Volumen 5 Catatumbo Basin PDF

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA
Editor, Fabio Cediel

Co-Editor, Fabio Colmenares
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA Catatumbo Basin

CATATUMBO BASIN
Vol. 5
Pablo Pedraza
Yuliana Ramírez
AGENCIA NACIONAL DE HIDROCARBUROS
Vol. 5
COLOMBIA
GEOLOGY AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL
CATATUMBO BASIN
Copyright
UNIVERSITY EAFIT
Department of Geology
Chairman
Geovany Bedoya Sanmiguel, MSc.
Project Manager
www.eafit.edu.co
Carrera 49 No. 7 sur 50, Avenida Las Vegas
Tel: (57-4) 2619330
Medellín - Colombia
Printed by Impresos El Día

Medellin
December 2011
Editor , Fabio Cediel
Co-Editor, Fabio Colmenares
Geology and Hydrocarbon Potential
CATATUMBO BASIN
Pablo Pedraza
Yuliana Ramírez
President of the Republic of Colombia
JUAN MANUEL SANTOS CALDERÓN
Minister of Mines and Energy

MAURICIO CÁRDENAS SANTAMARIA
AGENCIA NACIONAL DE HIDROCARBUROS
General Director ANH

ORLANDO CABRALES SEGOVIA
Technical Sub-director
CAROLYNNA ARCE HERNÁNDEZ
Chief Geologist
CLEMENCIA GÓMEZ GONZÁLEZ
Geology and Hydrocarbon Potential
CATATUMBO BASIN
ACPB, Amagá – Cauca - Patia

ATB, Atrato
CATB, Catatumbo
CAYB, Cayos
CPB, Caguan - Putumayo
CRB, Cesar - Ranchería
ECB, Eastern Cordillera
GUB, Guajira
LIAB, Llanos
LMB, Lower - Magdalena
MMB, Middle Magdalena
SIB - SJAB, Sinú – San Jacinto
SJUB, San Juan
TUB, Tumaco
UMB, Upper Magadalena
URB, Urabá
VAB, Vaupés - Amazonas

Editor, 1Fabio Cediel, Co-Editor, 2Germán Y. Ojeda, Co-Editor, 3Fabio Colmenares
VOL. TITTLE - BASIN AUTHOR PAGES FIGURES

1
Cediel, F., H. Leal-Mejía,5-6R.P. Shaw, 6J.C. Melgarejo,
4-6
1 Regional Geology of Colombia 224 67
7
P.A. Restrepo-Pace
2 Amagá - Cauca - Patía, ACP 1
Sierra, G.M., 1M.I. Marín-Cerón 104 74
3 Atrato - San Juán – Urabá, AT-SJU-UR 1

Cediel, F., 8I. Restrepo Correa 112 92
4 Caguán - Putumayo, CP 9
Montenegro, G., Barragan M. 126 70
5 Catatumbo, CAT 3
Pedraza, P.E., 3Y. Ramírez 136 86
6 Cesar - Ranchería, CR 3
Mesa, A.M., Rengifo S.E. 160 86
7 Eastern Cordillera, EC 10
Sarmiento, L.F. 140 87
8 Guajira - Cayos, GU-CAY Aguilera, R.

11
174 107
9 Eastern Llanos, LLA 10

12
Arminio, J.F., F. Yoris, L. Porras, E. García,
12 12 12
10 Lower Magdalena, LM 218 148
12
M. Diluca
11 Middle Magdalena, MM 10
12 Sinú - San Jacinto, SI-SJA Aguilera, R.

11
110 87
13 Tumaco, TU 1
Marín-Cerón, M.I.,1 G.M.Sierra 80 46
14 Upper Magdalena, UM 3
Roncancio, J.H., 3M. Martínez 182 104
15 Vaupés - Amazonas, VA 13
Kroonenberg, S., 13C.V. Reeves 104 74
Chapter Petroleum Systems (in each
Mora, C., 14P. Parra, 14D. Sanabria, 14W. Guzmán
14
basin)
1 – Department of Geology, University EAFIT, Medellín 8 – ECOPETROL, Bogotá
2 – LAEFM Colombia, Ltda., Subsuelo 3D, Bogotá 9 – Lithoil Ltd., Bogotá
3 – Geosearch Ltd., Bogotá 10 – Consultant, Bogotá
4 – Greenfields Exploration, AngloGold Ashanti Colombia S.A., 11 – RaGeologia E.U.
University of Barcelona 12 – Pacific Rubiales Energy, Bogotá
5 – Exploration Geologist, Medellín 13 – Delft University of Technology
6 - MINRESOUR, Faculty of Geology, University of Barcelona 14 – Gems Ltda.
7 - Mubadala Oil & Gas Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur

CONTENTS
Pag.
ABSTRACT
13 1. INTRODUCTION
14 1.1 LOCATION
14 1.2 EXPLORATION

17 2. GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
18 2.1 PRE-ANDEAN OROGENIC EVENTS
18 2.1.1. ORINOCO OROGENY
18 2.1.2. CORDILLERAN-TYPE OROGENY
18 2.1.3. BOLÍVAR AULACOGEN
18 2.2 NORTHERN ANDEAN OROGENY
21 3 STRATIGRAPHY
22 3.1 BASEMENT
24 3.2 JURASSIC
24 3.3 CRETACEOUS
27 3.4 CENOZOIC
30 3.5 DETAILED STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMNS
37 3.6 DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
39 3.7 PALEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION
41 3.8 CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC CHART
43 4 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
45 4.1 STRUCTURAL EXPRESION AT SURFACE
49 4.2 STRUCTURAL STYLES
50 4.3 BOUGUER TOTAL ANOMALY MAP
65 5 EXPLORATORY WELL INFORMATION
71 6 SEISMIC INFORMATION
81 7 OIL AND GAS FIELDS
95 8 PROSPECTIVITY
99 9 CURRENT KNOWLEDGED AND FUTURE RESEARCH TARGETS

