, 2009) and South America, as a
consequence of the opening of the South Atlantic, which started at
~ 120 Ma (Eagles, 2007). Detrital zircon fission track dates from the
Oriente Basin of Ecuador (Fig. 1; Ruiz et al., 2004) suggest that a second
compressive event may have occurred within Ecuador at ~ 100 Ma,
which would be coeval with compression in Peru (Mégard, 1984).
34 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

A B
8 La/Yb
Peraluminous
7 30
Barragán

Metalluminous
6
Al/(Na+K)
Triassic Jurassic Arquía
5 25 Batholiths Raspas
anatectes
4 Calc-alkaline Peltetec
Jurassic 20
3 arc arc Alao
2 Azafran Quebradagrande
15 Batholith
1
0 10
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Island arc
Al/(Ca+Na+K)
C 5 tholeiite
Ocean plateau tholeiite
Nb/La
1.6 0
1.4 0 200 400 600 800
E-MORB seamounts Zr/Th
1.2 D
1.0
0.8 Quebradagrande Complex
MORB 1000
0.6 Alao Arc
connental arc
0.4
oceanic 100
0.2
arc
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 10
(La/Sm)n
E
10 1

N-MORB
0.1
Cs Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta La Ce Pb Pr Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Ti Tb Y Tm Yb
1

N-MORB
0.1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu
F G
Blueschist 10
Barragan Complex
Amphibolite
100
Arquía Complex Amphibolite
1
10

N-MORB
1 0.1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu

N-MORB
0.1
Cs Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta La Ce Pb Pr Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Ti Tb Y Tm Yb
H
Blueschist I
Raspas Complex 10
Eclogite
100
Peltetec Complex Basalt, gabbro

10 1

1 N-MORB
0.1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu

0.1 N-MORB
Cs Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta La Ce Pb Pr Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Ti Tb Y Tm Yb

