Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316

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Ore Geology Reviews

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / o r e g e o r ev

Local to regional scale structural controls on mineralisation and the importance of a

major lineament in the eastern Mount Isa Inlier, Australia: Review and analysis with
autocorrelation and weights of evidence
J.R. Austin ⁎, T.G. Blenkinsop
Predictive Mineral Discovery CRC and Economic Geology Research Unit, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, 4811, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Although major crustal lineaments may play an important role in mineralisation, the relationship between
Received 27 May 2008 lineaments and mineral deposits can be quite cryptic, and structural controls may vary as a function of scale along
Received in revised form 13 March 2009 lineaments. Major lineaments alone may be of limited use for detailed target generation. The Cloncurry Lineament
Accepted 13 March 2009
in the Eastern part of the Mount Isa Inlier is a crustal scale structure defined by potential field-derived ‘worms’.
Available online 25 March 2009
Weights-of-evidence quantifies the association between mineral occurrences and this lineament. Autocorrelation
is used to recognise structural controls on mineralisation at different scales, by progressively limiting the lengths
Keywords:
Autocorrelation
of the vectors between mineral occurrence points in the autocorrelation plot. The weights-of-evidence analysis
Weights-of-evidence shows that Au, Au–Cu, Cu–Au and Cu deposits have a positive spatial correlation to the Cloncurry Lineament,
Structural controls which suggests it that acted as a primary crustal scale control on the localisation of Cu and Au through focussing
Mount Isa Eastern Succession mineralisation systems on a broad scale. However, autocorrelation defines a variety of local structural controls,
Cu–Au deposits which can be interpreted as shear zones, variably oriented fault sets, en echelon fault arrays, and potentially the
Pb–Zn–Ag deposits orientation of bedding and/or iron formations which localise fluid flow and mineral deposition at finer scales. The
results suggest that major lineaments defined by geophysical contrasts can be used in conjunction with
techniques of spatial analysis for targeting structurally controlled mineralisation in areas under thin cover
adjacent to mineralised terrains such as the Mt Isa Inlier.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction A spatial relationship between a major lineament and mineralisation

Many hydrothermal mineral deposit types display a spatial relation-
ship with faults and crustal discontinuities on a variety of scales (e.g.,
Groves et al., 1998; Sillitoe, 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001; Betts and Lister,
2002; Haynes, 2002; Grauch et al., 2003; Bierlein et al., 2006). Giant
deposits which are integral to worldwide mineral production appear to
have formed from large hydrothermal systems that are commonly
localised around major crustal structures (Jaques et al., 2002). Ore
deposits may occur on secondary structures adjacent to larger scale
primary structures (e.g., Robert, 1990), which were likely to have been
pathways for channelling fluids to and within the upper crust (e.g., Sibson
et al., 1988; Cox et al., 2001; Chernicoff et al., 2002). Faults are commonly
associated with major lineaments defined by potential field gradients,
which can be expressed as ‘worms’, where rocks of contrasting density
and/or magnetic susceptibilities are juxtaposed (e.g., Bierlein et al., 2006).
Spatial associations between magnetic and gravity ‘worms’ (i.e., major
geophysical lineaments) and mineralisation have been recognised (e.g.,
Hobbs et al., 2000; Murphy, 2005; Bierlein et al., 2006).
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9923 5861.
E-mail address: James.Austin@encom.com.au (J.R. Austin).
could imply that a large scale, deep-seated structure has acted as a
pathway to focus flow or ore-forming fluids through the crust. However,
such large scale structures do not always persist to the surface (e.g., the
Carlin Trend: Crafford and Grauch, 2002), or they may have variable
structural expressions from depth to the surface (e.g., mylonite zone at
depth to fault zone at the surface). Furthermore, structural controls on
mineralisation may be scale dependent, both vertically and horizontally.
Thus, major lineaments alone are commonly of little use for generating
specific targets in detailed mineral exploration, and the relationship
between major structures and ore deposits may in fact be quite cryptic.
Weights-of-evidence analysis and autocorrelation are useful techni-
ques to elucidate relationships between structures and mineralisation.
The degree of spatial association between mineral deposits and structures
can be quantified by the contrast parameter in weights-of-evidence
analysis (e.g., Bonham-Carter, 1994), while autocorrelation (Vearncombe
and Vearncombe, 1999) can be used to examine preferred orientations
and spacings of mineral deposits at all scales, which may then be linked to
geological structures (e.g., faults). The latter can potentially reveal
structural controls on mineralisation at very detailed scales.
Weights-of-evidence analysis has been applied recently to mineral
deposit distribution in the Eastern Succession of the Mount Isa Inlier (e.g.,
Mustard et al., 2004; Butera, 2004; Ford and Blenkinsop, 2008; Oliver et al.,