103 10. PETROLEUM SYSTEMS
104 10.1 ELEMENTS AND PROCESSES
104 10.1.1 SOURCE ROCK
104 10.1.2 RESERVOIR ROCK
105 10.1.3 SEAL ROCK
105 10.1.4 TRAP
105 10.1.5 OVERBURDEN
105 10.1.6 PROCESSES OF HYDROCARBON GENERATION AND EXPULSION
105 10.1.7 EVENT CHART
Pag.
106 10.2 SOURCE ROCK PROPERTIES
106 10.2.1 ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT
106 10.2.2 ORGANIC MATTER QUALITY
106 10.2.3 ORGANIC MATTER THERMAL MATURITY
106 10.2.4 Generation Potential
107 10.2.5 CRUDE OIL SPECIFICATIONS
108 10.2.6 CRUDE OIL PROPERTIES SUMMARY
109 10.2.7 CRUDE OIL FAMILIES
109 10.2.8 CRUDE OIL-ROCK CORRELATION
110 10.3 PETROLEUM SYSTEMS MODELING
111 10.4 OILFIELD SYSTEM DEFINITION
REFERENCES
ANNEXES
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1. Location and structural framework of the Catatumbo Basin.
Figure 2. Grenvillian granulite belt.
Figure 3. Low grade metamorphic belt.
Figure 4. Catatumbo Basin geologic map.
Figure 5. Generalized stratigraphic column of the Catatumbo Basin.
Figure 6. Generalized stratigraphic column of the Santander Massif region.
Figure 7. Detailed stratigraphic columns location.
Figure 8. Stratigraphic columns of the Río Negro, Tibú and Mercedes formations.
Figure 9. Stratigraphic columns of the Aguardiente and Capacho formations.
Figure 10. Stratigraphic columns of the La Luna and Colón formations.
Figure 11. Stratigraphic columns of the Catatumbo and Barco formations.
Figure 12. Stratigraphic columns of the Los Cuervos and Mirador formations.
Figure 13. Stratigraphic columns of the Carbonera and León formations.
Figure 14. Sedimentary facies distribution maps. Berriasian to Late Campanian.
Figure 15. Sedimentary facies distribution maps. Maastrichtian to Holocene.
Figure 16. Jurassic paleotectonic reconstruction.
Figure 17. Schematic paleogeographic maps.
Figure 18. Chronostratigraphic chart.
Figure 19. Schematic tectonic evolution of the Catatumbo Basin.
Figure 20. Catatumbo Basin structural map.
Figure 21. Catatumbo Basin schematic structural section.
Figure 22. Available regional geologic maps of the Catatumbo Basin.
Figure 23. Structural section A-A’.
Figure 24. Structural section B-B’.
Figure 25. Structural section C-C’.
Figure 26. Structural section D-D’.
Figure 27. Structural section E-E’.
Figure 28. Bouguer’s total anomaly map.
Figure 29. Wells map.
Figure 30. Well data correlation.
Figure 31. Isopach maps of the Cretaceous units.
Figure 32. Isopach maps of the Paleogene units.
Figure 33. Seismic lines map.
Figure 34. Interpreted seismic lines map.
Figure 35. Oil traps in the region of the Río de Oro Field.
Figure 36. Oil traps northwards from the Orú Field and west-southwestwards from the Tibú Field.
Figure 37. Oil traps southwestwards from the Sardinata Sur Field and in the Cerro Gordo Field.
Figure 38. Oil traps in the Río Zulia Field and southwestwards from the Cerrito-1 Well.
Figure 39. Northern fence diagram.
Figure 40. Central fence diagram.
Figure 41. Southern fence diagram.
Figure 42. Fields map.
Figure 43. Río de Oro Field.
Figure 44. Yuca & Orú Fields.
Figure 45. Puerto Barco Field.
Figure 46. Tibú-Socuavo Field.
Figure 47. Sardinata Field.
Figure 48. Petrólea Field.
Figure 49. Carbonera Field.
Figure 50. Cerro Gordo Field.
Figure 51. Río Zulia Field.
Figure 52. Cerrito-1 Well.
Figure 53. Leads map of Catatumbo Basin.
Figure 54. Geographic location of the Catatumbo Basin, including fields and well sites.
Figure 55. Event chart showing the features and processes of petroleum systems at the Catatumbo Basin.
Figure 56. Visual characterization of kerogen indicates very high content of amorphous organic matter.
Figure 57. Tmax Vs hydrogen index (HI) chart.
Figure 58. % TOC Vs GP Chart.
Figure 59. Synthesis of geochemical assessments of rocks from the Catatumbo Basin.
Figure 60. Ternary diagram of SARA crude oil fractions.
Figure 61. API Vs% sulfur chart.
Figure 62. Pri/Phy ratio chart.
Figure 63. %C29 Steranes Vs %C27 Steranes.
Figure 64. Profile location of the studied pseudo-well, on seismic line CAT-1978-14.
Figure 65. Maximum burial curve occurred during the Pliocene.
Figure 66. %Ro profile over time.
Figure 67. The expulsion process for the La Luna Formation was reached at the end of the Miocene, while the Barco Formation reached it on the Pliocene.
Figure 68. Geographical coverage of petroleum systems and location of the site where the pseudo-well modeling was performed.
TABLE LIST
Table 1. Economic basement ages and dating criteria.
Table 2. Age assigments of Cretaceous stratigraphic units and dating criteria.
Table 3. Ages of Cenozoic stratigraphic units and dating criteria.
Table 4. Main faults features.
Table 5. Main folds features.
Table 6. Well data
Table 7. Petrophysical data summary.
Table 8. Summarizes some key geochemical properties obtained for the Basin’s crude oils.
ABSTRACT
The Catatumbo Basin, in accordance to the boundaries set by the deposit of the upper part of the León Formation in the Early Miocene, the
Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos de Colombia (ANH, 2008), is located in Guayabo Group in the Middle Miocene - early Pliocene, and the Necesidad
northeastern Colombia (Norte de Santander Department), between 7°30’N Formation between the late Pliocene and the early Pleistocene.
and 11°20’N, and 70°30’W and 73°W. The Basin limits to the north with
the Serranía de Perijá, to the southeast with the Mérida Andes and to the The Catatumbo Basin -a pioneer oil exploration target since 1920,
west with the Santander Massif. The Catatumbo Basin is the southwestern shares with the Middle Magdalena Valley Basin the first petroleum
prolongation of the Maracaibo Basin, the most prolific hydrocarbon basin commercial production in the country. A total of 872 wells have been drilled
of the Western Hemisphere. The Basin evolution is marked by four main 3.874 km of seismic lines have been recorded and 12 oil and gas fields have
tectonic stages: (1) rifting during the Jurassic, as North America and South been discovered in the Basin. Hydrocarbon traps are strike-slip related
America drifted apart and La Quinta Formation was deposited in the rift and faulted anticlines formed during the late Miocene-Pliocene interval. The
its margins, around the basin, (2) passive margin during the Cretaceous, most important traps are associated to inversion faults, flower structures,
when clastic and carbonate deposition resulted in the accumulation of the blind-thrusts, transpression-related anticlines, fault propagations folds, and
Río Negro (late? Aptian), Tibú, Mercedes and Aguardiente (late Aptian to sub-thrust structures. The almost 7.715 km² (2.978 miles²) of the Basin,
middle Albian fractured reservoirs), Capacho and La Luna (late Albian to the structural and stratigraphic knowledge of the oil fields, and the Ronda
mid Campanian source rocks), Colón and Mito Juan (late Campanian to late Colombia 2010 data, i.e. a cumulative production of 450 MBP and 500
Maastrichtian seal rocks), and the lower Catatumbo formations, (3) early GPCG, and its exploration potential, which is estimated between 1700 and
foreland basin formation during the late Maastrichtian - Paleocene when the 200 MBP (ANH, 2010), qualify the Basin as an atractive exploration target,
Catatumbo, Barco, and Los Cuervos (oil bearing), the Mirador and Carbonera mostly on its western flank where the hydrocarbon potential occurs in en-
(hydrocarbon producers) Formations were deposited, and the lowermost chelon folds associated to the Chinácota left-lateral Fault System (Barrero,
part of the León Formation that was deposited during the Oligocene and, (4) Pardo, Vargas & Martínez, 2007, p. 60).
foreland basin formation during the Neogene, when reverse and strike-slip
faulting resulted in renewed uplifting of the Mérida Andes and the Serranía Key words: Catatumbo Basin, Maracaibo Basin, Bolívar Aulacogen,
de Perijá (in the Miocene), and the Colombian Cordillera Oriental (in the late orogeny, rift, passive margin, foreland basin, structural styles, stratigraphy,
Miocene-Pliocene), cortical shortening occurred simultaneously with the petroleum systems, oil plays and leads.
1. INTRODUCTION
1 - INTRODUCTION
Most hydrocarbons of northern South America are produced The Catatumbo Basin, together with the Middle Magdalena Basin,
in Venezuela, a country that is the 5th in oil reserves in the world. Its provided the first petroleum commercial production of Colombia. Today, it
accumulative production is close to 60 BBL and its proved reserves are is considered as moderately explored basin, therefore it is a very attractive
in excess of 70 BBL (Audemard & Serrano, 2001; BP, 2002; Horn, 2003; exploration target.
Escalona & Mann, 2006 as cited in Mann, Escalona & Castillo, 2006). The
Maracaibo Basin, the most prolific of the Western Hemisphere, is a foreland 1.1 LOCATION
basin formed by the uplift of the Serranías de Mérida and Perijá, and the
Andes, mainly in the early Eocene and during the Miocene-Pliocene. The The Catatumbo Basin is located in northeastern Colombia (Norte
Maracaibo Basin extends to the southwest by about 7.715 km² (2.978 de Santander Department; Figure 1), between 7°30’N and 11°20’N, and
miles²) within Colombian territory, where it is known as the Catatumbo 70°30’W and 73°W.
Basin.
1.2 EXPLORATION
The sedimentary cover of the Catatumbo Basin is 15.000 feet thick
at places (Mondragón et al., 2002, p. 36). Petroleum accumulations occur The Catatumbo Basin was first explored by the Barco Concession in
in the Cretaceous Tibú, Mercedes, Aguardiente and Capacho Formations, 1920. It is estimated that about 70% of the reserves of the Basin, based
and the Cenozoic Barco, Mirador and Carbonera Formations. Oil has on surface exploration (anticline cartography), were discovered between
a wide range of qualities, from the 52°API emerald green in reservoirs 1920 and 1950 (e.g. Barrero et al. 2007).
located under the Capacho Formation, the amber in the Petrólea field
of the Capacho Formation, to the 12°API black in the Tibú field of the Among the 12 oil and gas fields so far discovered, the most important
Carbonera Formation (Empresa Colombiana de Petróleos [ECOPETROL], are Río de Oro, Tibú-Socuavo, Carbonera, Sardinata, Río Zulia, Petrólea, and
2006). Seal rocks are the Cretaceous and Cenozoic marine mudstones, Puerto Barco. The cumulative production of the Basin exceeds 450 MBP
and the Cenozoic fluvial mudstones. La Luna, Capacho, Tibú and Mercedes and 500 GPCG, and its estimated exploratory potential varies between
Formations are the source rocks of the Basin. La Luna Formation is 1700 MBP and 200 MBP. The Catatumbo Basin counts with a total of 872
recognized as a world class source rock, which has generated more than wells and 3.874 km of seismic lines.
98% of the hydrocarbons of the Maracaibo Basin (Talukdar & Marcano,
1994; Nelson et al. and Escalona & Mann, in Mann et al., 2006).
»»
14
• CATATUMBO
»»
15