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 35

Maresch et al. (2009) report metamorphic zircon dates of 116–
106 Ma from anatectites within HP-LT metagabbros at La Rinconada,
Margarita Island (southern Caribbean). Those rocks are interpreted as
back-arc basin crust that was subducted and retrogressed during 116–
106 Ma. The coincidence in the timing of metamorphism in northwest-
ern South America and Margarita Island suggests that they may have
formed in the same tectonic setting. However, Maresch et al. (2009)
suggest that the HP-LT rocks at Margarita Island formed on a west-
dipping slab of continental back-arc crust. The same arc polarity is
shown by Pindell et al. (2005) at 119 Ma, although Pindell and
Kennan (2009) suggest that the polarity of the subduction zone flipped
during 125–120 Ma, during the transition from their Trans-American
Arc, to the Caribbean Arc, and the separation of North America from
Gondwana. However, it is difficult to account for the outboard position
of M-HP/LT metamorphic rocks relative to the Alao and Quebrada-
grande arcs within an east-facing arc system, and the simplest explana-
tion of the very large amount of data obtained from Jurassic and Early
Cretaceous rocks of the northern Andes suggest that subduction was
east-dipping beneath South America.
5.7. The Chaucha Terrane and the Tahamí Terrane
As previously described, the Chaucha Terrane includes the Guamote
sequence (Fig. 11), which hosts quartzites and slates that contain Juras-
sic ammonites, some of which were deposited after 155 ± 6.1 Ma
(Fig. 13). These rocks lie outboard of the Peltetec Fault, and probably
represent a rifted fragment of South America, which re-accreted during
compression at 120–110 Ma, or perhaps at a later time. The N-S extent
of these units beneath the volcanic cover rocks is unknown, and other
suspect occurrences include i) a small inlier of slates within the north-
ern Interandean Depression in Ecuador (Fig. 1; near the town of
Chota, 0°15’N), ii) a faulted sliver of graphitic schists in the southern
Western Cordillera of Ecuador (2°30’S), and iii) undated granites of
the Manu Inlier, located between the Amotape Terrane and the Eastern
Cordillera of Ecuador (3°30’S). The Chaucha Terrane is shown on the
tectonic reconstructions of Litherland et al. (1994) as a large continental
block that is exotic to South America. Similarly, Pindell and Kennan
(2009) show the Chaucha Terrane on their reconstructions (Fig. 18b)
as a continental microplate, with sufficient dimensions to displace the
Jurassic subduction zone westwards by N100 km. However, the distance
between their Jurassic subduction zone and South America (Fig. 18b) is
too large to account for the distribution of Jurassic arc rocks within
Ecuador. We consider all of these exposures to be para-autochthonous
to South America, and equivalent to lithologies exposed to the east of
the Peltetec Fault. Their current dispersion over a strike-distance of
~ 300 km may be a result of strike-slip segmentation of several rifted
continental slivers during the amalgamation of the Caribbean Large Ig-
neous Province at ~ 75 Ma (Vallejo et al., 2006; Spikings et al., 2010),
and we do not consider these rocks to belong to a separate terrane,
and use of the term “Chaucha Terrane” is misleading. In our interpreta-
tion, the latest Jurassic–Early Cretaceous Guamote sequence formed
within the forearc of the Alao Arc and Upano Units during extension,
above an east-dipping subduction zone.
The Tahamí Terrane (Antioquia Terrane in Pindell and Kennan,
2009) of northern Colombia (Restrepo and Toussaint, 1982) is widely
considered to be fault bounded by the Otú-Pericos and Palestina faults
to the east, the San Jeronimo Fault to the west, and the Ibagué Fault in
the south (Fig. 1). It is considered to be a distinct terrane because i) it
is separated from Sunsas-aged (~1 Ga) crust in the east, and ii) it does
not expose Jurassic arc rocks, unlike the region to the east. The base-
ment rocks in this suspect terrane yield Ordovician (Villagómez et al.,
2011) and Triassic (Cajamarca Complex; e.g. Cochrane et al., 2014a)
U-Pb dates, which are intruded by the ~ 90 Ma Antioquia Batholith.
However, in our opinion these are insufficient to assign a terrane
status to these rocks, and it is not proven that they are derived from
several hundred km to the south, as is advocated in many models (e.g.
Kennan and Pindell, 2009). The simplest interpretation of the data pre-
sented here is that the current west-to-east juxtaposition of M-HP/LT
rocks, an Early Cretaceous arc, Palaeozoic and Triassic basement, latest
Jurassic arc and Jurassic arc, is a consequence of Jurassic–Early Creta-
ceous attenuation of the margin, followed by a switch to compression
starting at ~ 120–115 Ma. The assemblage of Palaeozoic and Triassic
rocks in Colombia is identical in composition, field relationships
and age to those found throughout the Loja Terrane (a term used by
Litherland et al., 1994) of Ecuador, and they are interpreted here as
basement that was exhumed during Jurassic–Early Cretaceous exten-
sion. Jurassic intrusive rocks are not found in these regions because
they did not overlie the arc axis at that time (Fig. 19). Furthermore, U-
Pb zircon ages spanning between 900 and 1700 Ma, with a peak at
~ 1200 Ma (orthogneiss, La Miel Unit; Villagómez et al., 2011) within
Ordovician rocks suggest that Precambrian rocks may underlie this
suspect terrane. Consequently, we do not include these rocks as terranes
in our reconstruction (Figs. 18a and 19). Similar to the case of the
Chaucha Terrane, models which place the Jurassic subduction zone out-
board of a hypothetical Tahamí Terrane (e.g. Pindell and Kennan, 2009;
Fig. 18b) create a distance between the trench and the Jurassic arc in
South America that is too large.
5.8. Comparison with Peru (145–115 Ma)
With the exception of far northern Peru, no intrusive or volcanic
rocks have been documented within Peru that yield zircon U-Pb
dates that lie between 145 and 115 Ma. The period between 145 and
110 Ma was characterised by extensional tectonic events along the
Peruvian margin, generating deep sedimentary basins in northern
Peru during 145–130 Ma (Chicama Basin), and in Central Peru during
130–110 Ma (Jaillard and Soler, 1996). Kennan and Pindell (2009)
draw highly oblique and sinistral plate convergence directions between
South America and the Farallon Plate at 130 Ma, which would result in
slow subduction north of the Huancabamba Deflection, and no net
convergence along coastal Peru, accounting for a lack of magmatism in
that region. Pindell and Kennan (2009) draw orthogonal subduction
between their Caribbean Plate and the Peruvian coastline at 125–120
Ma, although this is unlikely given the lack of arc rocks of this age.
The Aptian calc-alkaline Celica continental arc (Feininger and
Bristow, 1980; Lebrat et al., 1987) formed in northwestern Peru and
far southwestern Ecuador, and its forearc Celica-Lancones Basin is pre-
served (Fig. 1; Jaillard et al., 1999). The magmatic rocks are poorly
dated, and they may have formed above the same subduction zone
that gave rise to the Quebradagrande and Alao arcs. These rocks may
represent the earliest manifestation of magmatism in Peru that lead to
the formation of the Coastal Batholith starting at ~115 Ma.
6. The tectonic history of northwestern South America during
115–75 Ma
Only small volumes of magmatism are recorded in Ecuador and
Colombia during ~115–100 Ma, which corroborates the highly oblique
dextral convergence angles of the Caribbean Plate with South America
(Pindell and Kennan, 2009). Barragán et al. (2005) report plateau
(whole rock) 40Ar/39Ar dates of 110–82 Ma from low volumes of alkali
basalts in the Oriente Basin of Ecuador (Fig. 1). The same authors

Fig. 17. Geochemical data from Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks (Litherland et al., 1994; Nivia et al., 2006; Villagómez et al., 2011; Cochrane, 2013; Rodriguez and Zapata, 2013) and
M-HP/LT mafic and ultramafic rocks (Litherland et al., 1994; Arculus et al., 2002; Bosch et al., 2002; John et al., 2010; Villagómez et al., 2011; Bustamante et al., 2012; Cochrane, 2013)
of the Amotape Complex and Cordillera Real of Ecuador, and the Cordillera Central of Colombia. La/Yb and Zr/Th tectonic discrimination fields are from Jolly et al. (2001), and the
Th-Co classification of igneous rocks and tectonic environments is based on Hastie et al. (2007). Multi-element plots are normalised to N-MORB (Sun and McDonough, 1989).