0169-1368/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2009.03.004
 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
2008), but these studies have not examined detailed controls on
mineralisation by other techniques such as autocorrelation analysis, or
compared results to deposit scale structural controls. The prospectivity
analysis of Mustard et al. (2004) showed that the contact between two
lithostratigraphic units (the Soldiers Cap Group and Doherty Formation)
in the Eastern Succession was highly prospective for IOCG (iron oxide–
copper–gold) mineralisation. This implies that the Cloncurry Lineament, a
major north–northwest geophysical lineament associated with the
contact (Austin and Blenkinsop, 2008), should also have IOCG potential.
Mustard et al. (2004) also showed that north- and east–northeast-
trending faults were very favourable for IOCG mineralisation.
While several recent papers have discussed genetic models for
mineralisation in the Eastern Succession (e.g., Williams, 1998a;
Williams and Pollard, 2003; Mark et al., 2006), few have dealt in
detail with structural controls on ore deposits (cf. Laing, 1993, 1998).
Hence this paper reviews proposed structural controls on mineralisa-
tion in the eastern part of the Mount Isa Inlier, including recent
weights of evidence analyses (e.g., Mustard et al., 2004; Oliver et al.,
2008) and numerical modelling (e.g., McLellan and Oliver, 2008; Keys,
2008). The second aim of the paper is to present a new analysis of
controls on mineralisation in the Eastern Succession of the Mount Isa
Inlier, focussing on the role of a major lineament (the Cloncurry
Lineament). Weights of evidence and autocorrelation techniques
identify potential structural controls at various scales, which facilitate
more accurate target generation along prospective regional structures.
2. Geologic setting
The Mount Isa Inlier is a mineral province of global significance
containing Cu, iron oxide–Cu–gold (IOCG), Ag–Pb–Zn and U deposits.
It has undergone a complex tectonic evolution from ~ 1.9 to 1.5 Ga.
Basement rocks are thought to be Archean, and the earliest
documented tectonic activity occurred during the Barramundi
Orogeny at 1.9–1.85 Ga (Etheridge et al., 1987). Subsequent rifting
resulted in the deposition of cover sequence 1 (CS1 of Blake, 1980; DE1
of Loosveld, 1989). Rocks of this age form a north-trending horst
through the centre of the Inlier called the Kalkadoon–Leichhardt Belt
(KLB). The KLB divides the Inlier into Eastern and Western Successions
(Blake, 1987). A second rifting phase initiated the deposition of cover
sequence 2 (CS2, DE2) which was laid down from 1.8–1.74 Ga. From
1.74–1.67 Ga. a third rifting phase ensued, allowing deposition of cover
sequence 3 (CS3, DE3) (Page and Bell, 1986; Betts, 1998) which
includes the Soldiers Cap Group rocks within the Eastern Succession.
Tectonostratigraphy is discussed in detail by Foster and Austin (2008).
The Isan Orogeny (~1.61–1.49 Ga) was the major contractional
deformation in the Mount Isa Inlier. The orogeny consisted of numerous
deformational episodes (e.g., D1, D2 etc. of Bell and Duncan, 1978). The
number, nature and timing of events is controversial, with some
researchers proposing three protracted events (e.g., Holcombe et al.,
1992; MacCready et al.,1998), while others suggest up to seven separate
events (e.g., Mares, 1998). However, a growing body of evidence (e.g.,
O'Dea and Lister, 1995; Giles et al., 2006) suggests that deformation was
inconsistent across the inlier, and that the sequence and style of
tectonism in the west may differ from that in the Eastern Succession.
The terminology used here follows the D1–D5 deformation sequence of
Austin (2009), Keys (2008) and Austin and Blenkinsop (2008).
The Williams–Naraku Batholith intruded large parts of the Eastern
Succession syn- to post-Isan Orogeny. Metamorphism during the Isan
Orogeny was high temperature, low pressure, reaching a maximum of
upper amphibolite facies (Foster and Rubenach, 2006; Rubenach et al.,
2008). Peak metamorphism was syn-D2 (Rubenach and Barker, 1998;
Rubenach et al., 2008), based on 1.595–1.58 Ga dates from Soldiers
Cap Group schists in the Snake Creek anticline (Hand and Rubatto,
2002; Foster and Rubenach, 2006; Rubenach et al., 2008). Mechan-
isms proposed to explain the metamorphism include delamination
(Loosveld and Etheridge, 1990), mantle under-plating (Oliver et al.,
299
1998) and large mafic / felsic mid-crustal intrusions (McLaren et al.,
1999; Hand and Rubatto, 2002; McLaren et al., 2005).
Mineral deposits occur throughout the inlier, and fall into several
discrete deposit categories. The Western Succession is dominated by
carbonate hosted hydrothermal Cu-dominant deposits which formed
in conjunction with relatively late faulting (e.g., Keys, 2008). A lesser
number of syngenetic stratiform Pb–Zn–Ag deposits are concentrated
along the Barramundi ‘Worm’, which is the “expression of a boundary
between two lithospheric blocks of different ages and densities”
(Hobbs et al., 2000) locally coinciding with the Mount Isa and Ter-
mite Range faults. There is a wider variety of deposits in the Eastern
Succession. In addition to carbonate hosted Cu deposits (e.g., Great
Australia, Greenmount) there are IOCG deposits (e.g., Ernest Henry,
Osborne), vein gold only deposits (Gilded Rose) and associated
alluvial gold. There are also several Pb–Zn–Ag deposits (e.g.,
Cannington, Pegmont). The giant Cannington deposit sits near the
termination of a major ‘worm’, the Cloncurry Lineament (Austin and
Blenkinsop, 2008).
3. Geology of the study area
3.1. Stratigraphy
The two major stratigraphic units in the study area (Fig. 1) are the
Doherty Formation and the Soldiers Cap Group. The Soldiers Cap
Group (1685–1655 Ma: Page and Sun, 1998; Giles and Nutman, 2003;
Neumann et al., 2006) is the main CS3 stratigraphic unit in the study
and consists mostly of quartzite, muscovite and biotite schist, gneiss
and migmatite. The Soldiers Cap Group also contains metabasalt
(commonly amphibolite) in concordant to sub-concordant bands a
few metres thick and commonly adjacent ironstones that are sub-
parallel to bedding (Hatton and Davidson, 2004). A 700 m thick
tonalitic sill aged 1686 ± 8 Ma (Rubenach et al., 2008) intrudes the
Llewellyn Creek Formation in the Snake Creek area. The age of this sill
suggests that part of the Soldiers Cap Group must be older than the
ages given above, and that it may contain significant unconformities.
In the study area the Soldiers Cap Group is in faulted or sheared
contact with the Doherty Formation.
The Doherty Formation (CS2, ~ 1725 Ma: Page and Sun, 1998) crops
out in the west of the study area. There are strong lithological
similarities between the Doherty Formation and Corella Formation,
which outcrops in the north of the study area; however the latter has
been dated 1750–1742 Ma (Page and Sun, 1998) as discussed by Foster
and Austin (2008). The lithology of the Doherty Formation is highly
variable due to structural complexity and metasomatic alteration.
Variations in rock type commonly reflect different types and
intensities of alteration superimposed on proto-lithologies with
variations in style/intensity of deformation, chemistry and porosity.
The dominant rock types are thinly bedded calc-silicate granofels and
texturally diverse calc-silicate breccias (Blake, 1987) that commonly
have actinolite–albite–magnetite ± titanite mineralogy. Minor mas-
sive calc-silicate granofels, marble, mica schist, black slate, chert,
calcareous–feldspathic psammite, metabasalt, amphibolite and
banded quartz–tourmaline rock also occur (Blake, 1987). North to
north–northwest sub-vertical to steeply east inclined mylonites are
found in calc-silicate, gabbroic–doleritic and granitic composition
rocks in the Doherty Formation.
3.2. Igneous rocks
Strongly foliated Maramungee type granites (~1555–1545 Ma: Page
and Sun, 1998), sporadically foliated Saxby and Mount Angelay granites
(~1530–1520 Ma: Pollard and McNaughton, 1997; Pollard et al., 1998;
Mark, 2001) and the rarely foliated Squirrel Hills and related granites
(~1510–1490 Ma: Page and Sun, 1998; Davis et al., 2001) intrude the
study area. Early (~1550 Ma) granites are high-Al, Na-rich trondhjemite
300 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
Fig. 2. Moving average rose diagrams showing: a. the orientations of 163 faults in the study area (data: Qld. dept. Mines and energy et al., 2000). b. the orientations of 67 faults in the
Cloncurry Fault Zone (Data: Austin, 2009) c. orientations of all 230 fault in the study area. Grouping is shown for comparison with autocorrelation data. All rose diagrams in this paper
scale linearly with frequency, with the circle circumscribing the maximum frequency.
and tonalite, whereas post 1540 Ma granites are potassic with ‘A-type’
geochemistry (Mark, 2001). Maramungee type granites, amphibolites,
and dolerites commonly occur as small intrusions or shear/fault bound
lenses within the Doherty Formation. Pegmatites at Osborne have been
dated at 1595 Ma (Gauthier et al., 2001). Mafic dykes, sills and pod-like
intrusions aged ~1780 Ma, ~1740 Ma, ~1600 Ma, ~1500 Ma and 1116 Ma
(Blake, 1987) sit within CS2 and CS3 units. Many are extensively folded
and metamorphosed to amphibolite. Evidence of magma mingling is
observed at a number of localities. A number of post-Isan Orogeny
unaltered dykes occur, and may be temporally related to the Lakeview
dolerite (~1116 Ma: Page, 1983) in the southern central Mount Isa Inlier
(Blake, 1987).
3.3. Structure
Many of the main structures within the Mount Isa Inlier, including
the ‘Cloncurry Fault Zone’ (Austin, 2009), may have originated during
the formation of CS2–CS3 basins, as normal faults (e.g., Hatton and
Davidson, 2004; Southgate et al., 2006; Austin and Blenkinsop, 2008;
Blenkinsop et al., 2008).
Structures formed by the earliest deformation event of the Isan
Orogeny (D1) are rarely observed in the study area, but extensional and
contractional components are recognised elsewhere in the Mt Isa Inlier
(Giles et al., 2006). It has been suggested that the north over south
thrusting event observed by Bell (1983) in the Western Succession was
also the dominant deformation during D1 in the Eastern Succession