Figure 1. Location and structural framework of the Catatumbo Basin.
2. GEOLOGICAL
FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER 2 - GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
The Catatumbo Basin, a prolongation of the Maracaibo Basin, is culminated in the early Aptian, resulted in an extensive marine ingression
bounded by the Serranía de Perijá to the north, the Santander Massif to the and the deposition of a thick epicontinental succession over the present
west, the Mérida Andes to the southeast, and the convergence between the day Maracaibo region.
last two structural elements to the south (Figure 1). In order to provide a
better understanding of the present lithotectonic and morphostructural 2.2 NORTHERN ANDEAN OROGENY
expression of the Catatumbo Basin, which is the result of the Mesozoic-
Cenozoic orogeny of the northern Andes (Cediel, Shaw & Cáceres. 2003), it is Four tectonic domains have been defined for the northern Andes
important to review both, the pre-Andean and the Andean tectonic histories. (Cediel et al. 2003). These are: (1) the Guyana shield, (2) the Maracaibo
sub-plate, (3) the Central Continental sub-plate and, (4) the Western
2.1 PRE-ANDEAN OROGENIC EVENTS domain. Cediel et al. (2003), furthermore, provide a tectonic framework for
northwestern South America for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, i.e. four time
The pre-Andean tectonic history of northwestern South America intervals for the Cretaceous to Neogene interval. Based on this scheme, the
includes three key orogenic events (Cediel et al., 2003), i.e. the Orinoco Maracaibo Sub-plate has gone through the early apparition of the Mérida
(Grenville) collision, the Middle Ordovician-Silurian Cordilleran-type Arch during the Aptian – Albian, the metamorphic deformation of the sub-
orogeny, and the generation and development of the Bolívar Aulacogen. plate boundary during the late Cretaceous - Paleocene – early Eocene, a
magmatic phase in the sub-plate boundary and the incipient uplift of the
2.1.1 ORINOCO OROGENY Santander-Perijá Block and the Mérida Andes during the Eocene – Early
Miocene, the upheaval of the Mérida Andes, Serranía de Perijá and Sierra
The first orogenic event, known regionally as the Orinoco orogeny Nevada de Santa Marta during the Miocene, the upheaval of the Cordillera
(Cediel & Cáceres, 2000), is the result of the collision between North Oriental and the westward migration of the Maracaibo Sub-plate during
America with the Guayana shield of South America about 1.200 Ma the Late Miocene – Pliocene.
(Kroonenberg, in Cediel & Cáceres, 2000). The collision is recorded in
exhumated windows exhibiting the granulite metamorphic belt of the
Garzón, and Santander Massifs (figure 2), and the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta.
2.1.2 CORDILLERAN-TYPE OROGENY
The second orogenic event is partly recorded as a lower- to

subgreenschist-grade metamorphic event that affected thick Ordovician-
Silurian supra-cortical psammitic and pelitic successions, now outcropping
in the Cordillera Oriental (Quetame Group), the Santander-Perijá belt,
i.e. the Silgará Formation (figure 3), the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,
and the Sierra de Mérida.
2.1.3 BOLÍVAR AULACOGEN
The third orogenic event, i.e. the Bolívar Aulacogen, was generated
»»
18 by a continental taphrogenesis period that occurred in northwestern South
America from the late Paleozoic to the Early Cretaceous (Cediel & Cáceres,
2000). According to these authors, this extentional regime began with
the development of an inter-continental rift during the Pennsylvanian-

Permian (at the present location of the Sierra de Mérida, Cordillera
Oriental), then it briefly changed to a transpressive phase by the latest
Permian, to re-appear during the Triassic to extend to the Jurassic. This
latter phase allowed the accumulation of the Girón and La Quinta Groups.
Later on, the development of a deep continental rift (Valle Alto), which
• CATATUMBO
Figure 2. Grenvillian granulite belt. Figure 3. Low grade metamorphic belt.

Source: Cáceres, Cediel and Etayo (2005). DSH-TUR = Deep Shelf (turbiditic facies); SMc = Shallow Marine (carbonates);
SM = Shallow Marine (clastics). Source: Cáceres et al. (2005).
»»
19

3. STRATIGRAPHY
CHAPTER 3 - STRATIGRAPHY
The present geologic features of Catatumbo Basin are shown in from the pre-Cambrian to pre-Devonian, and a succession composed
figure 4. The stratigraphic succession comprises basement Proterozoic and of meta-pelites, meta-psammites and amphibolites of Cambrian(?)
Paleozoic rocks, igneous sedimentary Jurassic rocks, marine clastic and to Ordovician-Silurian age, i.e. the Silgará Formation. As summarized
carbonate Cretaceous rocks, and mostly fluvial Cenozoic rocks (figure 5). by Clavijo (1994, p. 12-13), the sedimentites appear to correspond to
conglomerates, fossiliferous mudstones, sandstones, and limestones
3.1 BASEMENT equivalent to the Devonian Floresta Formation (cf. Cediel, 1968), and
fossiliferous limestones and sandstones, and sandstones and mudstones
The economic basement of the Basin is composed of metamorphic, from the middle Pennsylvanian to middle Permian Diamante Formation
and possibly sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic rocks are akin to those (cf Ward, Goldsmith, Cruz & Restrepo, 1973). Table 1 summarizes the
outcroping in the Santander Massif, the Serranía de Perijá, and the criteria used to date these basement units. It is important to mention that
Mérida Andes, i.e. Proterozoic felsic gneisses, metapelitic-metapsammitic some wells have reached the basement, and more importantly that there
gneisses, amphibolites, and migmatites (the Bucaramanga Gneiss), is a basement productive interval at the Río de Oro field (Mondragón et
probably quartz-feldspathic gneises (orthogneiss), whose age ranges al., 2002, p.36).
Table 1. Economic basement ages and dating criteria.
UNIT DATING CRITERIA AGE
Bucaramanga A 945±40 Ma isotopic age, obtained by the K/Ar method in hornblende from
Gneiss
Proterozoic
hornblendic gneiss (Ward, Goldsmith, Cruz y Restrepo, 1973).
1) pre-Cambrian to pre-Devonian radiometric ages (Goldsmith et al. in Clavijo,