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
36 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

A 209 - 194 Ma 189 - 145 Ma

North
America Yucatan Yucatan

Central and
20°N southern
Mexico
Santander
Massif
20°N
S

120mm/a
F
P-SP

120mm/a I
10°N
Arc exposed today
10°N Arc not formed, burried A
or tectonically eroded
Z
Present day coastline

0°N

Arequipa
0°N Terrane
N CC
IB

Nazca Nazca
300km Ridge Ridge
300km
100°W 90°W 100°W 90°W

B 190 Ma 158 Ma

North
America Yucatan Central and
Southern Yucatan
Mexico

Ch 20°N
20°N
120mm/a 120mm/a Ch
T

T
10°N
10°N C

0°N
0°N
1000 km 1000 km

110°W 100°W 90°W 110°W 100°W 90°W

Fig. 18. A) Subduction zones along western Pangaea during the Jurassic determined using an arc-trench distance of 300 km, and constant slab-dip. These subduction zones are derived
assuming that the Tahami Terrane in autochthonous. Palaeopositions, plate motion and reconstructions for Yucatan and central and southern Mexico are taken from Pindell and Kennan
(2009), and reconstruction at 189–145 Ma is from their reconstruction for 158 Ma. Black arrows indicate amount of lateral migration of the subduction zone between 194 and 189 Ma
(Colombia and Ecuador) and after ~175 Ma (southern Peru). Grey line is present day coastline, and position of the Nazca Ridge. A: Abitagua Batholith, CC: Cordillera de Carabaya, I: Ibagué
Batholith, IB: Ilo Batholith, P-SPF: Peltetec-Silvia Pijao Fault (this is the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous palaeomargin; Vallejo et al., 2006), S: Segovia Batholith, Z: Zamora Batholith. B) Sub-
duction zones and reconstruction of Pindell and Kennan (2009), which assume that the Tahamí Terrane of Colombia is allochthonous, and that the Chaucha Terrane (Litherland et al.,
1994) exists. Blue line is a rift axis. C: Chaucha Terrane, Ch: Chortis Block, T: Tahamí Terrane.

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 37

189-145 Ma 145 - 141 Ma

Continental arc volcanism Extension of the continental margin

Jurassic Batholith Foliated

(E.g. Abitagua, Ibagué) arc (E.g. Azafrán Batholith)

W E
rollback

active
arc
active
arc Triassic anatectites,
undifferentiated
Palaeozoic rocks

141-115 Ma Margin attenuation, westward migration of arc, intra-arc basins, rifted continental slivers?

Raspas Complex Quebradagrande

Guamote Peltetec Upano Arquía Complex
Alao Arc Complex
Sequence Unit Unit (marine) Barragán Complex
marine
rollback rollback

active active
arc asthenospheric arc asthenospheric
upwelling forming upwelling forming
transitional crust transitional crust

115-100 Ma Closure of fore/intra/back arc basins, obduction of M-HP/LT rocks, rock uplift and exhumation

Future Caribbean Peltetec Fault Zone Future Caribbean Silvia-Pijao

Cosanga Otú-Pericos
suture (75 Ma), suture (75 Ma), Fault
Fault Fault
Ingapirca Fault Cauca-Almaguer
marine Fault marine
compression compression

Fig. 19. Schematic models for the tectonic evolution of the northwestern South American margin, which fit the geochronological, geochemical and sedimentological data. These models
propose that the Jurassic arc axis during 185–145 Ma did not drift. Roll-back starting at 145 Ma caused the arc axes to migrate oceanward and thinned the crust, leading to calk-alkaline and
tholeiitic arc magmatism, occasionally T-MORB basalts and marine sedimentary environments. Extension in some parts of the margin may have caused continental slivers to rift
away, forming extensive tracts of transitional crust (Peltetec Unit) in intra-arc basins, perhaps accounting for the Guamote Sequence. Compression starting at 120 Ma obducted exhumed
M-HP/LT rocks outboard of the Alao and Quebradagrande arcs, and entrained ultra-mafic and mafic rocks of the Peltetec Unit between those arcs and re-accreted continental slivers.

suggest that the basalts formed during asthenospheric upwelling
caused by the detachment of an east-dipping slab subsequent to terrane
collision, implying that an east-dipping subduction zone existed be-
tween an accreting terrane and South America. Our model suggests
that the long-lived Jurassic–Early Cretaceous subduction zone simply
retreated westwards, and was not “pinched-off” between two crustal
blocks (Fig. 19). We suggest that if any asthenospheric upwelling oc-
curred, it was driven by steepening of the slab during its prolonged res-
idence in the mantle in the absence of subduction after ~110 Ma, along a
highly oblique margin.
Plutons of the Coastal Batholith in Central Peru and coastal Arequipa
started intruding at ~115 Ma. The magmatic units along the coastline of
central Peru are considered to have formed by shallow melting of
mantle-derived basalts (Atherton, 1990; Atherton and Petford, 1996),
which were originally derived from partial melting in the mantle
wedge above a subduction zone (e.g. McCourt, 1981). The intrusions
crystallised within a deep (~10 km) marginal basin that formed during
continental margin extension over an along-strike distance of ~1600 km
(Atherton and Petford, 1996), which formed the Casma marginal basin
during the Albian. Extension is supported by gravity data, which reveal
an arch-like structure of dense material within a rift setting, which is
considered to be imbricated oceanic crust (Jones, 1981). Jaillard and
Soler (1996) report that extension was punctuated with compressional
events, and that volcanic activity which fed the Casma Basin ceased by
the Late Albian, during the compressional Mochica Phase of Mégard
(1984). Abundant subduction related magmatic activity along Peru
starting at ~ 115 Ma is accounted for in the reconstructions of Pindell
and Kennan (2009) by the north-east directed subduction of their
newly formed Caribbean Plate beneath South America, forming a
mainly strike-slip boundary north of the Huancabamba Deflection,
and amagmatic tectonics in the northern Andes.
Acidic magmatism in the Northern Andes between 100 and 75 Ma is
dominated by the large Antioquia Batholith (Fig. 10; concordant zircon
U-Pb ages of 95–85 Ma; Villagómez et al., 2011; Fig. 20) in the northern
Cordillera Central, which intrudes through undifferentiated Palaeozoic
rocks and the Triassic Cajamarca Fm. Other scattered continental arc
intrusions that yield zircon U-Pb ages in this age range include the
Córdoba Batholith (80 Ma; Villagómez et al., 2011) of the Cordillera