(Loosveld,1987,1989; Laing,1998; Oliver et al.,1998; Sayab, 2005). Laing
(1998) and Oliver et al. (1998) believe that the Soldiers Cap Group was
“interleaved” with the Corella/Doherty Formation along an originally
flat-lying mylonite zone during D1.
The dominant approximately north–south structural grain of the
Eastern Succession is considered to have formed during D2, an east-
directed shortening event (Beardsmore et al., 1988; Adshead-Bell, 1998;
Betts, 2000; Hatton and Davidson, 2004). In the study area, D2 produced
upright to slightly inclined, tight to isoclinal north and south plunging
folds (Beardsmore et al., 1988). Beardsmore et al. (1988) also observe
that the fold axes have variable, but generally shallow plunges, and the
mineral lineation maintains a uniformly steep southeast plunge within
S2. Some authors (e.g., Beardsmore et al., 1988; Laing, 1998) suggest that
D2 folded the “flat-lying mylonite zone” of Laing (1998) into its current
north–northwest oriented; steeply east dipping orientation, but the
evidence for this is questioned in Austin (2009). D2 also produced
shearing and veining associated with peak metamorphism (Rubenach
Fig. 1. The geology of the Mt Isa Eastern Succession showing; study area, mineral occurrences and the Cloncurry Lineament (i.e., the surface trace of the 26 km upward continued
magnetic worm). Map modified from the Queensland Department of Mines and Energy et al. (2000). Graticule shown is Universal Transverse Mercator projection, MGA 94 datum,
zone 54.
301
and Barker, 1998; Foster and Rubenach, 2006), and has been dated at
1584 ± 17 Ma (Page and Sun, 1998).
D3 is generally thought to be a west–southwest-directed short-
ening event. F3 folds have upright, north–northwest trending axial
planes; horizontal to vertical plunges are the dominant structures in
much of the study area. Numerous mylonite zones are developed
during D3 (Austin, 2009) and axial-plane parallel foliation is defined
in places by a crenulation in S2.
D4 has been suggested to comprise an episode of west–northwest
directed shortening and brittle deformation at the time of Cu mine-
ralisation (~1530 Ma: Keys, 2008) which is supported by Rubenach et al.
(2008) who noted the formation of north–northeast foliations adjacent
to ~1530 Ma granites. The main D4 deformation in the study area
was widespread brecciation of the Doherty Formation coupled with
pervasive sodic–calcic alteration. The brecciation is concentrated in the
Cloncurry Fault Zone. D4 also marks the onset of wrenching and or
transpression along north- and north–northwest oriented faults and
shears (O'Dea et al., 1997; Betts et al., 2006).
Carter et al. (1961) suggest that northeast/northwest and north–
northwest/north–northeast faults are two conjugate fault sets that
formed as a result of successive stages of east-directed shortening
(presumably D3 and D4). O'Dea et al. (1997), Betts et al. (2006), and
Austin (2009) suggest that D4 marked the onset of wrenching and or
transpression along north- and north–northwest oriented faults and
shears, and view their geometry as a system of north–northwest to
north–northeast master faults with subsidiary Riedel shears formed
in a wrench setting (e.g., Fig. 2b). The main late structure in the study
area is the north–northwest Cloncurry Fault, which shows evidence
of sinistral movement (Mark et al., 2004) and possible reactivation
between ~ 1100 Ma and ~300 Ma.
3.4. Metamorphism and metasomatism
The metamorphic grade is greenschist facies in the north of the
study area and upper amphibolite facies in the south (Foster and
Rubenach, 2006). Pelitic rocks in high grade areas contain sillimanite
and/or K-feldspar; calc-silicate rocks contain diopside (Foster and
Rubenach, 2006). Metamorphism and the P–T–t history of the Eastern
Succession are discussed in detail by Foster and Rubenach (2006),
Sayab (2005) and Rubenach et al. (2008). Rocks in the study area
are overprinted by several stages of metasomatism. The earliest
recognised sodic alteration caused widespread regional albitisation
of feldspars. Subsequent sodic–calcic alteration produced actinolite–
302 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
albite–magnetite assemblages (De Jong and Williams, 1995; Mark
and Foster, 2000; Oliver et al., 2004), particularly in the Doherty
and Corella Formations in the Eastern Succession. Chlorite–epidote
alteration (e.g., Mark et al., 2004) and K-feldspar–hematite (Red Rock
alteration of Carter et al., 1961) overprint the sodic–calcic alteration
locally, particularly adjacent to relatively late faults, and are com-
monly texturally associated with Cu mineralisation.
4. Structural controls and metallogenesis
4.1. Pb–Zn–Ag mineral occurrences
Possible structural controls for Pb–Zn–Ag mineral occurrences can
be divided into two categories: rift related and shear related. Williams
(1998b) suggests that the presence of high-Fe meta-tholeiites at
Cannington, Maramungee and Fairmile deposits reflect magmatism in
a propagating rift system. Hence, normal and/or transform faults
related to rift development may control the distribution of Pb–Zn–Ag
mineralisation. Two main phases of rifting occurred in conjunction
with the deposition of the Soldiers Cap Group. The first (CS3a)
consisted of east–northeast directed extension via north–northwest
oriented normal faults during the 1685–1660 Ma deposition of the
Llewellyn Creek Formation. The second (CS3b) consisted of southeast
extension via northeast oriented normal faults during the 1660–
1650 Ma deposition of the Mount Norna Quartzite and Toole Creek
Volcanics (Queensland Dept. of Mines and Energy et al., 2000).
However, the majority of authors assert that metals (including Pb–
Zn–Ag and Cu–Au) were transported during post-peak metamorphic
alteration, which was focussed along ca 1550–1530 Ma ductile–brittle
shears and faults (e.g., the Cloncurry Fault Zone of Austin, 2009: the
Maramungee and Levuka shear zones of Newbery, 1990; De Jong,
1995) and partially replaced the stratiform iron oxides. Most Pb–Zn–
Ag mineralisation is sub-economic and is described as sediment
hosted. Cannington is distinct from other Pb–Zn–Ag mineral occur-
rences in the area, especially for its size. Several authors (e.g.,
Chapman and Williams, 1998; Roache, 2004) suggest that Cannington
mineralisation is not stratiform, and instead that retrograde sulphide
precipitation was localised by a post-D2 (b1590 Ma) north-oriented
shear zone (i.e., Maramungee shear zone of Newbery, 1990: Cloncurry
Fault Zone of Austin, 2009). Sub-economic Fe-oxide hosted Pb–Zn
mineralisation (Blackrock, Maramungee and Dingo) occurs to the
north of Cannington within syn-mineralisation shears, e.g., the
Maramungee shear zone (Newbery, 1990). The Maronan prospect is
a skarn type deposit localised by a late to post D2 high strain zone (De
Jong, 1995). The Pegmont and Cowrie mineral occurrences lie in the
southwest of the area, west of the Cloncurry Fault, and display
different trends to many other Fe-Oxide hosted Pb–Zn–Ag mineral
occurrences, possibly due to their location in a different structural
block. The Pegmont lode trends northeast, conformable to local fold
plunges, and the Cowrie lode trends north. Both are considered to be
stratiform deposits (Newbery, 1990). These observations are sum-
marised in Table 1.
Many of the Pb–Zn–Ag mineral occurrences are proximal to variably
oriented faults that appear to truncate mineralisation. Most faults do not
appear to have been active during mineralisation but they may have
aided localisation of small secondary deposits. At Cannington these may
include northwest, northeast and east–northeast trending post-
1530 Ma faults (e.g., Walters and Bailey, 1998). The Maronan mineral
lode is cut by an east–northeast trending normal fault (De Jong,1995). At
Fairmile there are a variety of fault orientations including north,
northeast, northwest, east–southeast, and east.
4.2. Cu–Au mineralisation
Cu–Au mineralisation in the Cloncurry district is particularly diverse in
style, setting and geochemical association (Williams and Pollard, 2003)
and includes IOCG deposits and carbonate hosted Cu-dominant deposits
(Table 1). Mineralisation within the region has strong structural controls
(e.g., Bell et al., 1988; Laing, 1993; Valenta, 1994; Baker and Laing, 1998;
Davidson, 1998; Williams, 1998a; Williams and Pollard, 2003; Marshall
and Oliver, 2008) and the major faults in the area may have acted as fluid
conduits responsible for mineralisation (e.g., McLellan and Oliver, 2008).
Carter et al. (1961) and Laing (1998) propose that north and northwest
faults host Cu–Au mineral occurrences, while northeast faults are
generally barren. Ore bodies are localised at fault intersections, jogs and
flexures/fault bends (Carter et al., 1961; Mustard et al., 2004; Ford and
Blenkinsop, 2008). Prospectivity analysis by Mustard et al. (2004)
indicated that the main fault orientations favourable for mineralisation
are north, north–northwest or east–northeast trending structures,
particularly jogs or bends. Fault intersections, particularly those of east
to northeast and south to southeast-trending faults with all other fault
orientations also appear to be important (Mustard et al., 2004). Numerical
modelling by McLellan (2004) and McLellan and Oliver (2008) demon-
strated that known Cu±Au deposits occur in areas modelled as having
both low minimum principal stress and low mean stress. This idea has
been validated at deposit scale by Keys (2008), who has shown that most
Cu deposits formed during west–northwest directed bulk shortening.
At the deposit scale there are two types of control. Several deposits,
such as Ernest Henry and Eloise, sit at fault intersections or jogs along
north-trending shear zones (Mark et al., 2006; Baker, 1998; Baker and
Laing, 1998). Other Cu–Au mineral occurrences share chemical
characteristics with some Pb–Zn–Ag mineralisation. For example
Monakoff contains Cu, Au, as well as Ag, Pb, Zn, and U; Mount Norna
and Eloise contain small amounts of Ag. Conversely several mineral
occurrences classified as Ag–Pb–Zn types contain Cu and Au. This may
imply that there is a continuum from Cu–Au to Pb–Zn rich end members
that are both formed by replacement of iron formations. Their location is
a product of the orientation of the host iron formation, (i.e., strata