Pre-Cambrian-
1994). 2) a 413±30 Ma isotopic age, obtained by the K/Ar method in hornblende from
Orthogneiss
a meta-diorite, 3) a 450±80 Ma isotopic age obtained by the Rb/Sr method (bulk rock
Paleozoic
analysis) from an orthogneiss (Ward et al., 1973).
1) Royero (2001) states: “The Silgará Formation... is comparable to the Perijá Series,
which is considered Cambrian-Ordovician in age (Forero, 1969, 1970).” 2) Cediel et al.
Cambrian?-Ordovician-
(2003) states in regard to the Ordovician–middle Silurian Cordilleran-type orogeny that: “it
Silgará Formation
is recorded by a lower- to subgreenschist-grade metamorphic event that affected the thick
Silurian
psammitic and pelitic Ordovician-Silurian supracrustal sequences. These metamorphosed
sequences outcrop in..., the Santander-Perijá belt (Silgará Group) ...”
The brachiopods: Austrolospirifer sp., A. cf. antarticus Morris and Sharpe, Atrypa?
sp., Athyris sp., Elytha colombiana Caster, Cynostrophia? sp., Eodevonaria imperialis
»» Floresta Formation late Early Devonian
22 Caster, Leptaena boyaca Caster, Megastrophia sp., Schellwienella? sp., Pholidops sp.,
Dictyostrophia cf. D. cooperi Caster, where identified by Dutro (in Ward et al., 1973)
The brachiopods: Kochiproductus sp., Neospirifer sp., Wasgenoconcha sp.,

middle Pennsylvanian to
Linoproductus sp., Cancrinella? aff. C. villiersi (D’Orbigny), Anthracospirifer aff. A. opimus
Diamante Formation
(Hall), Composita aff. C. subtilita (Hall), Cleiothyridina cf. C. barbata Chronic, where
middle Permian
identified by Grant, Pojeta, Dutro and Douglas (in Ward et al., 1973)
• CATATUMBO
»»
23

Figure 4. Catatumbo Basin geologic map.
Modified after Cediel and Cáceres (2000).
3.2 JURASSIC 3.3 CRETACEOUS
Jurassic quartz-monzonites, quartz-diorites and granites of the Agua Julivert et al. (1968, p. 89-91), in regard to the Cretaceous of the
Blanca batholite, and fluvio-lacustrine deposits of La Quinta Formation Catatumbo Basin, state:
outcrop in the Catatumbo Basin. The latter unit occurs in the northwestern “The base of the Cretaceous succession in the Barco
corner of the Basin, in the hanging wall of the Bellavista Fault, thus Concession is no composed, as usual, of a detrital (generally sandy)
suggesting that it would be part of the Santander Massif stratigraphy, set as occurs in the Santander Department …, or in many localities of
rather than the Catatumbo Basin. On this regard, Julivert et al. (1968, p. western Venezuela, the Sierra de Perijá, and the Cesar River valley
64), point out that in both, Venezuela and the Sierra de Perijá there are (Río Negro Formation). This fact… should be interpreted as due to
outcrops of La Quinta Formation. This is not the case of the sub-surface the transgressive character of the Tibú Member of the Uribante
Barco Concession, where the Cretaceous rests directly on the igneous- Formation in relation to the Río Negro Formation. It is evident that
metamorphic complex. Accordingly, Mondragón et al. (2002, p. 38) even using the Notestein, Hubman & Bowler stratigraphic scheme,
states in relation to the occurrence of Jurassic sedimentary rocks in the where there are not any level under the Tibú Member, there should
Catatumbo Basin: exist some regions, inside or outside the Barco Concession, where
“From an up-to-date regional evaluation it was possible to the Río Negro Formation or equivalent units occur. Miller (1960), in
confirm that none exploratory well have reached sediments older his stratigraphic scheme always places the Río Negro Formation at
than the Cretaceous (Aptian). Well records and surface geology the base of the Cretaceous.”
evidenced that the Aptian-Albian Uribante Group rests directly on
the igneous-metamorphic basement.” Richards (in Julivert et al., 1968, p. 484) states that:
“the Río Negro Formation is continuous and synchronous
Therefore, it is inferred that most of the sedimentary infilling of from the Sierra de Perijá (the type locality) towards the southeastern
the reactivated Triassic and active Jurassic rift corresponds to La Quinta Barco Concession, in Colombia, and further away to Venezuela
Formation, which was deposited in areas close to the Catatumbo Basin, (Táchira and Trujillo)”. Furthermore Richards (1968, p. 2326) points
in what is today the Santander Massif (figure 6) and the Mérida Andes. out that: “The greater thickness in the Perijá trough indicates initial
La Quinta Formation is composed of red beds, i.e. sandstones, shales, and deposition in that area with probably a greater rate of subsidence.
vulcanites derived from the erosion of fractured metamorphic Paleozoic With continued sedimentation, the clastic lithotope transgressed
blocks. out of the Perijá trough and onto the Barco swell. Consequently, the
sands are equivalents and the name Río Negro can be conveniently
In regard to the age of La Quinta Formation, Schubert, Sifontes, and correctly applied to the basal sandstones in the Barco region”.
Padrón, Vélez and Loaiza (1979) dated a tuff, by the K/Ar method, in 149 ±
10 Ma. A similar range of ages was obtained by Maze (1984) from volcanic “…The Río Negro Formation is wide spread and varies
rocks from the Sierra de Perijá in 140-160 Ma (U/Pb in zircon), 156-174 considerably in thickness over western Venezuela and eastern
Ma (Rb/Sr in bulk rock), and 155 ± 5 and 146 ± 7 Ma (K/Ar in bulk rock). Colombia. At the type section 1.500 m are reported, which become
These dates suggest a Middle to Late Jurassic, and even a Berriasian age. rapidly thinned on the Barco swell where it ranges from a feather-
By contrast, Benedetto and Odreman, and Dasch and Banks (in Lugo & edge to about 15 m. On the swell these transgressive, littoral sands,
Mann, 1995, p. 706), used paleontologic, and a U/Pb radiometric methods, rest with angular unconformity on Paleozoic metamorphic and
respectively, to assign a Middle-Late Jurassic age to La Quinta Formation. intrusive rocks, in contrast to its gradational contact with the overlying
»» carbonates. No fossils have been collected; however the age of the
24 Schubert et al., (1979) point out that the Quinta Formation in its type underlying beds suggests a Neocomian (?) -Aptian age.”
section, covers unconformably phyllites of the Mucuchachí Formation
The previous statements allow us to interpret that the presence of
(Upper Paleozoic), and that its upper contact with the Lower Cretaceous
Río Negro Formation is transitional or represented by a paraconformity. the Río Negro Formation in the Catatumbo Basin, is due to the deposition
Similarly, Maze (1984, p. 270) indicate that the contact between La Quinta of quartz and feldespatic sandstones (occasionally conglomeratic),
and Río Negro Formations in the Sierra de Perijá, northwestern Venezuela, mudstones and conglomerates during the late Aptian (?), and over
is unconformable, except along the Macoita River and a tributary of La Ge the shoulder of the reactivated Triassic to early Cretaceous rift. The
Creek. The maximum dip of the underlying layers is 30º as can be seen sedimentary, late Aptian to Maastrichtian succession, is characterized by
north of the Macoita River. the deposit of carbonates and clastics over an extensive passive margin,
• CATATUMBO
»»
25