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
38 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
Central, and the Tangula Batholith (zircon U-Pb 92 ± 1 Ma;
Schütte et al., 2010) of the southern Cordillera Real, which intrudes
continental crust. Villagómez et al. (2011) and Villagómez and
Spikings (2013) utilise geochemical data to suggest that these intru-
sions formed by minor subduction of oceanic crust beneath South
America. Pindell and Kennan (2009) utilise plate reconstructions to
suggest that the Antioquia Batholith formed too close to the ocean-
continent boundary (b 100 km) to be arc magmas, and instead
formed by melting of a slab-tip during subduction initiation,
although they acknowledge that this is speculative.
6.1. The formation of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province and its collision
with South America.
6.1.1. Geochemistry and geochronology
The basement of the forearcs and Western Cordillera of Ecuador and
Colombia consists of ultramafic and mafic rocks, and their chemical
compositions suggest that they formed above an oceanic hot-spot
(Fig. 1; Reynaud et al., 1999; Lapierre et al., 2000; Hughes and
Pilatasig, 2002; Kerr et al., 2002; Mamberti et al., 2003, 2004; Kerr and
Tarney, 2005; Hastie and Kerr, 2010). Within Ecuador, the bulk of the
plateau rocks are represented by the Piñon (forearc), Pallatanga and
San Juan (Western Cordillera) formations, and in Colombia the same li-
thologies have been given numerous names, although here we will use
the terms Volcanic Formation for the mafic rocks of the Western Cordil-
lera and forearc (Kerr et al., 1997), and Amaime Fm. for the basalts
exposed within the Cauca-Patía Valley (Fig. 1). No geochemical differ-
ences are found between the basement of the forearc and the Western
Cordillera.
Radiometric data from the San Juan Fm. include a Sm-Nd isochron
date of 123 ± 13 Ma (Lapierre et al., 2000), a weighted mean 40Ar/39Ar
(hornblende) date of 99.2 ± 1.3 Ma from a U-shaped age spectrum
(Mamberti et al., 2004), and a concordant U-Pb zircon date of 87.10 ±
1.66 Ma (Vallejo et al., 2006). The U-shaped 40Ar/39Ar age spectrum re-
veals the presence of excess 40Ar, and this date is discarded. The discrep-
ancy between the Sm/Nd and U-Pb dates suggests that the densely
faulted San Juan Unit is mapped incorrectly, and it includes intercalated
but unrelated sequences. Jaillard et al. (2004) suggest that the older
Sm/Nd date is from an Early Cretaceous, allochthonous oceanic plateau,
and they name it the San Juan-Multitud Terrane. We suggest that the
foliated gabbros that yield the older Sm/Nd age are a detached fragment
of the anastomosed Peltetec Complex. Luzieux et al. (2005) report a pla-
teau hornblende 40Ar/39Ar from the Piñon Fm. of 88.0 ± 1.6 Ma, suggest-
ing that it is equivalent to the basement of the Western Cordillera.
Amphibolites of the Totoras Amphibolite in the central Western
Cordillera of Ecuador formed by metamorphism of an oceanic plateau
at 800–850 °C and 6–9 kbar (Jaillard et al., 2004; Beaudon et al., 2005).
Vallejo et al. (2006) report a hornblende plateau 40Ar/39Ar date of
84.69 ± 2.23 Ma, and suggest that this records the timing of retrogres-
sion through 550–500 °C, at the base of the oceanic plateau. Concordant
zircon U-Pb ages (gabbros; Villagómez et al., 2011) and plateau 40Ar/39Ar
dates of basaltic groundmass (Kerr et al., 1997) suggest that the oceanic
plateau rocks of Colombia crystallised during 100–92 Ma, which is
slightly older than the ages from Ecuador. The crystalline ages and geo-
chemical compositions reveal a strong affinity with the oceanic hot-
spot related rocks of the Caribbean Large igneous Province (e.g. Sinton
et al., 1998), and they are considered to be detached allochthons of
that province (e.g. Kerr et al., 1997).
Field studies and geochemical data show that the oceanic plateau
rocks were intruded by a primitive arc sequence (Fig. 20). The oldest
of these arc units are acidic intrusions of the Pujilí Granite (Ecuador; zir-
con U-Pb 85.5 ± 1.4; Vallejo et al., 2006), the Buga Granite (Colombia;
zircon U-Pb 90.6 ± 1.3 Ma–92.1 ± 1.3 Ma; Villagómez et al., 2011),
the Santa Fe Tonalite (Colombia; Sm-Nd age 98.0 ± 9.1 Ma; Weber
et al., 2011), and the Altamira Gabbro (zircon U-Pb 88.9 ± 1.5; Zapata
et al., 2011), all of which intrude the hot-spot related basement basalts.
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
These rocks are equivalent to the Aruba Tonalite (Island of Aruba; zircon
U-Pb ages range between 89 and 87 Ma; Wright and Wyld, 2004; Van
der Lelij et al., 2010), which intrudes Turonian basalts that erupted
above an oceanic hot-spot (White et al., 1999). The Rio Cala Group
(Fig. 20; Vallejo et al., 2009) stratigraphically (high-Mg andesites,
basalts, and turbidites) overlies the oceanic plateau within Ecuador,
and its intra-oceanic character has been determined by isotopic and
geochemical studies (Cosma et al., 1998; Mamberti, 2001; Mamberti
et al., 2003; Allibon et al., 2005; Vallejo et al., 2006), combined with
dense mineral assemblages that reveal no input from differentiated con-
tinental crust (Hughes et al., 1998; Vallejo et al., 2009). No U-Pb dates
have been obtained from the igneous rocks of the Rio Cala Group, al-
though the basal La Portada Fm. yields Santonian (85.89–83.5 Ma;
Gradstein et al., 2004) biostratigraphic ages (Kerr et al., 2002). Similarly,
Campanian radiolaria have been found intercalated within island arc
lavas of the Ricaurte Arc in southern Colombia (Western Cordillera;
Spadea et al., 1989). The association of Santonian–Maastrichtian intra-
oceanic island-arc rocks overlying oceanic hot-spot derived rocks is doc-