parallel; Hatton and Davidson, 2004) and the mechanism by which Cu–
Au rich fluids replace it. Controls may include dilation due to contrasting
competency in adjacent strata during folding or a spatial relationship to
fluid pathways such as faults or permeable stratigraphy.
The timing of Cu–Au mineralisation is contentious. Mark et al. (2005)
propose that Cu–(Au) deposits post-date ca 1585 Ma metamorphism
and have a genetic relationship to 1550–1500 Ma A-type magmatism.
Keys (2008) determined that Cu-deposits in the Eastern Succession
formed during west–northwest bulk shortening during the ~1530 Ma,
D4 event of Rubenach et al. (2008) and Austin (2009). Williams (2001)
suggests that most of the Cu–Au mineralisation occurred from 1520–
1500 Ma on the basis of overprinting relationships between mineralisa-
tion, alteration and related magmatism. 40Ar/39Ar dating by Perkins and
Wyborn (1998) suggested that the majority of Cu-deposits are broadly
contemporaneous with the late ca 1510–1485 Ma phases of the Williams
and Naraku batholiths. Distinct stages of sodic, sodic–calcic, carbonate,
and potassic metasomatism occurred in the area, and mineralisation is
commonly associated with the later three stages.
The genesis of Cu–Au deposits, particularly IOCGs, is controversial.
A first (syngenetic) mineralisation event in some Au–Cu deposits may
have consisted of deep sea expulsion of Fe (±Cu–Au ± Pb–Zn) rich
fluid which precipitated stratiform iron oxides (±massive sulphides)
on the seafloor (Hatton and Davidson, 2004). A spatial and temporal
relationship between A-type magmatism, Na–Ca alteration and IOCG
mineralisation is commonly recognised (e.g., De Jong and Williams,
1995, 1998a; Pollard et al., 1998; Williams and Pollard, 2003; Oliver
et al., 2004; Pollard, 2006; Oliver et al., 2008; Marshall and Oliver,
2008), and related to mixing of felsic magmatic fluid with brines.
Others recognise (e.g., Carter et al., 1961; Donchak et al., 1983) or
have quantified (e.g., Butera, 2004; Mustard et al., 2004; Ford and
Blenkinsop, 2008) a close association between basic igneous rocks and
Cu-mineralisation throughout the region. Oliver et al. (2004) suggest
that felsic–mafic mingling/mixing may explain the apparent associa-
tion of IOCG's with both felsic and mafic magmatism.
 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
Here, two subdivisions of Cu–Au mineral occurrences are made
based on their metal endowment. The first type are Au–Cu mineral
occurrences, which correspond to the “type ii” IOCGs of Mark et al.
(2006), who describe them as Fe-oxide hosted Cu–Au mineralisation
where relatively Au-rich ore associated with pyrite and hematite
overprints older magnetite rich rocks. They are termed Mt Freda style
deposits by Davidson (1998). Examples include Mount Freda and
Falcon in the study area and Starra (Rotherham, 1997; Adshead-Bell,
1998) to the west.
The second type of Cu–Au mineralisation has a higher ratio of Cu to
Au. They may correspond to “type iii” deposits (Mark et al., 2006) and
are described as Fe-oxide Cu–Au mineralisation, in which Fe oxides
and Cu–Au are deposited co-genetically (e.g., Weatherley Creek,
Monakoff: Hatton and Davidson, 2004; Table 1). Alternatively they
may be structurally controlled carbonate hosted mineralisation (e.g.,
Great Australia: Cannell and Davidson, 1998; Williams, 1998a; Mark
et al., 2006). The latter deposit style correlates with “type iv” IOCGs of
Mark et al. (2006) who describes the style as: “Fe oxide-poor Cu–Au
mineralisation, where relative Cu-rich mineralisation is associated
with pyrrhotite and rare magnetite, and is hosted in relatively reduced
rocks such as carbonaceous meta-sedimentary rocks”. However, such
mineralisation also has an affinity with Western Succession carbonate
hosted Cu-deposits such as Mount Isa (e.g., Perkins, 1984) which are
not classified as IOCGs. Many of the carbonate hosted Cu-mineral
occurrences display clear spatial relationships to brittle faults (e.g.,
Cannell and Davidson, 1998; Keys, 2008).
4.3. Cu-mineral occurrences
This group of mineral occurrences are generally small in size, Cu-
dominated, and are spatially associated with variably oriented, rela-
tively late and commonly minor faults. They include Barnes
Shaft, Mount Arthur, Mount Kalkadoon and Mount Carol mines and
Landsborough, Louise and White Cliffs prospects (Table 1). Many
contain secondary ore minerals (Donchak et al., 1983), mostly mala-
chite (Carter et al., 1961). The Mount Arthur/Barnes Shaft mineral
occurrences occur on “strike faults” (Donchak et al., 1983), probably
a series of northwest to north–northwest faults, but there are also
northeast, east–northeast, southeast and east trending faults evident
in 1:100k mapping by Donchak et al. (1984). The Landsborough and
Louise mineral occurrences both sit along strike from each other,
~ 1 km west of a north–northwest trending fault (interpreted by
Queensland Department of Mines and Energy et al., 2000). Both sit
near intersections with northeast trending faults with dextral offsets
interpreted from aeromagnetic ‘worm’ data, and described in Austin
and Blenkinsop (2008).
4.4. Au mineral occurrences
Reef-gold was discovered to the south and east of Cloncurry in the
1860s, but very little is known about the Au deposits because most were
mined out between 1867 and 1900 (Carter et al., 1961). The largest mine
was the Gilded Rose deposit, which consisted of auriferous quartz veins
cutting schist and quartzite of the Soldiers Cap Group (Blake, 1987;
Davidson,1998). Gold has been obtained from the Quamby Conglomerate
where epigenetic (hydrothermal?) gold occurs with hematite in the
matrix. Idnurm and Wyborn (1998) suggested that the conglomerate was
deposited at ca. 1500 Ma based on palaeomagnetic data, which may
correlate with the 1490 Ma ages obtained from monazite dating (Evins
et al., 2007). Some potentially economic gold mineralisation is also
contained in massive, banded and locally brecciated quartz–hematite
bodies (Blake, 1987). The origin of such mineralisation is uncertain, but it
is considered to be epigenetic (Blake et al., 1983). Most of the mineral
occurrences probably formed synchronously with the Quamby Conglom-
erate and with late quartz–hematite fault fills (e.g., D5 of Austin, 2009) at
ca 1510–1490 Ma (Table 1). Conversely, the Gilded Rose deposit is listed in
303
MINOCC (Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, 2002:
after Davidson, 1998) as forming Syn-D1 in a regional thrust domain that
has affinities with Tick Hill style gold mineralisation.
5. Data and methods
5.1. Data and deposit classification
Mineral occurrence data for the study were extracted from
MINOCC (2002), which includes information about the relative size
of the occurrence, the relative metal endowment and geographical
location. The MINOCC (2002) database also contains information
about structural controls and genetic models for some occurrences
which are incorporated into Table 1. In this study, data were classified
by their listed metal endowment into the following categories: Pb–
Zn–Ag, Au–Cu, Cu–Au, Cu and Au. This classification is used because it
avoids controversies relating to different genetic models applied to
various deposits. However, in most cases the MINOCC (2002)
classifications correlate with the genetic divisions discussed in Section
4. The study uses the 9 Pb–Zn–Ag, 25 Au–Cu, 103 Cu–Au, 49 Cu and 21
Au deposits listed in this study area by MINOCC (2002).
5.2. Weights-of-evidence
Weights-of-evidence analysis is used to describe the degree of spatial
association between mineral occurrences and a geological variable (e.g.,
area within a buffer around faults). The results are expressed by the
contrast (CW); the natural logarithm of the ratio of the odds of a mineral
occurrence given the presence of the geological feature to the odds of a
mineral occurrence in the area without the feature (Bonham-Carter,
1994). This value compares the spatial association of two features (e.g.,
Cu occurrences and fault intersections) with that expected from a
random distribution of these features, which would give a contrast value
of zero. Contrast values above 0.5 are considered to be indicative of a
positive spatial association between two features (Wang et al., 2002).
The studentized contrast (or confidence) is a measure of the certainty
with which the contrast is known, and is calculated as the ratio of the
contrast to its standard deviation (Bonham-Carter, 1994). As long as the
confidence is high (above 1.5) then the contrast value is likely to be
significant (Bonham-Carter, 1994).
Weights-of-evidence analysis was performed on the data using the
MapInfo-Spatial Data Modeller© software package (Avantra Geosystems)
to determine the spatial correlation between Pb–Zn–Ag, Au–Cu, Cu–Au,
Cu and Au occurrences and the Cloncurry Lineament. Buffers around
the feature were varied from 0 to 10 km (a maximum corridor width
of 20 km) to determine the buffer distance that gave the maximum
contrast value. Various areas were assigned to mineral occurrences
but this variation did not significantly affect the contrast values.
5.3. Autocorrelation (Fry analysis)
The spatial distribution of mineralisation can be analysed by a plot
on which each data point (e.g., mineral occurrence) is marked relative
to every other data point (Vearncombe and Vearncombe, 1999).
Termed an “all-object-separations” plot (Hanna and Fry, 1979), these
are commonly known as “Fry plots” or “translations plots” and were
developed for the analysis of strain in rocks (Fry, 1979; Vearncombe
and Vearncombe, 1999, 2002). The vectors connecting each point
to every other point can also be represented as rose diagrams.
This technique has been applied to mineral occurrence distributions in
two dimensions by Vearncombe and Vearncombe (1999, 2002) and
Kreuzer (2005), in three dimensions by Raine and Blenkinsop (2004)
and Blenkinsop and Kadzviti (2006), and to geomorphic features by
Wormald et al. (2003). The rose diagrams shown are calculated as a
10° moving average of the orientations of vectors from each point to
every point.
 304
Table 1
Summary of different deposit categories, structural controls and timing of representative mineral deposits and occurrences in the study area.