Figure 5. Generalized stratigraphic column of the Catatumbo Basin.
Modified after Geosearch (2011); Notestein, Hubman and Bowler (1944); Mann et al. (2006); Mondragón et al. (2002); and Barrero et al. (2007). Stratigraphic
thicknesses from well data supplied by ANH (see chapter on well information). Thickness of Río Negro Formation and Guayabo Group according to ICP (as cited by
Mondragón et al., 2002, p. 38-39). Thickness of Necesidad Formation according to Notestein et al. (1944, p 1205).
»»
26
Figure 6. Generalized stratigraphic column of the Santander Massif region.Modified after Geosearch (2011); Notestein, et al. (1944); Mann et al. (2006);
Barrero et al. (2007); and Schubert et al. (1979). Thickness of Río Negro Formation according to Royero (2001, p. 18). Thickness of La Quinta Formation: 7874’
at type section according to Léxico Estratigráfico de Venezuela (as cited by Maze, 1984) and 5577’ at La Ge Creek according to Maze (1984).
• CATATUMBO
and includes: (1) the Tibú, Mercedes, and Aguardiente Formations, whose belt to the westwards of the Catatumbo Basin. It is characterized
sandstones and fractured limestones are important reservoirs, (2) the by a sedimentary succession deposited on flood- and coastal-plains,
Capacho and La Luna Formations, whose black shales and organic rich i.e. meandering and braided rivers, deltaic complexes and estuaries
carbonates are the source rock, (3) the Colón and Mito Juan Formations, that include: (1) the Catatumbo, Barco, Los Cuervos, and Mirador
composed of mudstones and siltstones are seal rocks, thus isolating the Formations, all hydrocarbon producers, of which the Barco and
Cretaceous from the Paleogene reservoirs. Table 2 shows the criteria used Mirador Formations contain abundant sandstone layers that provide
for the age assignment of the Cretaceous lithostratigraphic units. most of the production of the Basin, (2) the Carbonera and León
Formations, whose thick mudstone intervals act as regional seal
3.4 CENOZOIC rocks, and (3) the Guayabo Group and the Necesidad Formation,
that are molassic deposits genetically related to the uplift of the
The Cenozoic record represents the development of a foreland Andes. Table 3 shows the criteria used for the age assignment of the
basin associated to the uplift and erosion of the Andean orogenic Cenozoic lithostratigraphic units.
Table 2. Age assigments of Cretaceous stratigraphic units and dating criteria.
1) The bivalvia Buchotrigonia aff. etayoi Villamil, 1992; Syrotrigonia aff. gerthi
Lisson, 1930, and Protocardia sp where found south of the Catatumbo Basin and are
Río Negro assigned to the Berriasian-Valanginian (Geosearch, 2011). 2) Richards (in Julivert
late Aptian?
Formation et al., 1968, p. 484), interprets the Río Negro Formation is Neocomian(?)-Aptian in
age, and states that in the Barco Concession the unit is about 15 m thick, and its
upper contact is gradational with the overlying carbonates.
The ammonoids Roloboceras saxbyi Casey, Roloboceras hambrovi (Forbes)

and Heminautilus etheringtoni Durham, where collected by Renz (1959, p. 9; 1982
Tibú Formation late Aptian
p. 19) from the upper part of the Tibú Formation, about 60 km northeast of Cúcuta.
These taxa are assigned to the middle-late Aptian (Durham, 1946; Patarroyo, 2002).
The ammonoids Heminautilus etheringtoni Durham and Cheloniceras »»

Mercedes 27
(Epichelonicera) spp from the Apón Formation (= Tibú and Mercedes) are assigned late Aptian
Formation
to the late Aptian in the Cocuy región (Etayo-Serna, 1985).

Aguardiente The stratigraphic position and contacts of the Capacho and Mercedes
Albian
Formation Formations.
Anisoceras cf. armatum (Sowerby) in the limestone succession of the

Capacho Formation, between Bochalema and Chinácota (Norte de Santander), and
Capacho Exogyra (Costagyra) olisiponensis (Sharpe), Amphidonte (Ceratostreon) flabellata
late Albian-Cenomanian
Formation (Goldfuss), Plicatula auressensis Coquand?, Ilymatogyra cf. africana (Lamarck) in
the overlying beds are assigned to the late Albian and Cenomanian, respectivelv
(Geosearch, 2011).
(1) based on the presence of Inoceramus labiatus, Hedberg (1932, p. 22-24)

assigns a Late Cretaceous age, most probably Turonian, to the unit, (2) the benthic
foraminifer Bolivina explicata, found by Cushman and Hedberg (1930, p. 66) in the
Tres Esquinas Member at the top of La Luna Formation (before considered the base
La Luna Formation Turonian-middle Campanian
of the Colon Formation), is included in the Anomalina redmondi zonule (Petters,
1955, p. 214-215) and therefore is considered Coniacian, and even Santonian due
to the occurrence of the ammonoid Texanites and, (3) its stratigraphic position
under the Colón Formation.
The occurrence of the Siphogenerinoides bramlettei zone, that is assigned

in northern Colombia to the late Maastrichtian (Martinez, 1989), suggest that
Colón Formation the Colón Formation is late Maastrichtian, at least for its upper part. Its base is late Campanian-late Maastrichtian
considered as old as late Campanian (Erlich, Macsotay, Nederbragt, y Lorente,
1999).
Fauna cited by Sutton (1946): The ammonites Sphenodiscus and Coahuilites

at the base of the Río de Oro Member of the Mito Juan Formation in the Barco
»» Mito Juan Concession, and the foraminifera Ammobaculites sp., Marginulina sp., Guembelitria
28 late Maastrichtian
Formation cretacea Cushman, Ammomarginulina colombiana (Cushman and Hedberg, 1930),
Cibicides coonensi, where found at the Escalante River, and were assigned to the
late Maastrichtian.
• CATATUMBO
Table 3. Ages of Cenozoic stratigraphic units and dating criteria.
1) the presence of the Ammomarginulina colombiana foraminifera zone at the

base of the formation, is assigned to the late Maastrichtian (Notestein et al. 1944), (2)
Catatumbo Formation late Maastrichtian to Paleocene
the unspecified palynological content is assigned to the Paleocene (Kuyl, Muller and
Waterbolk, 1955)
The Ctenolophonidites lisamae palynological zone (in part) allows to assign the
Barco Formation Paleocene
unit to the Paleocene (cf. Germeraad et al. 1986 zonation scheme; Pardo, 2004, p. 83),
The Foveotricolpites perforatus palynological zone allows to assign the unit to the
Los Cuervos Formation late Paleocene
late Paleocene (cf. Germeraad et al. 1986 zonation scheme; Pardo, 2004, p. 83),
The palynological content is analogous to the one of the Picacho Formation

(central Colombia). It includes the Monoporopollenites annulatus and Verrucatosporites
Mirador Formation middle-late Eocene
usmensis zones that are assigned to the middle-late Eocene (cf. Germeraad et al. 1986
zonation scheme; Pardo, 2004, p. 85).
Hannatoma, a brackish fauna collected by Preston (1975, p. 444) around Cúcuta,