umented throughout the circum-Caribbean region (e.g. Frost and Snoke,
1989; Donnelly et al., 1990).
The similar geochemistry and dates obtained from the Western
Cordilleras and the forearcs suggest that these rocks were derived
from a single terrane (e.g. Luzieux et al., 2006). We refer to the accreted
allochthons within the forearcs and Western Cordilleras of Ecuador and
Colombia as the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP), which in-
cludes the equivalent Pallatanga-Piñon and Calima terranes (Figs. 1
and 20). The basaltic basement of the Chocó-Panamá Terrane located
north of the Garrapatas Fault (Fig. 1) is younger and accreted to South
America during the Miocene, and thus it is not included in this
discussion.
6.1.2. Time of initial accretion with South America
Estimates of the timing of accretion of the CLIP onto northwestern
South America are 85–65 Ma (Aspden et al., 1987; Lebrat et al., 1987;
Kerr et al., 2002; Spikings et al., 2005), or 75–65 Ma (Spikings et al.,
2001; Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002; Jaillard et al., 2004; Luzieux
et al., 2006; Vallejo et al., 2006; Spikings et al., 2010; Van der Lelij
et al., 2010; Villagómez and Spikings, 2013).
Thermochronological analyses of the Cordillera Real and the Cordillera
Central reveal the onset of extremely rapid cooling at 75–73 Ma (Fig. 7b,
c; Spikings et al., 2001, 2010; Villagómez and Spikings, 2013). Cooling is
interpreted to be due to exhumation at rates of 1–1.6 km/My during
75–65 Ma, and high cooling rates continued until ~ 55 Ma. Recent
(Cochrane et al., 2014b) and new (this study) t–T paths generated from
apatite U-Pb data reveal the onset of rapid cooling at 80–75 Ma
(Fig. 7a). Palaeomagnetic data from the Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks
of coastal Ecuador (Fig. 1) record 40–50° of clockwise rotation during
73–70 Ma (Luzieux et al., 2006), which was synchronous with rapid
exhumation of the same basement rocks located closer to South
America (Spikings et al., 2005).
Redbeds of the Tena Formation, located in the Subandean zone
(Fig. 1) of Ecuador are the oldest within the foreland basin to host
significant quantities of metamorphic mineral grains derived from
high elevations to the west (Ruiz et al., 2004). Furthermore, fission-
track dates of detrital zircons within the Tena Fm. are indistinguish-
able from their depositional ages, revealing extremely high exhuma-
tion rates in the Cordillera Real. At the same time, there is a reduction
in the detrital supply from cratonic South America to the east. Within
the forearc of Ecuador, the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian (70–
65 Ma; Gradstein et al., 2004) Yunguilla Fm. was being deposited in
a basin floored by oceanic crust of either the Pallatanga Unit
(Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002), or the San Juan-Multitud Terrane
(Jaillard et al., 2004). The turbidites were sourced from metamorphic
rocks of the Eastern Cordillera (Vallejo et al., 2009). Jaillard et al.
(2004) described coeval quartz-free pelagic cherts, and quartz rich
turbidites of the Yunguilla Fm. in the Western Cordillera of
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
Ecuador. Both of these sequences overlie oceanic mafic rocks, and
Jaillard et al. (2004) suggest that they define two separate terranes
that accreted before 71 Ma, and during 69–65 Ma. Within
Colombia, rapid cooling and exhumation during 75–65 Ma was syn-
chronous with the deposition of the siliciclastic, El Cobre,
Monserrate, La Tabla and Cimarrona Fms. during the Campanian–
Maastrichtian in the retro-foreland Magdalena Valley (Villamil,
1999), and the Nogales Fm. in the forearc, which hosts a large pro-
portion of metamorphic detritus derived from the Cordillera Central
(Moreno and Pardo, 2003).
These data were used by Luzieux et al. (2006), Vallejo et al.
(2006), Spikings et al. (2010) and Villagomez et al. (2013) to suggest
that mafic rocks that originated above an oceanic hot-spot at 99–
87 Ma formed a single terrane, which along with its overlying arc ac-
creted against the margin of northwestern South America at ~ 75 Ma
(Fig. 20). This interpretation implies that the intra-oceanic arc (E.g.
Rio Cala Group) formed by west-dipping subduction beneath the
buoyant hot-spot derived rocks, prior to its collision with South
America, which is consistent with the models of Burke (1988), Kerr
et al. (1997), Spikings et al. (2001), Van der Lelij et al. (2010), and
Zapata et al. (2011). However, this is inconsistent with the recon-
struction of Pindell and Kennan (2009), who draw an east dipping
subduction zone at 84 Ma beneath South America. The reconstruc-
tions of Pindell and Kennan (2009) suggest that the Rio Cala Arc is
a continental arc, which is inconsistent with geochemical, isotopic
and sedimentological data. Estimates of collision at ~ 85 Ma (e.g.
Kerr et al., 2002; Spikings et al., 2005) were based around a mis-
interpretation of thermochronological data.
6.1.3. The nature of the CLIP–South America suture
Within Ecuador, the suture between the 90 and 87 Ma CLIP and
the pre-existing continental margin is mainly obscured beneath
volcanic rocks and intermontane basins within the Interandean De-
pression (Fig. 1). The suture may be represented by the Pujilí Fault
zone, which exposes the serpentinized Pujilí Melange, whose matrix
is the Pallatanga Unit. Two gabbroic inliers (E.g. Guayllabamba
Basin) occur within the Interandean Depression, although the ages
of these rocks are unknown. Foliated metamorphic crust erupts as
xenoliths within volcanoes along the western side of the Inter-
andean Depression (Bruet, 1987), suggesting that the basement to