Deposit name All commods East North Deposit size Deposit classification Host lithology Orebody orientation / Timing References
Structural Controls
Ag–Pb–Zn deposits
Cannington Ag Pb Zn 491721 7582025 Giant N 10,000 t Silver Sediment-hosted Soldiers Cap Group; sillimanite 2 × north–NNE-trending fault 1670–1650 Ma / Roache (2004);
Pb–Zn Broken schist, garnetiferous quartzite bound lodes, offset by NNW 1550–1530 Ma Chapman and Williams (1998);
Hill type (BHT) / thrust/reverse fault Bodon (1998);

J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316

Pb–Zn skarn Walters and Bailey (1998)
Pegmont Pb Zn Ag 467791 7583751 Medium 100,000– Sediment-hosted Pb–Zn Kuridala fm: mica schist and Orebody orientation 45/10 S; 1670–1650 Ma / Blake et al. (1983);
2,500,000 t Pb (BHT) / Pb–Zn skarn metagreywacke quartzite+ bedding parallel BIF 1550–1530 Ma Vaughan and Stanton (1986);
musc-tourm peg + amphibolite Williams et al. (1998);
MINOCC (2002)⁎
Cowie Zn Pb Ag 485961 7590025 Small 200–200,000 t Zn Sediment-hosted Pb–Zn Soldiers Cap Group: migmatitic Orebody orientation 180/70 W; 1670–1650 Ma / Blake et al. (1983);
(BHT) / Pb–Zn skarn gneiss, pegmatite, quartzite Iron hosted stratiform deposit 1550–1530 Ma MINOCC (2002)⁎
Maramungee Zn Pb Cu 490691 7613843 Small 200–200,000 t Zn Soldiers Cap Group: mica schist, Orebody orientation 010/ 80 E, D3–D4 – 1550–1530 Ma Williams and Heineman (1993);
Pb–Zn skarn gneiss, pegmatite, quartzite, hosted in D3–D4 shear zone Williams, (1998b);
amphibolite MINOCC (2002)⁎
Fairmile Ag Pb 484241 7651450 Very small b 5 t Silver Pb–Zn skarn Soldiers Cap Group: gartnetiferous Inferred to be N-trending 1670–1650 Ma / Donchak et al. (1983);
Zn Cu mica schist, amphibolite, marble. from map, 1550–1530 Ma Williams and Baker (1995)
Maronan Pb Ag 493021 7671975 Very small b 1000 t Pb Sediment-hosted Pb–Zn Carbonaceous schist Soldiers N- trending, W-dipping lode; 1670–1650 Ma / De Jong (1995); MINOCC (2002)⁎
Cu Au (BHT) / Pb–Zn skarn Cap Group; biotite/garnetiferous parallel to Fe-rich horizon, 1550–1530 Ma
quartzite and schist. cut by ENE fault
Black Rock Pb Zn 491021 7607962 Very small b 1000 t Pb Sediment-hosted Pb–Zn Soldiers Cap Group: migmatitic North-trending iron formation 1670–1650 Ma / Blake et al. (1983);
Cu Ag (BHT) / Pb–Zn skarn gneiss, pegmatite, quartzite (bedding steep –East) 1550–1530 Ma Taylor and Scott (1982)
and amphibolite
Dingo Zn Cu 497621 7680075 Very small b 200 t Zn Replacement deposit Soldiers Cap Group: biotite Inferred to be ~ N-trending iron 1670–1650 Ma / Nisbet and Joyce, (1980)
Au Ag quartzite amphibolite, gniess, formation from map; many 1550–1530 Ma (in Blake et al., 1983)
chloritesillimanite-mica schist pegmatites in area

Cu–Au deposits
Lightning Cu Au Mt 475721 7587975 Very small b 500 t Cu Fe-oxide Cu–Au (type i) Williams batholith I-type Multiple magnetite–quartz ~ 1500 Ma Perring et al. (2000)
Creek quartz monzodiorite vein system
Mount Norna Cu Ag Au 468581 7687041 Small 500–50,000 t Cu Structurally controlled Soldiers Caps Group: schists, Orebody orientation 155/ 1530–1490 Ma Davidson (1998);
Cu–Au–carbonate sandstone and siltstone 80 E; iron formation at Hatton and Davidson (2004);
(type iv) flexure in bedding Honman (1939)
Monakoff Cu Au Ag 467551 7719320 Small 500–50,000 t Cu Fe-oxide Cu–Au (type ii) Soldiers Cap Group: high-Fe Orebody orientation 60/ 80 S; 1670–1650 Ma / Davidson (1998);
Pb Zn U metabasalt/ dolerite, near a large scale NE fault 1550–1 530 Ma Hatton and
quartzite/ psammite, Davidson (2004);
garnet quartzite MINOCC (2002)⁎
Weatherley Cu Au 473821 7682375 Very small b 500 t Cu Structurally controlled Soldiers Cap Group: high Fe- Orebody orientation 170; 1530–1490 Ma Davidson (1998);
Cu–Au–carbonate) metabasalt/dolerite, quartzite/ flexure in bedding; near a Hatton and Davidson (2004)
(type iv) psammite, garnet quartzite NW fault (Cloncurry Flexure)
Ernest Henry Cu Au 469271 7739485 Large 250,000–2,000, Fe-oxide Cu–Au Fort Constantine Volcanics Orebody orientation 65/40 S; 1525–1505 Ma Cleverley and Oliver (2005);
000 t Cu (type iii) body is in SW-dipping arcuate Mark (1999)
thrust zone; ore in SSE
plunging breccia
Eloise Cu Au Ag 497981 7683025 Medium 50,000– Fe-oxide Cu–Au Soldiers Cap Group; Orebody orientation 180/90; 1527–1515 Ma Baker and Laing (1998);
 250,000 t Cu (type iii) Qtz-biotite-muscovite schist, intersection of splays at a Baker (1998),
garnetiferous pasammite, jog in the Levuka shear Zone Baker et al. (2001);
amphibolite Brescianini et al. (1992)
Great Cu Co Au 449037 7708696 Medium 50,000– Structurally controlled Doherty/Corella Fm: at Orebody orientated N–S at Syn- to post-D4 Carter et al. (1961);
Australia 250,000 t Cu Cu–Au–carbonate boundary with Boomara, intersection of N and NE faults (1530 Ma) Cannell and Davidson (1998)
(type iv) Quartzite that dip W and NW/45–60°
Mt Freda Au Cu 472761 7680203 Very small b 500 t Cu Structurally controlled Amphibolites, Orebody orientated 097/70 S syn- to post-D4 Davidson (1998);
Cu Au–carbonate Soldiers Cap Group at intersection of N–NNE-trending (1530 Ma) MINOCC (2002)⁎
(Mt Freda style) amphibolite and ESE fault
Falcon Au Cu 472898 7681758 Small 500–50,000 ts Cu Structurally controlled Amphibolites, Orebody orientation 170/75 W; Syn- to post-D4 Davidson (1998);
Cu Au–carbonate Soldiers Cap Group subparallel amphibolite and (1530 Ma) MINOCC (2002)⁎
(Mt Freda Style) NNW quartz veins

Cu-dominant deposits
Barnes Shaft Cu 460194 7652175 Very small b 500 t Cu Shear zone-hosted Doherty Fm: black Orebody orientation 155, Syn- to post-D5 Blake et al. (1983, 1984);
hydrothermal slate lenses proximal to NNW, NE, and (1510 Ma) MINOCC (2002)⁎
interlayered with N faults and late dolerites
calc-silicates
Mount Arthur Cu 460257 7652361 Very small b 500 t Cu Shear zone-hosted Doherty Fm: black Orebody orientation 155, Syn- to post-D5 Blake et al. (1983, 1984);

J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316

hydrothermal slate lenses proximal to NNW, NE, and (1510 Ma) MINOCC (2002)⁎
interlayered with N faults and late dolerites
calc-silicates
Mount Cu 469992 7654429 Very small b 500 t Cu Shear zone-hosted Doherty Fm: Orebody orientation Syn- to post-D5 Donchak et al. (1983);
Kalkadoon hydrothermal calc-silicate rocks 115–120/75–80 N, near NNW (1510 Ma) MINOCC (2002)⁎
splay off the Cloncurry Fault;
White Cliffs Cu Au 482021 7620975 Very small b 500 t Cu Shear zone-hosted Soldiers Cap Group: Orebody orientation 170/ 85 E Syn- to post-D5 Blake et al. (1983);
hydrothermal mica schist, (1510 Ma) MINOCC (2002)⁎
amphibolite, dipping ~ 85 E
Mount Carol Cu Sio 460927 7603427 Very small b 500 t Cu Shear zone-hosted Kuridala Fm: interlayered Orebody orientation 25/ 20 E; Syn- to post-D5 Blake et al. (1983);
hydrothermal mica schist and shearzone 1171 20S (1510 Ma) MINOCC (2002)⁎
meta-greywacke,
dipping 5–10 SE
Landsborough Cu 481393 7642952 Very small b 500 t Cu Cu ± Ag quartz veins Soldiers Cap Group, Possibly located at intersection Syn- to post-D5 Donchak et al. (1983);
amphibolite of NNE and NE faults, (1510 Ma) MINOCC (2002)⁎
pegmatites nearby
Louise Cu 488021 7634875 Very small b 500 t Cu Cu ± Ag quartz veins Soldiers Cap Group Possibly located on NE-trending Syn- to post-D5 Donchak et al. (1983);
dextral fault, host rocks dip (1510 Ma) MINOCC (2002)⁎
steep to ENE

Au-only deposits
Gilded Rose Au 460515 7702508 Small 0.5–5 t Au Mesothermal quartz Soldiers Cap Group, Orebody orientation 105/75 S D1 – ca 1610 Ma Shepherd (1932);
veins/pipe/stockwork schists and sand/siltstone or ca 1500 Ma Honman (1936);
Davidson (1998);
MINOCC (2002)⁎
Castle Hill Au 475322 7680139 Very small b 0.5 t Au Shear zone-hosted Soldiers Cap Group: Orebody orientation 110/ 85 S ca 1500 Ma? Honman (1939);
hydrothermal schists and sand/siltstone MINOCC (2002)⁎
Golden Au 471071 7690444 Very small b 0.5 t Au Shear zone-hosted Soldiers Cap Group: quartzite Orebody orientation 80/ 54 N ca 1500 Ma? MINOCC (2002)⁎
Chance hydrothermal

Grid references are given in MGA 94 datum, zone 54. ⁎ Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, 2002.