Carbonera Formation late Eocene
150 m under the top of the unit, suggest a late Eocene age (Durham, 1946, p. 146).
(1) The Magnastriatites-Cicatricosisporites dorogensis zone found in southwestern
Maracaibo Basin at the Friata-1 well is assigned to the Oligocene (Lorente, 1986)
León Formation (2) the occurrence of the foraminifer Cassigerinella chipolensis in Venezuela Oligocene-early Miocene
suggest an Early Miocene age (Petzall, Stainforth, González de Juana & Martín,
1978, p. 381).
1) mollusks, analogous to those of La Cira horizon of the Middle Magdalena Valley,

were found at the base of the unit about 11 km northwest of Cúcuta (Olsson, in Notestein
et al., 1944, p. 1204). This assemblage is assigned to the late Middle Miocene(?) (Nuttal, »»
Guayabo Group middle Miocene–early Pliocene 29
1990, p. 334, fig. 445; Gómez, Jordan, Allmendiger, Hegarty and Kelly (2005, fig. 4), (2)
the unconformable relation of the unit with the Necesidad Formation suggests that the

unit is Middle Miocene to early Pliocene in age (cf. Van Houten & James, 1984, p. 326).
Necesidad Formation Its unconformable relation with the underlying Guayabo Group. late Pliocene–early Pleistocene
3.5 DETAILED STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMNS
At the northern part of the Catatumbo Basin a number of detailed

stratigraphic columns have been described, both from outcrops and
wells (figure 7). The Cretaceous sedimentary succession in the Basin
consists of: 1) sandstones, sometimes conglomeratic, conglomerates and
mudstones from the Río Negro Formation, and limestones, mudstones
and calcareous sandstones of the Tibú and Mercedes Formations (figure
8), 2) light grey quartz-arenites, locally conglomeratic, glauconitic and
calcareous sandstones, and carbonaceous mudstones of the Aguardiente
Formation, and black and grey mudstones, rich in organic matter,
sometimes calcareous, and sandstones and concretionary limestones
of the Capacho Formation (figure 9), 3) dark grey to black calcareous
mudstones and silstones, very rich in organic matter, limestones with
calcarerous fossiliferous concretions, and black chert and phosphatic
levels of La Luna Formation, and dark grey shales, slightly calcareous,
and glauconitic sandstones with phosphatic particles from the Colón
Formation (figure 10) and, 4) greenish grey, silty to sandy shales from
the Mito Juan Formation.
The Cenozoic sedimentary succession includes: 1) carbonaceous

shales and mudstones with iron nodules, and fine-grained sandstones
of the Catatumbo Formation, and fine to coarse-grained sandstones,
and grey mudstones of the Barco Formation (figure 11), 2) greenish-grey
to black mudstones with abundant plant remains, and sandstones and
coals of Los Cuervos Formation, and grey sandstones, conglomeratic in
part, and mudstones of the Mirador Formation (figure 12), 3) greenish,
grey and black mudstones, locally carbonaceous with plant remains, and
sandstones and coal beds of the Carbonera Formation, and light grey to
brownish grey mudstones, and siltstones and fine-grained sandstones of
the Leon Formation (figure 13), 4) fine to coarse-grained white-yellowish
sandstones, conglomeratic sandstones and vary-colored mudstones
of the Guayabo Group and, 5) interbedded red to bluish mudstones
and coarse-grained sandstones gradding to conglomerates from the
Necesidad Formation.
»»
30
Figure 7. Detailed stratigraphic columns location.
1 Santa Elena creek section: Tibú, Mercedes, Aguardiente, Capacho, La Luna

and Colón formations. 2 Río de Oro-3 well: Catatumbo Formation. 3 La Lucha
creek section: Barco Formation. 4 Río de Oro Anticline section: Los Cuervos
Formation. 5 Orú-Tibú section: Mirador Formation. 6 Carbonera creek type
section: Carbonera Formation. 7 León creek type section: León Formation.
• CATATUMBO
»»
31

Figure 8. Stratigraphic columns of the Río Negro, Tibú and Mercedes formations.Redrawn after Georesources Exploration (2001).
»»
32
Figure 9. Stratigraphic columns of the Aguardiente and Capacho formations Redrawn after Georesources Exploration (2001).
• CATATUMBO
»»
33

Figure 10. Stratigraphic columns of the La Luna and Colón formations. Redrawn after Georesources Exploration (2001).
»»
34
Figure 11. Stratigraphic columns of the Catatumbo and Barco formations. Catatumbo column redrawn
after Notestein et al. (1944) and Barco column redrawn after Georesources Exploration (2001).
• CATATUMBO
»»
35

Figure 12. Stratigraphic columns of the Los Cuervos and Mirador formations. Los Cuervos column redrawn after
Notestein et al. (1944) and Mirador column redrawn after Georesources Exploration (2001).
»»
36
Figure 13. Stratigraphic columns of the Carbonera and León formations. Redrawn after Notestein et al. (1944).
• CATATUMBO
3.6 DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS The thick Cretaceous carbonate to clastic sedimentary succession that
overlies the Río Negro Formation was deposited over an extensive passive margin,
As indicated, the Río Negro Formation is mostly fluvial in origin whereas the Cenozoic succession, whose origin is linked to the development
(cf. Mondragón et al., 2002 p. 39). However, its lithostratigraphic of the foreland basin, represent diverse depositional environments during
characteristics also suggest coastal lagoons, and deltaic to coastal the evolution of the continental crust in the geographic setting of the present
environments (Useche & Odremán, 1997). Richards (1968, p. 2326) Catatumbo Basin. These depositional environments, that range from the outer-
describes “these transgressive, littoral sands”. inner shelf, marsh, tidal and coastal plains to fluvial are shown in figures 14 and 15.
»»
37

Figure 14. Sedimentary facies
distribution maps. Berriasian to
Late Campanian. Modified after
Cáceres et al. (2005).
»»
38
Figure 15. Sedimentary facies distribution maps. Maastrichtian to Holocene. Modified after Cáceres et al. (2005).
• CATATUMBO
3.7 PALEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION
The stratigraphic succession of the Catatumbo Basin is the result of

deposition in three successive tectonic environments: 1) a Jurassic rift,
related to the continental drift of North and South America (figure 16), 2)
a Cretaceous marginal depression and, 3) a Cenozoic foreland basin. The
assembly between the latter two tectonic environments is synthesized in
six critical time intervals, as shown in figure 17.
»»
39

Figure 16. Jurassic paleotectonic reconstruction. Source: Cediel et al. (2003).
»»
40
Figure 17. Schematic paleogeographic maps. Modified after Mann et al. (2006).
• CATATUMBO
3.8 CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC CHART content, sometimes rich in Ostrea, whereas the latter is interpreted as
paralic in origen, because of its mudstone, silstones and sandstones,
In the chronostratigraphic chart (figure 18) for the region between with some limestones (Martínez, Roux, Castillo, Bastardo & Carrasquel,
the Santander Massif, and the Catatumbo and Maracaibo (the lake 2010, fig. 4). A fluvio-deltaic environtment is also proposed for the Misoa
region) Basins, it appears that, in general, Jurassic facies do represent the Formation, the most prolific hydrocarbon rocks of the Maracaibo Basin
accumulation of sediments in analogous environments. The correlation (Escalona & Mann, 2006, p. 661).
of Cretaceous units also suggest that in these three regions, deposition
occurred in analogous environments, except for the Aguardiente and The Guayabo Group, and La Rosa and Lagunillas Formations,
Lisure Formations, that contain glauconitic calcareous sandstones and composed of mudstones and sandstones, are interpreted as alluvial/fluvial,
limestones, thus revealing conspicuous lateral variations. and shallow marine and paralic, respectively (Martínez et al., 2010, fig. 4).
The interpretation for the latter is based on the occurrence of mollusks
As for the Cenozoic, the Barco and Mirador Formations, which and foraminifera in La Rosa Formation, and gastropods and bivalvia in the
are composed of fluvial sandstones and conglomerates, contrast to the Lagunillas Formation (Hoffmeister, 1938).
Guasare and Misoa Formations. The former is interpreted as shallow
marine in origin, because of its glauconitic mudstones and limestones
»»
41