the valley may be a complex assemblage of dissected Early Creta-
ceous margin, and accreted CLIP. The Arquía Complex in Colombia
is faulted against the Amaime Fm., which floors the Cauca-Patía
Valley (Fig. 1) across the Cauca-Almaguer Fault. According to our
model (Fig. 19), the Cauca-Almaguer Fault is equivalent to the
Ingapirca Fault (Litherland et al., 1994; Fig. 1) in Ecuador (the west-
ern margin of the Guamote sequence). No reliable age dates have
been obtained from the basalts of the Amaime Fm., although their
chemical composition suggests that they formed above an oceanic
hot-spot (Kerr et al., 1997), and are identical to the Volcanic,
Pallatanga and Piñon fms. The nature of the contact between the
Buga Batholith (90.6 ± 1.3 Ma–92.1 ± 1.3 Ma; Villagómez et al.,
2011) and the Amaime Fm. is uncertain, although it may be intrusive,
in which case the Amaime Fm. is older than ~ 91 Ma. We suggest that
these rocks form part of the CLIP, and the suture in Colombia is the
Cauca-Almaguer Fault.
Spikings and Crowhurst (2004) and Winkler et al. (2005) show that
the Interandean Valley formed in Ecuador at ~ 6 Ma within a
dextral transcurrent setting (e.g. Winter and Lavenú, 1989), im-
plying that the accreted CLIP was closer to the Early Cretaceous
palaeomargin before ~ 6 Ma. We suggest that the CLIP-South
America suture, which started forming at ~ 75 Ma, now exists as
a complex melange zone that forms the basement of the Inter-
andean Depression, and is perhaps more intact as the Cauca-
Almaguer Fault within Colombia.
Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
39
7. Conclusions
1. Geochemical and isotopic analyses suggest that high-temperature
metamorphism within Central American terranes (e.g. Maya
Block) at 250 Ma occurred during compression driven by terrane
accretion (e.g. Weber et al., 2007) along central Western Pangaea.
Extension prevailed along the Peruvian margin at 250 Ma, and
thus it is likely that no continental terranes lay outboard of Peru at
that time.
2. Magmatic underplating and anatexis of continental crust during
240–225 Ma occurred during progressive thinning of the continen-
tal lithosphere during rifting along western Pangaea. Rifting ad-
vanced to complete separation of continental crust by ~ 216 Ma,
and the formation of oceanic lithosphere between the conjugate
margins of northwestern South America and basement terranes of
Central America (e.g. Oaxaquia). The rifting event is recorded by
amphibolitised tholeiitic basaltic dykes and extensive tracts of
migmatites and S-type granites within the conjugate margins. The
rift axis propagated southwards, and extension is recorded along
western Peru (the Mitu Aulocagen), Bolivia, western Argentina,
Chile and southern Brazil. Rifting along northwestern South
America started as a back-arc basin to a Permian arc, and represents
the early break-up of western Pangaea, leading to the separation of
North and South America by ~180 Ma.
3. Metaluminous, I-type arc magmatism commenced in northwestern
South America at ~209 Ma, due to east-dipping subduction of the
Farallon Plate. The arc axis migrated oceanward at some time dur-
ing 194–189 Ma, formed a long/lived continental arc during 189–
144 Ma and the arc axis may have migrated ~ 100 km oceanward
during this time at a very slow rate. Coeval arc magmatism along
the Peruvian margin (~ 216–135 Ma) also started to migrate
oceanward at ~175 Ma, resulting in coeval arc and back-arc rocks.
Arc migration is considered to be a result of slab-retreat along the
western margin of South America, which caused the continental
margin to extend, thinning the continental crust and generating
progressively more isotopically juvenile arcs. The onset of latest
Triassic–Jurassic subduction beneath Colombia and Ecuador may
young towards the south, although this trend cannot be extended
towards southern Peru, across the Huancabamba Deflection.
4. The present-day gap in Jurassic arc rocks north of the Arequipa
Terrane in Peru is considered to be a result of tectonic erosion
(Clift et al., 2003), and thus we propose that an arc did form in
that region. We suggest that the alternative hypothesis that the
arc was tectonically displaced northwards and now forms part of
Colombia (Bayona et al., 2010) is unlikely because the Jurassic arc
in Colombia and Ecuador is not temporally duplicated.
5. Trench retreat of the east dipping-subduction zone accelerated
along northwestern South America at ~ 144 Ma, and extension
during 144–115 Ma formed syn-tectonic granitoid intrusions with-
in Ecuador, attenuated the continental margin forming thin intra-
arc basins characterised by transitional crust, and resulted in an
oceanward migration of the arc axes, which became progressively
more isotopically juvenile and geochemically depleted. Arc rocks
of the Quebradagrande Complex and Alao arc erupted through
thin continental crust during the Early Cretaceous within a marine
environment. Rapid extension may have rifted some narrow con-
tinental slivers (e.g. the Guamote Sequence) from the margin.
Back-arc magmatism is sporadically preserved within the Eastern
Cordillera of Colombia (136–121 Ma). Highly oblique and sinistral
convergence directions between the Peruvian margin and the
Farallon Plate lead to a magmatic gap in Peru during ~135–115 Ma.
6. The distribution and composition of sedimentary rocks, combined
with detrital thermochronology suggests that the margin of north-
western South America was placed under compression at ~115 Ma.
Compression of the attenuated, weak, hot crust juxtaposed arc
rocks with transitional crust, forming a proto-cordillera, which
40 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 80° 70° 60° 50° 40°