305
306 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316

6. Results
6.1. Fault analysis
The orientations of faults within the study area have been plotted on
rose diagrams to compare with the weights-of-evidence and auto-
correlation analysis. Two data sets are used because the Queensland
Dept. of Mines and Energy et al. (2000) data (Fig. 2a) includes faults
that occur throughout the autocorrelation study area, while Austin's
(2009) data (Fig. 2b) is concentrated in sparsely covered areas bet-
ween the Cloncurry Lineament and Cloncurry Fault (Fig.1). Fig. 2c shows
both datasets together and identifies distinct north (360°); north–
northeast (15°); northeast (45°); southeast (110°–140°); south–south-
east (150°–170°) fault orientations in the study area. There is a wider
spread of orientations for north–northwest and northwest trending
faults than other fault orientations, although this may be an artefact of
the larger population size.
6.2. Weights-of-evidence results
Pb–Zn–Ag mineral occurrences apparently have a poor spatial
association with the Cloncurry Lineament. There are no occurrences
within 3 km of the Cloncurry Lineament and the contrast (CW) values
for buffers beyond 3 km results are all negative. However, the confi-
dence values are also less than zero which indicates that the results
are not statistically valid, probably due to the very small sample size.
Au–Cu mineral occurrences (Fig. 3a) show the second strongest
association with the Lineament, with a contrast value of 2.37 and a
confidence of 5.65 for the 0.75 km buffer around the lineament,
decreasing to a contrast value of 0.98, within the 4 km buffer. The
confidence is also significantly lower beyond 4 km. The contrast values
increase slightly at 8–10 km, although the associated confidence is
significantly less. This result may reflect the existence of a major
cluster of Au–Cu mineral occurrences (near Salebury and Uncle Tom)
located 8–10 km from the Cloncurry Lineament.
Cu–Au mineral occurrences (Fig. 3b) show a lower but still positive
spatial association close to the Cloncurry Lineament, with two peaks
in the contrast values of 1.12 for the 0.5 and 1 km buffers. The contrast
peaks correlate with relatively low confidence values of 3.38 and 4.44
respectively. In contrast, at 8 km from the lineament a contrast of 1.58
and a confidence of 6.30 are calculated.
Cu mineral occurrences (Fig. 3c) show a stronger association
with the Cloncurry Lineament, with a contrast of 2.07 and a confi-
dence of 6.41 for the 0.5 km buffer. Contrast values are greater than 1
for buffers up to 10 km from the lineament, but the contrast and
confidence flatten out after 3 km, so that although the contrast values

Fig. 3. Weights-of-evidence results for the Cloncurry Lineament. Contrast values and confidence values are plotted for a. Au–Cu, b. Cu–Au, c. Cu and d. Au mineral occurrences, relative to 0.33, 0.5,
0.75, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 10 km buffers around the Cloncurry Lineament. The mineral occurrence area has negligible effect on the results. Here a constant area of 1 km2 is used.
 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316 307

are still high, confidence in the result is much lower beyond the 3 km
buffer.
Au-only mineralisation (Fig. 3d) has the strongest spatial correla-
tion with the Cloncurry Lineament, recording a maximum contrast
value of 2.43 and confidence value of 6.21 for the 0.75 km buffer. Both
the contrast and confidence decrease gradually from their peaks at the
0.75 km buffer. There is a sharp rise in the contrast at 10 km that
coincides with a relatively low, but significant, confidence value. This
rise in contrast appears to be caused by a cluster of Au-mineral occur-
rences around Pumpkin Gully (and to the SSE, e.g., Black Gully)
located approximately 10 km from the Cloncurry Lineament.
6.3. Autocorrelation results
6.3.1. Pb–Zn–Ag mineral occurrences
The autocorrelation plot (Fig. 4) shows three main trends for Pb–
Zn–Ag mineralisation: north, north–northeast and northwest. How-
ever, only two main trends are evident in the rose diagrams. At a large

Fig. 4. Autocorrelation results for Pb–Zn–Ag mineral occurrences showing: a. Mineral occurrences and geology; b. The autocorrelation plot; c. Rose diagrams from the autocorrelation
plots for lengths up to 103 km, 75 km and 45 km respectively. “Length” in all rose diagrams refers to the length of the vector connecting each mineral occurrence to every other
mineral occurrence in the plot. In this and following autocorrelation rose diagrams major trends are considered to be greater than 50% of the maximum length (i.e., the circle); minor
trend are less than 50% of the maximum length.
308 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
scale (lengths b103 km) the main trend is north and there is a minor
north–northeast trend. At intermediate scales (lengths b75 km,
b45 km) the same trends are evident. However, the north–northeast
trend becomes more dominant at the fine scale. Due to the paucity
of data, results for smaller scales are not as significant. The results
suggest that the mineral occurrences are localised parallel to the
north-trending Levuka Shear Zone, north to north–northwest-trend-
ing Cloncurry Lineament and the north–northeast-trending Kay's
Peak shear (Newbery, 1990).
6.3.2. Au–Cu mineral occurrences
The autocorrelation plot and rose diagrams (Fig. 5) show three
main trends for Au–Cu mineral occurrences that are represented at all
scales: north–northwest, east–southeast, and north–northeast. At a
large scale (length b90 km) the primary trend is north–northwest. A
secondary east–southeast trend is also present. At an intermediate
scale (length b18 km) the same trends are evident, except that the
east–southeast trend is now dominant. At small scales (length b3 km)
there are several trends evident between north–northwest to north–
northeast and a lesser east to east–southeast trend. The results
suggest an overall north–northwest regional control on mineralisa-
tion, but the local scale emphasises the importance of east to east–
southeast and north–northwest to north–northeast structures.
Fig. 5. Autocorrelation results for Au–Cu mineral occurrences showing: a. Mineral occurrences and geology; b. The autocorrelation plot; c. Rose diagrams for lengths up to 90 km,
18 km and 3 km.
6.3.3. Cu–Au mineral occurrences
The autocorrelation plot for Cu–Au mineralisation (Fig. 6) shows an
overall north to north–northwest trend and potentially an east
alignment. Results vary widely in the rose diagrams, depending on
scale. At a large scale (length b150 km) the primary trend is at 170° with
a secondary spike at 160. At an intermediate scale (length b20 km) the
same trends are evident, except that there is a continuum between the
dominant north (175°) trend and the less dominant southeast trend.
Minor trends of 30°, 55°, 85° and 115° are also apparent. At small scales
(length b6.5 km) the main trends are north–northwest (160°) and
northeast to east (45°–80°), but north (10°) and southeast (135°) trends
are also revealed. Overall, the results suggest north to north–northwest
regional control on mineralisation. In contrast to Au–Cu, the Cu–Au
autocorrelation analysis reveals many trends at the local scale which
may suggest that there are numerous smaller-scale structural controls
on mineralisation. The geometry of the small scale rose diagrams could
be interpreted to indicate that two sets of conjugate faults (NW/NNE
and E/NE) control mineralisation at this scale.
6.3.4. Cu mineral occurrences
The autocorrelation plot (Fig. 7) shows several trends for Cu mine-
ral occurrences in north, north–northwest, northeast and south-
east directions. The autocorrelation results vary with scale in the rose
 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316 309