Figure 18. Chronostratigraphic chart. Maracaibo Basin (Lake region) chronostratigraphy modified after Mann et al. (2006, fig. 5).
4. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
CHAPTER 4 - STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
As pointed out, the evolution of the Catatumbo Basin was controlled foreland basin stage, characterized by reverse and strike-slip faulting, and
by a sequence of tectonic stages (figure 19): 1) a Jurassic rifting stage their related transpressive structures, which resulted in cortical shortening
related to the continental drift between North and South America, 2) a and the uplift of the Andes. In this way, a tectonic framework resulted
Cretaceous passive margin stage, 3) a Paleogene early foreland basin stage for the Catatumbo Basin, whose principal deformation mechanism is the
related to the oblique collision between the eastward Caribbean island tectonic inversion, due to compression/transpression, characterized by
arc with the passive margin of northern South America and, 4) a Cenozoic fault limited blocks. These faults are listric, steep, and affect the basement.
Figure 19. Schematic tectonic evolution of the Catatumbo Basin.
»»
44
• CATATUMBO
4.1 STRUCTURAL EXPRESSION AT SURFACE evidences that deformation is larger in the south that in the north
(figure 20). The former corresponds to the sinestral mega-shear zone of
The Catatumbo Basin, as part of the Maracaibo Basin, lies within the Chucarima that allows the northwestward displacement of the Mérida
framework of three major orographic features: the Sierra de Perijá to the Andes in relation to the Cordillera Oriental. This intensive deformed strip
North, the Santander Massif to the West and the Mérida Andes to the is dominated by numerous and complex transpressive structures. The
Southeast. Faults and fold axis strike almost north-south in the Catatumbo northern zone, northwestward of the Aguardiente and Carbonera Faults
Basin and sub-parallel to the longitudinal axis of the Santander Massif. is characterized rather rather by the occurrence of very wide folded
In the southeastern Catatumbo Basin structural patterns show a general structures (e.g. Socuavo, Sardinata and La Esperanza folds), in the footwalls
southwest-northeast direction, which agree with the longitudinal axis of of theeast-verging frontal faults of the Cordillera Oriental (Bellavista, Las
the Mérida Andes. Mercedes and Caracol Faults).
The structural expression, at surface, of the Catatumbo Basin
»»
45

Figure 20. Catatumbo Basin structural map.
Compiled from Servicio Geológico Nacional and Inventario Minero
Nacional (1967, 1998); and Daconte and Salinas (1980a, 1980b).
Tables 4 and 5 describe the main characteristics of the major

structures of the Catatumbo Basin, i.e. Bellavista, Tarra, Las Mercedes,
Gramalote, San Lucas, Caracol, Aguardiente, Cerro Gordo, Hortensia,
Carbonera, Tasajero, and Leoncito Faults, La Esperanza dome, the Río de
Oro, Socuavo, Tibú-Sardinata, Petrólea, Espartillo, Aguardiente, Gramalote,
Zulia, Mucurera, Tasajero, Cúcuta, and Agua Caliente Anticlines, and the
Socuavo, Sardinata, Agua Linda, Zulia, and Pamplonita Synclines.
FAULTS
Fault name Fault type Length (km) Vergence Trend Surface-related units Related oil field
Hangingwall: Silgará Formation, Intrusive-

≥105 km. It stretches
Extrusive Complex, Volcano-clastic Complex, La
northwards from Bellavista
Quinta Formation.
Bellavista Reverse Village in the south, along E N-S None
the western limit of the
Footwall: Río Negro, Tibú, Mercedes and
basin.
Aguardiente Formations.
≥45 km. Bearing

Hangingwall: Silgará Formation and
northwards from Buenos
El Tarra Reverse E N-S Intrusive-Extrusive Complex. Footwall: Río None
Aires Village along the
Negro, Capacho and La Luna formations.
Tarra River
≥ 93 km. From Hangingwall: Orthogneiss, Silgará
Los Eslabones ridge (in Formation and Agua Blanca Batholith. Footwall:
Las Mercedes Reverse the north), towards and E N-S to NW-SE Tibú, Mercedes, Aguardiente, La Luna, Colón, None
beyond the southern limit Mito Juan, Catatumbo, Barco, Los Cuervos and
of the basin. Mirador formations.
Hangingwall: Tibú, Mercedes,
≥ 46 km. From
Aguardiente formations. Footwall: Tibú,
Gramalote Reverse Gramalote Village towards E NNW-SSE None
Mercedes, Aguardiente, Capacho, La Luna and
Sardinata Village.
Colón formations.
»» ≥ 18 km. From
46 Hangingwall: Barco, Los Cuervos, Mirador
Riecito Brandy (Catatumbo
San Lucas Reverse W-NW NE-SW and Carbonera formations. Footwall: Los Río de Oro Field
River’s tributary) toward
Cuervos and Mirador formations.

the Río de Oro Field.
≥ 7 km. It is located Hangingwall: Barco and Los Cuervos

Caracol Reverse in the southern part of the E N-S formations. Footwall: Barco and Los Cuervos None
Las Palmas creek. formations.
• CATATUMBO
FAULTS
Fault name Fault type Length (km) Vergence Trend Surface-related units Related oil field
36 km. From
Hangingwall: Tibú, Mercedes,
Remolino and Guamo
Aguardiente, La Luna, Colón and Mito Juan
Aguardiente Reverse localities (in the north) E NNW-SSE None
formations. Footwall: Barco and Los Cuervos
towards the Santiago
formations.
locality (in the south).
≥ 17 km. It stretches Hangingwall: Mito Juan, Catatumbo,
on the western bank of Barco and Los Cuervos formations. Footwall:
Cerro Gordo Reverse E NNW-SSE None
the Sardinata River, near El Catatumbo, Barco, Los Cuervos and Mirador
Bogoso hill. formations.
≥ 42 km. From the
Mestizo creek -Zulia River’s Hangingwall: Barco, Los Cuervos, Mirador
Hortensia Reverse tributary- (in the south) W N-S and Carbonera formations. Footwall: Carbonera None
towards the Leoncito Fault Formation.
(in the north).
≥ 19 km. From
the southeast part of “El Hangingwall: Los Cuervos and Mirador
Carbonera Reverse Ochenta y Ocho” locality W N-S formations. Footwall: Los Cuervos and Mirador Carbonera Field
towards the east part of formations.
Carbonera locality.
≥ 30 km. From El
Salado (in the south) Hangingwall: Barco, Los Cuervos,
toward Puerto Lleras Mirador, Carbonera and León formations, and
Tasajero Reverse E NNW-SSE None
locality, on the western Guayabo Group. Footwall:Carbonera and León
bank of the Pamplonita formations, and Guayabo Group.
River.
»»
47

≥ 19 km. Western Hangingwall: Barco and Los Cuervos
Leoncito Reverse of Petrólea and El Cortico W N-S formations. Footwall: Capacho, La Luna, Colón, Petrólea Field.
villages. Mito Juan, Catatumbo and Barco formations.
Table 5. Main folds features.
FOLDS
Structure name Axial length (km) Trend Features Surface-related units Related oil field
≥ 51 km from the Sardinata River Broad and asymmetrical dome