Caribbean
Plate
CA/NA Rio Cala 10°
10° Ar Arc
Proto- Oceanic
CA/NA Caribbean plateau B A

? P

illera
Oceanic 0° Mainly amagmatic
0°
plateau within South America

-cord
CA/SA

Proto
T

10° 10°
CA/SA South America
?
South America

c o tho
c o tho

ba
as lith
ba
as lith

95-85 Ma

tal
100 Ma
tal

20° 20°

90° 80° 70° 60° 50° Late Cretaceous arcs

A: Antioquia Batholith, Ar: Aruba Batholith,
20° B: Buga Granodiorite, P: Pujilí Granite,
T: Tangula Batholith
Caribbean Early Cretaceous subduction zone
Plate CA/NA M-HP/LT rocks (Arquía, Barragán, Raspas complexes)
Oceanic Ar 10° Peltetec Complex
plateau Early Cretaceous arcs
CA/SA

A Northeast facing
C
PP

B
0° West facing, continental
P (Quebradagrande Complex, Alao Arc)
South America
T
co tho

75-70 Ma
ba
as lith

10°
tal

Fig. 20. Plate reconstruction for northwestern South America from after the initial formation of oceanic plateau rocks of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province at 100 Ma until the collision
of the plateau rocks and their overlying arc with South America starting at 75 Ma, modified after Villagómez et al. (2011). Relative positions of South and North America and arcs along
the northern margin of the plateau are from Pindell and Kennan (2009). The plates are positioned relative to the Indo-Atlantic hot-spot reference frame (Müller et al., 1993). The
reconstruction draws the east-facing Rio Cala Arc forming above the oceanic plateau as it approaches South America. PPC: Piñon-Pallatanga-Calima terrane. Relative convergence direction
CA/NA Caribbean Plate/North America, CA/SA: Caribbean Plate/South America.

supplied detritus towards the fore- and backarc. M-HP/LT rocks are
faulted against the western margin of these compressed sequences,
and represent a subduction channel that started to exhume from
peak eclogitic conditions at 130–126 Ma. These eclogites and
blueschists retrogressed through ~400 °C at 120–112 Ma, and it is
likely that they were obducted onto the margin during compression
that started at ~115 Ma. These rocks originally formed parts of the
same slab, and varying trench-parallel metamorphic facies reflect
exhumation from varying depths. Models which invoke west-
dipping slabs after 125 Ma do not account for the spatial juxtaposi-
tion of M-HP/LT rocks and their associated arcs.
7. We suggest that there is very little evidence for the existence of
large allochthonous continental terranes (Tahamí and Chaucha)
outboard of northwestern South America during the Jurassic–
Early Cretaceous. These suspect terranes are not required to fit the
data presented here, and the geochemical, isotopic, sedimentologi-
cal and thermochronological data can be accounted for by having a
single east-dipping slab that is retreating oceanward at variable
rates during 189–115 Ma.
8. Highly oblique dextral convergence angles between the margin of
northwestern South America and the Caribbean Plate (Kennan
and Pindell, 2009) resulted in only very minor intra-plate
magmatism (Barragán et al., 2005) during 115–100 Ma, which
may have occurred during the steepening of an antiquated slab.
Net convergence with an orthogonal component along the
Peruvian margin started forming the Coastal Batholith at ~115 Ma
within a marginal basin that formed during extension.
9. Oceanic plateau rocks of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province
erupted through the Farallon Plate at near equatorial latitudes
(Luzieux et al., 2006) during 100–87 Ma, and these rocks migrated
approximately eastwards relative to South America. Subduction
beneath northwestern South America during this period was
restricted to northern Colombia and southern Ecuador, distal from
the leading edge of the approaching plateau. However, a majority
of the margin was amagmatic, and the intervening oceanic litho-
sphere was consumed by west-dipping subduction beneath the
oceanic plateau, forming the Rio Cala intra-oceanic arc, and numer-
ous scattered intrusions. Collectively, the plateau and overlying arc
are referred to as the Caribbean Large Igneous Province.
10. The Caribbean Large Igneous Province first collided with South
America at ~ 75 Ma, resulting in the detachment and clockwise
rotation of allochthons that form the present-day basement of the