Fig. 6. Autocorrelation results for Cu–Au (including IOCG) mineral occurrences showing: a. Mineral occurrences and geology; b. The autocorrelation plot; c. Rose diagrams for lengths
up to 150 km, 20 km and 6.5 km.
310 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
diagrams. At a large scale (length b116 km) the primary trend is north
to north–northwest. Where the length is b20 km, a main trend of 170°
persists, but a lesser 150° trend and a minor northeast trend is also
evident. At a smaller scale (length b15 km) the same trends are
evident, as well as north–northeast and southeast trends. At the
smallest scale examined (length b5 km) the 170° and southeast trends
are dominant. The 170° trend persists at all scales, suggesting it is a
general structural control. The two dominant trends at the smaller
scale are consistent with the importance of southeast and east–
southeast trending faults at the deposit scale.
6.3.5. Au mineral occurrences
In the autocorrelation plot and rose diagrams for Au mineralisation
(Fig. 8) there are north–northwest, east, southeast and northeast
trends at all scales. At a large scale the primary trend is north–
northwest although some very minor southeast, northeast and east
trends area also apparent. At an intermediate scale (length b17 km)
the same trends are evident, except that the northeast, southeast and
east trends are more prevalent. At the smallest scale (length b6 km)
the north–northwest trend is minor, while the northeast, southeast
and east trends are dominant.
7. Discussion
7.1. Limitations of the data and methods
Most weights-of-evidence analyses use point mineral occurrence data,
as in this study, irrespective of deposit size. One reason for this approach is
the practical difficulty of measuring deposit size. Measures based on
production, resources or reserves depend strongly on economic factors.
The aim of this study is not to target large ore deposits, but to investigate
the influence of a geological structure on mineralising systems, for which
mineral occurrences can be regarded as a valid measure. It can be
questioned whether closely spaced mineral occurrences should be
regarded as separate, as in this study. Although treating these occurrences
separately may influence the weights of evidence analysis, which must be
interpreted with this condition in mind, a consistent approach throughout
the study area will minimise this effect. The MINNOC database has well-
defined definitions for various categories of mineral occurrence, which
should ensure consistency.
A possible limitation of the autocorrelation analysis is that a long
and narrow study area such as the one in this study, chosen in order to
focus on the Cloncurry Lineament, will influence the autocorrelation
trends. Since the study area has a width of 40 km and a length of
230 km in a N–S direction, any autocorrelations based on length scales
over 40 km may be influenced by shape. The extent of the influence
can be investigated by comparing the long and short length scale
autocorrelation plots. It is clear that NS to NNW–SSE trends decrease
in prominence at smaller length scales for the Pb–Zn–Ag, Au–Cu, Cu
and Au data sets, but that they are still present at all length scales,
suggesting a strong control by features in this orientation that is
independent of the shape of the study area.
7.2. Lead–zinc–silver mineralisation
Weights-of-evidence modelling reveals no statistically significant
relationship between Pb–Zn–Ag mineral occurrences and the Clon-
curry Lineament, even though the giant Cannington deposit appears
to sit along strike from its southern termination. This probably reflects
the fact that there are only 9 known deposits in the study area. The
autocorrelation results for this mineralisation category show strong
north and north–northeast trends at all scales, which parallel the
shear zones in the study area. The autocorrelation analysis and map
pattern of the deposits suggest that one of at least three apparent host
shears is spatially associated with the Cloncurry Lineament; the
Maramungee Shear (Newbery, 1990). The other host shears are the
Levuka Trend (Newbery, 1990; De Jong, 1995; Baker, 1998), a north-
striking, sub-vertical high strain zone that hosts the Eloise Cu–Au
deposit, and the Kay's Peak shear (Newbery, 1990) that hosts the
Fairmile, Maronan, and Dingo prospects along a north–northeast
trending shear zone that connects the Levuka and Maramungee shear
zones. The orientation and deformation style of these shear zones is
consistent with D3 deformation which formed reverse to anastomos-
ing shear zones in the study area from ca 1550–1530 Ma (e.g., the
Levuka Trend: Baker, 1998; the Cloncurry Fault Zone: Austin, 2009).
Retrograde remobilisation of sulphides within shear zones has been
suggested by Newbery (1990), De Jong (1995) and Roache (2004) to
localise several Pb–Zn–Ag mineral occurrences, including Cannington,
Blackrock, Dingo, Fairmile and Maronan. However, Cannington may
pre-date most of the smaller Pb–Zn–Ag deposits, forming at ca
1670 Ma along with stratiform iron formations on the seafloor (e.g.,
Hatton and Davidson, 2004). It may then have acted as a mother lode
during D2–D3 deformation and metamorphism, allowing metals to be
redistributed along north and north–northeast shear zones to form
smaller satellite deposits. This scenario may explain the retrograde
fabrics associated with mineralisation at Cannington (e.g., Chapman
and Williams, 1998; Roache, 2004), and the observation that many of
the smaller mineral occurrences exhibit similarities with skarn type
mineralisation (e.g., Williams and Heinemann, 1993; Roache et al.,
2005). Ag may have been added to the Cannington deposit during D3–
D4 shearing (e.g., Chapman and Williams, 1998). The Pegmont and
Cowie prospects may be exceptions to the shear hosted skarn model.
Both appear to have formed by replacement of stratiform iron
formations, in a similar way to some IOCGs (e.g., Monakoff), thus
being structurally controlled by the orientation of the iron formations.
7.3. Copper and gold mineralisation
The structural controls on Cu and Au mineralisation are more
varied than for Pb–Zn–Ag, which suggests that different mineralisa-
tion styles within the group may have formed at different times,
by different processes, and or in different structural settings. The
weights-of-evidence and autocorrelation results show that the
Cloncurry Lineament is a primary, regional-scale control on Cu and
Au mineralisation. This is confirmed by the observation that for all Cu–
Au, Cu, Au–Cu and Au deposits the major autocorrelation trend is 160–
170°, parallel to the Cloncurry Lineament. Furthermore, weights-of-
evidence analysis shows high contrast and confidence values for the
distribution of all Cu and Au mineralisation relative to the Cloncurry
Lineament, indicating a strong spatial relationship. There is a
particularly strong relationship between the Cloncurry Lineament
and Au and Au–Cu mineralisation, suggesting that it is a more
significant structural control on their distribution than for Cu and Cu–
Au mineralisation.
One reason for the rise in Au–Cu and Au contrast values at dis-
tances of 7–10 km from the lineament may be a manifestation of the
geophysical processing used to derive the Cloncurry Lineament. The
Lineament is defined by a series of points of maximum gradient in
upward continued magnetic data. High upward continuation tends to
smooth geophysical features that are angular at low levels of upward
continuation. The area where the Cloncurry Lineament deflects to the
NNE coincides with the truncation of a major NNW-trending fault
zone by a NE-trending structure known as the Cloncurry Flexure (cf.
Austin and Blenkinsop, 2008). It is likely that the cluster of Au–Cu and
Au mineralisation around Uncle Tom is located at the intersection of
the major NNW fault zone with the NE-trending Cloncurry Flexure.
Therefore, the deposits are probably on the structure that causes the
Cloncurry Lineament, but the smoothing effect of high upward
continuation around the Cloncurry Flexure means that the position
of the lineament is east of the fault zone that causes it in the vicinity of
the Cloncurry Flexure only. This hypothesis is supported by the
westward migration of the Cloncurry “Worm” through successively
 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316 311

Fig. 7. Autocorrelation results for Cu-mineral occurrences showing: a. Mineral occurrences and geology; b. The autocorrelation plot; c. Rose diagrams of lengths up to 116 km, 40 km,
15 km and 5 km.
312 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
Fig. 8. Autocorrelation results for Au mineral occurrences showing: a. Mineral occurrences and geology; b. The Autocorrelation plot; c. Rose diagrams of lengths up to 103 km, 75 km
and 45 km.
lower levels of upward continuation toward the location of the Au–Cu
and Au mineralisation cluster. The rise of both contrast and confidence
for Cu–Au mineralisation with distance from the Cloncurry Lineament
appears to be due to the “worm smoothing effect”.
The map distribution of many of the Cu–Au mineral occurrences
suggests that they may also have a strong spatial correlation with
mafic rocks, in particular amphibolites, within the Soldiers Cap Group.
This correlation has been identified by previous studies such as
Mustard et al. (2004), Butera (2004) and Oliver et al. (2008). A
possible interpretation is that some Cu–Au mineralisation requires
interaction of hydrothermal fluids with mafic rocks. The increase in
Cu–Au contrast values at the largest buffer size may be due to the
effects of mafic rock distribution on these deposits.
While the Cloncurry Lineament exercises a broad regional control on
the distribution of Cu and Au, specific trends at smaller scales imply a
number of local controls. In contrast, for Cu–Au and Cu deposits there are
numerous trends, which do not necessarily persist at different scales,
and may indicate a wide variety of structural controls in variable
orientations. These may include: bedding, proximity of mafic rocks (e.g.,
Butera, 2004) and orientation of ironstones (e.g., Hatton and Davidson,
2004). Specific local scale controls are discussed below.
7.4. Au–Cu mineralisation
The Au–Cu mineral occurrences reveal autocorrelation trends that
have consistent orientation across different scales. Based on the
autocorrelation plots Au–Cu mineralisation appears to be regionally
controlled by a north–northwest structure (the Cloncurry Lineament)
and locally by ESE structures, probably faults. This assessment is
confirmed by evidence from the Mt Freda deposit, which is typical of
this class of mineralisation, and is inferred from its orientation (see
Table 1) to occupy an ESE structure at its intersection with a NNW
structure. Other ESE faults also appear to cut the Levuka trend close to
the relatively Au–rich Eloise Cu–Au deposit. The ESE-trend does not
appear to be common within the fault dataset (cf. Fig. 2), possibly
because it is manifested in structures which have short surface strikes.
The Au–Cu mineralisation may be controlled by a structure that is
planar at deep levels in the crust, but is represented by small sub-
parallel fractures and or en echelon fault arrays at surface.
7.5. Cu–Au mineralisation
Many Cu–Au deposits display a clear spatial relationship to faulting
(e.g., Davidson, 1998; Cannell and Davidson, 1998; Keys, 2008), inclu-
ding the Ernest Henry and Eloise IOCG deposits. However, some of the
mineralisation appears to be consistent with the stratiform iron-
stone replacement model proposed by Hatton and Davidson (2004),
which does not have obvious relationships to faulting. Thus, there
may be a fundamental contrast in the structural controls for post-peak
metamorphic ironstones (e.g., Starra: Mark et al., 2006) and possible
ironstone replacement mineralisation (e.g., Monakoff, Weath-
erly Creek: Davidson, 1998; Hatton and Davidson, 2004). This could
explain the variability of results at the local scale and may also explain
why there appears to be a stronger spatial relationship between the
Cloncurry Lineament and Au and Cu mineralisation, than for Cu–Au
mineralisation. Although a number of late north–northeast to east–
northeast and southeast faults offset strata in the Weatherly Creek
Syncline and Snake Creek Anticline (Ryburn et al., 1988), they do not
appear to localise mineral occurrences. Instead mineralisation appears
to be hosted by bedding parallel iron formations which may be fault-
 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
hosted or syn-sedimentary. The abundance of small scale trends may
be indicative of the orientation of stratigraphy in the folded amphi-
bolites and ironstones. Hatton and Davidson (2004) found that iron-
stones and adjacent rocks in the Weatherly creek area appear not to be
sheared (cf., Laing, 1998), suggesting that shearing is not critical to the
type ii IOCG deposits in this area (cf., Williams and Pollard, 2003). Cu–
Au rich fluids may have passed through sulphur-rich mafic rocks and
replaced magnetite with chalcopyrite in adjacent ironstones. Faults
play a major role in the localisation of type iii (Mark et al., 2006) IOCG
deposits (e.g., Ernest Henry, Eloise). Generally the larger deposits have
more complex structural geometries than smaller prospects. Ernest
Henry is hosted in a northeast striking arcuate thrust (Mark et al.,
2006) between two north-trending faults, whereas Eloise is hosted
in a north-trending shear at the confluence of several splays (e.g.,
Baker, 1998). In both instances there appear to be at least two types
of alteration related to the mineralisation. Jogs and splays off north-
trending sub-vertical faults are important for the localisation of
type iii IOCG's. Carbonate hosted Cu–Au deposits have similar con-
trols to Au–Cu deposits. The main control appears to be north–
northwest faulting, based on similar field relationships at a number of
occurrences.
7.6. Cu mineralisation
Autocorrelation shows a number of regional to intermediate scale
structural controls for Cu mineralisation which probably reflect
various fault orientations. However at smaller scales north to north–
northwest and northwest trends are dominant, which supports the
assertions of Carter et al. (1961), Laing (1998), and Mustard et al.
(2004), that Cu mineralisation is controlled at this scale by north–
northwest and northwest faults. Most of the occurrences discussed
here are secondary, possibly forming via supergene processes, late to
post-Isan orogeny.
7.7. Au mineralisation
The Au mineral occurrences reveal autocorrelation trends that are
consistent across different scales. Faulting played a major role in
localisation of Au-only mineralisation as deduced from the similarity
of trends observed with the faults in the study area, particularly
southeast oriented faults. Au deposits are regionally controlled by the
Cloncurry Lineament but locally by southeast, northeast and east
structures. Although the mineralisation does not appear to be
localised by post-1530 Ma faults in the mapping of Ryburn et al.
(1988), it is feasible that small-scale sub-parallel fracturing has
exercised control of the location of the gold mineralisation. Au appears
associated with quartz and hematite, a typical mineralogy observed in
late- to post-Isan faults. Thus, most of the Au mineralisation appears to
have formed late- to post- the Isan Orogeny when only brittle faults
were active. The extremely high spatial correlation of Au and Au–Cu
mineral occurrences with the Cloncurry Lineament may suggest that it
functioned as the primary regional fluid pathway and structural trap
during the introduction of Au to the system.
7.8. Genesis and relative timing
The introduction of Cu and Au into the system does not necessarily
temporally coincide with precipitation of the Cu and Au deposits, many
of which (e.g., Ernest Henry and Eloise) have formed via multiple phases
of brecciation and associated alteration. Of the four dominant alteration
phases present at Eloise, the calcite and chlorite alteration which post-
dates sodic–calcic alteration but predates K-feldspar–hematite altera-
tion, is associated with Au–Cu mineralisation (Baker, 1998). Conversely,
the main mineralisation phase at Ernest Henry occurs in conjunction
with massive potassic alteration, which postdates the sodic–calcic and
carbonate vein alteration (Mark et al., 2006). Mineralisation in other
313
nearby deposits such as Great Australia and Greenmount is hosted by
carbonaceous and calcareous veining (Cannell and Davidson, 1998;
Williams, 1998a; Mark et al., 2006). Thus, it seems likely that there are
several stages of metallogenic evolution involving Au and Cu.
Metasomatic and or metallogenic events that have been previously
proposed include: 1. Introduction of Au during D1 thrusting (e.g.,
Davidson, 1998); 2. Introduction of Cu during ca 1530 Ma intrusion of
the Williams Batholith (e.g., Pollard et al., 1998); 3. Synchronous early
sodic–calcic alteration, brecciation and liberation of iron and potassium
(e.g., Oliver et al., 2004); 4. Subsequent concentration in some deposits
(e.g., Ernest Henry: Mark et al., 2005) via K-feldspar–hematite (potassic)
alteration; 5. Concentration in some deposits by carbonate veining (e.g.,
late sodic–calcic alteration: Cannell and Davidson, 1998); 5. Secondary
remobilisation along quartz–hematite faults forming Cu and Au deposits
at ~1500 Ma or later (e.g., Donchak et al., 1983; Idnurm and Wyborn,
1998).
8. Conclusions
Some of the metallogenic stages discussed above coincide
temporally with distinct metasomatic alteration events, structural
trends and deformation styles, and hence, can easily be related to the
autocorrelation analysis. Pb–Zn mineralisation is fundamentally
different from Cu and Au mineralisation in that it appears to be
localised along shear zones (as opposed to faults) with north and
north–northeast orientations. Pb–Zn mineralisation appears to be
related to intrusion of early Williams Batholith granites at Maramun-
gee, which may imply an association with early sodic alteration.
Au–Cu occurrences generally lie along (or at intersections of)
north–northwest and east–southeast oriented faults, which prob-
ably formed shortly after the onset of brittle deformation (at ca.
1530 Ma) and are commonly associated with chlorite–carbonate
alteration. Cu occurrences are generally located along or at intersec-
tions of north–northwest and northwest oriented structures, which
are associated with brittle reactivation of D2 to D3 shear zones and or
D4 faults, and are associated with potassic alteration. Au mineralisa-
tion commonly occurs along or at intersections of north–northeast
and northwest oriented structures and is associated with late fault
reactivation (as evidenced by re-brecciation) coupled with silicic
infill and alteration.
Cu–Au deposits are more cryptic. They occur along a number of
structural trends and are associated with a variety of metasomatic
events and deformation via several overprinting stages of metasoma-
tism and mineralisation that each coincides with events that produced
structures with different orientations.
The deposit types discussed here have variable structural controls at
the local scale, e.g., shear zones, variably oriented fault sets, orientation of
bedding and/or iron formations, and proximity to mafic rocks. However,
weights-of-evidence analysis shows that Au, Au–Cu, Cu–Au and Cu
mineralisation has a positive spatial correlation to the Cloncurry
Lineament, and autocorrelation defines a strong north–northwest trend
(i.e., parallel to the Cloncurry Lineament) for all deposit types other than
Pb–Zn–Ag. Thus, it appears that the Cloncurry Lineament represents a
deep crustal structure that is a primary crustal scale control on the
location of Cu and Au mineralisation in the study area. This study gives
further weight to the findings of Hobbs et al. (2000) and Bierlein et al.
(2006) that major ‘worms’ may have a positive spatial association with
mineralisation. It also supports the hypotheses that large features
can channel fluids into the upper crust, and act as major regional fluid
pathways that play a vital role in the localisation of hydrothermal mineral
deposits (e.g., Hildenbrand et al., 2000; Cox et al., 2001; Chernicoff et al.,
2002).
The Cloncurry Lineament shares some characteristics with the
Barramundi ‘Worm’ in the west of the Mount Isa Inlier, in that it hosts
or is proximal to major Pb–Zn–Ag mineralisation (i.e. Cannington). It
has similarities to the Carlin Trend in that it may have acted as a
314 J.R. Austin, T.G. Blenkinsop / Ore Geology Reviews 35 (2009) 298–316
pathway for deep-seated magmatic fluids (e.g., Baker, 1998; Pollard,
2006; Mark et al., 2006; Oliver et al., 2008). The spatial correlation of
potential field ‘worms’ and hydrothermal mineralisation suggest that
‘worms’ can be used as a major tool for targeting in areas under thin
cover to the north and south of the Mount Isa Inlier, where the most
recent major deposits in the study area, Cannington, Ernest Henry and
Eloise, have been discovered.
While the discovery of regional scale structural controls is useful, it
does not provide detailed targets for base metal exploration. Within
regional control, localised structural controls of different deposit types can
be defined at finer scales using autocorrelation analysis, and targets
within regional scale mineralised corridors can be better defined.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the pmd⁎CRC for supporting this project and
thank Xstrata for the use of their magnetic ‘worm’ data. Fractal
Graphics Pty. Ltd. (now Geoinformatics Exploration Australia Ltd.) is
acknowledged for supplying the terrane scale Fracworms to the
pmd⁎CRC. Martin Higham from Avantra Geosystems and Arianne Ford
are thanked for their assistance with MI-SDM. Thanks to Mark Duffet
and an unidentified reviewer for their constructive comments and
suggestions that have helped refine the manuscript. Also special
thanks to Pat Williams and Damien Keys for their insight and
discussion on mineralisation processes and controls. Work reported
here was conducted as part of the predictive mineral discovery
Cooperative Research Centre and this paper is published with the
permission of the CEO, pmd⁎CRC.
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