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004
 R. Spikings et al. / Gondwana Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
forearc plains and the Western Cordillera. Other detached
allochthons form the basement to the Leeward Antilles along the
southern Caribbean plate boundary. Allochthons with South
America are sutured against the Early Cretaceous margin via the
Cauca-Almaguer (Colombia) and Ingapirca (Ecuador) faults. Within
Ecuador, the suture is represented by a melange, which is mainly
buried beneath the Interandean Depression.
Acknowledgements
We thank Arturo Egüez, Etienne Jaillard, Alfredo Buitron, Byron
Pelicita and Luis Lopez for assistance in the field in the cordilleras of
Ecuador, and Ecopetrol S.A., Andres Mora, Andreas Kammer, Agustin
Cardona, Jaime Corredor, Jaime Castellanos, Wilson Casallas, and
Luis Quiroz for their assistance during field work in Colombia. The
manuscript was improved by the thorough and helpful reviews of Victor
Ramos, Maria Helbig and an anonymous reviewer.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004.
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chemistry of the basic sequence of Altamira, Antioquia, Western Cordillera of its relationship with the collision of the Caribbean Plateau.
Colombia. 14th Congresso Colombiano de Geología, Medellin, Colombia. After his PhD he worked as a Research Fellow on the Strati-
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working as a consultant on tectonics, sedimentology and
mineral exploration in South and Central America. Cristian
is also a part time lecturer at the Escuela Politécnica Nacional,
Quito.
Dr. Richard Spikings graduated in geochemistry at the
University of St. Andrews in 1993. His research in
thermochronology earned a PhD in geology in 1998 from
La Trobe University, Melbourne. Since 1998, he has worked
as a postdoctoral fellow at the ETH-Zürich, and as tenured re-
search staff at the University of Geneva where he manages Prof. Wilfried Winkler has held a position of senior lecturer
the 40Ar/39Ar laboratory. His research has focussed on and professor for sedimentary petrology, basin analysis and
thermochronology and geochronology of the Andean cordil- sedimentology at the ETH Zurich since 1988. He graduated
leras in Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru and Chile. More in 1977 at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland, where he
recently, Richard has focussed his research efforts on bulk subsequently obtained a PhD in geology in 1981. From
and in-situ U-Pb thermochronology of accessory phases. 1981 to 1988, he was a postdoctoral fellow and lecturer at
both Fribourg and Basel Universities. His main research in-
terests are the bearings of tectonics and climate on basin
sedimentation, and provenance studies in different plate tec-
tonics settings. He carried out research in the Alps,
Carpathians, Pyrenees, Northern Andes (Ecuador, Peru),
Dr. Ryan Cochrane graduated in geology at the University of Sinai Peninsula (Egypt), Central Asian Orogenic Belt
Johannesburg in 2005, after which he worked as a gold ex- (Mongolia) and Myanmar.
ploration geologist in South Africa and Western China. He
completed a BSc(Hons) degree at the University of Cape in
2008 and went on to earn a PhD in tectonics, isotope geo-
chemistry and thermochronology from the University of
Geneva in mid-2013. Ryan immediately started work at Prof. Bernado Beate is a Professor of Geology at the Escuela
Thomson Reuters GFMS in London as a Mine Economics An- Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador. His main research inter-
alyst with a focus on precious metals and mining research, ests include the petrology of volcanic rocks, geothermal sys-
including the maintenance of mine economics products. Re- tems and ore geology, and he is a specialist in mapping
cently, Ryan was promoted to a Senior Analyst and focusses volcanic systems and mineral alteration assemblages. Prof.
on the economics of mining, and deriving corporate valua- Beate also operates as a consultant for the mineral resource
tions for precious metal mining companies and geothermal industry, and has worked in Ecuador,
Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay and New Zealand.

Dr. Diego Villagómez is qualified as an Engineer in Geology

(EPN, Quito, Ecuador) and a PhD in Geology from the Univer-
sity of Geneva (Switzerland). He currently works for Tectonic
Analysis, Ltd. (US). His job involves thermochronological
studies and regional tectonic interpretations for major oil
companies operating in different parts of Latin America from
Mexico to Ecuador. He worked as an external consultant for
the Ecuadorian government on three key national geother-
mal energy projects, defining the main targets for various
volcano-thermal systems and previously worked on mineral
exploration and engineering geology.

Please cite this article as: Spikings, R., et al., The geological history of northwestern South America: from Pangaea to the early collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (290–75 Ma), Gondwana Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.06.004