La Esperanza NNW- Carbonera, Barco, Los
towards the Tibú River (in the with gentle dips. Four-way None
Dome SSE Cuervos and Mirador formations.
north). closures.
10 km from the Catatumbo River Narrow, faulted and highly

Río de Oro towards the Oro River (in the asymmetrical anticline with a Barco, Los Cuervos
N-S Río de Oro Field
Anticline north). The structure continues nearly vertical eastern flank and and Mirador formations.
into Venezuela’s territory. a gentle western flank.
≥ 28 km from Tibú Village towards Asymmetrical, with a steep and Carbonera and León formations,
Socuavo
the north part of the La Raya N-S faulted western flank and a Guayabo Group and Necesidad Socuavo Field
Anticline
Stream (in the north). gentle eastern flank. Formation.
≥ 65 km from San Martín de Loba

Socuavo NNW- León formation, Guayabo
Village (in the south) towards Symmetrical with gentle flanks. None
Syncline SSE Group and Necesidad Formation.
Socuavo River (in the north).
≥ 18 km from La Verdad and El Slightly asymmetrical with an

Porvenir localities (in the south) NNW- average surface dip of 15° on
Tibú Anticline Carbonera and León formations. Tibú Field
toward the El Amparo locality (in SSE the western flank and 6° on the
the east). eastern flank.
Sardinata ≥ 13 km. It is located between the Slightly asymmetrical, the Sardinata Norte and
N-S León Formation.
Anticline Sardinata and Nuevo rivers. average dip on the flanks is 10°. Sardinata Sur fields
≥ 40 km from near Guamo Village

Los Cuervos, Mirador,
Sardinata (in the south) towards Puerto Slightly asymmetrical, with gentle
N-S Carbonera and León formations, None
Syncline Reyes locality (in the north). The flanks.
and Guayabo Group.
structure continues in Venezuela.
»»
Closed, asymmetrical, complexly
48 ≥ 20 km westwards from faulted anticline, with steep to
Petrólea Capacho, La Luna, Colón,
Sardinata River, near Petrólea N-S overturned beds on the western Petrólea Field
Anticline Mito Juan and Catatumbo formations.
Village. flank and an average dip of 15°

on the eastern flank.
67 km from the northeast sector
Agua Linda of Pata de Caballo Village towards Narrow, closed by Las Mercedes Carbonera, Mirador, Los Cuervos,
N-S None
Syncline the southwest sector of the Fault on the western flank. Barco and Catatumbo formations.
Sardinata Village.
• CATATUMBO
21 km from La Canal hill (in the

Espartillo Narrow, involving basement in its Aguablanca Batholith, Tibú, Mercedes
south) towards the San Miguel NE-SW None
Anticline core. and Aguardiente formations.
River.
Aguardiente ≥ 19 km along the Astillero hill in Narrow, involving basement in its Bucaramanga Gneiss, Tibú, Mercedes
NE-SW None
Anticline the Aguardiente range. core. and Aguardiente formations.
Gramalote ≥ 11 km from Gramalote Village, Narrow, involving basement in its Bucaramanga Gneiss, Tibú, Mercedes
NE-SW None
Anticline along La Canal hill. core. and Aguardiente formations.
47 km from Zulia Village (in the

south), along the valley of the NNE-
Zulia Syncline Broad, slightly asymmetrical. Guayabo Group. None
Zulia River, westerly of Agua Clara SSW
Village.
≥ 8 km between Zulia and NNE-
Zulia Anticline Narrow, four-way closures. Guayabo Group. Zulia Field
Pamplonita rivers. SSW
≥ 30 km northwestward from
Mucurera NNE- Carbonera and León formations and
Cúcuta City, on the eastern bank Broad, slightly asymmetrical. None
Anticline SSW Guayabo Group.
of the Zulia River.
≥ 20 km from the southwest part

Inverted syncline, closed in its
Pamplonita of Ricaurte Village, along the
N-S western limb by the Tasajero Guayabo Group. None
Syncline Pamplonita River, near the Puerto
Fault.
Viejo locality.
Narrow, asymmetrical, closed in
Tasajero Carbonera and León formations and
17 km to the west of Cúcuta City. NE-SW its eastern flank by the Tasajero None
Anticline Guayabo Group.
Fault.
≥ 24 km from Carmen de Tochalá
Cúcuta Los Cuervos, Mirador and Carbonera
Village (in the south) towards the NE-SW Faulted. None
Anticline formations.
Cúcuta-Durania road.
≥ 24 km. Located between Villa
Agua Caliente NNE- León Formation and
del Rosario Village and Cúcuta Narrow and asymmetrical. None
Anticline SSW Guayabo Group.
City. »»
49
4.2 STRUCTURAL STYLES

Yurewicz, Advocate, Lo and Hernández (1998, p. 1329-1330), flexure), and eastern sides of the Basin (figure 21). They also propose that
propose that two major structural styles characterized the Catatumbo as both structural styles seem to extend almost to the surface, then they
Basin, i.e. one dominated by reverse faults that affect the basement, were formed recently (about 8-5 Ma), and that their timing is consistent
together with folds that occur on the western side of the Basin, and a with a late Miocene –Pliocene age reported by Kellogg, Kohn et al, and
second one characterized by thrust faults associated to wrenching, and Shagam et al., among others, for the uplift of the Santander Massif, the
reverse faults and folds associated to bending in the western (Catatumbo Serranía de Perijá, and the Mérida Andes.
Figure 21. Catatumbo Basin schematic structural section. Redrawn after Yurewicz et al. (1998).
Specifically for the Catatumbo area, in this map, gravimetric resolution

Various regional geologic maps, produced for the Catatumbo is not enough to figure out direct relations between the variation of the
Basin (figure 22), together with structural sections at several latitudes, density of the outcroping units and the measured gravimetric anomalies.
confirm the structural styles defined for the Basin. Figures 23, 24, and 25 In other words, gravimetric isolines do not have enough resolution
correspond to the structural sections A-A’, B-B’ and C-C’ (W-E oriented) that would allow the interpretation of basement structures, neither of
»» of the geological map, Quadrangle F-13, Tibú; Figure 26 represents the lithology, nor the thickness of the sedimentary cover. However, it
50
the structural section D-D’ (WNW-ESE oriented) of the geological map, is still possible to infer that: 1) In the northwestern Catatumbo Basin
Quadrangle G-13, Cúcuta, whereas figure 27 describes the structural the Bouguer Total Anomaly is less negative, thus indicating a wide
section E-E’ (SE-NW oriented), drawn within the geological cartography density contrast, therefore the basement would be more involved in the
of the Cúcuta-San Cayetano area. deformation, 2) gravimetric isolines vary, from northwest to southeast
of the Basin, from less negative to more negative values, thus indicating
4.3 BOUGUER TOTAL ANOMALY MAP that the thickness of the continental crust increases southeastward and,
3) gravimetric anomalies are more negative in the southeastern Basin,
The map shown in figure 28 is a part of the Total Bouguer Anomaly which could be interpreted as due to the isostatic adjustment of the
map of Colombia, produced by Graterol & Vargas (2010) for the ANH. Mérida Andes and Cordillera Oriental.
• CATATUMBO
»»
51

Figure 22. Available regional geologic maps of the
Catatumbo Basin.
Source: 1 Clavijo (1997). 2 Daconte and Salinas (1980a).
3 Daconte and Salinas (1980b). 4 Servicio Geológico
Nacional and Inventario Minero Nacional (1967). 5
Servicio Geológico Nacional and Inventario Minero
Nacional (1998). 6 Geosearch (2011).
»»
52
• CATATUMBO
»»
53

Figure 23. Structural section A-A’. Structural section through the Orú,Yuca and Tibú fields. Source: Servicio
Geológico Nacional and Inventario Minero Nacional (1967).
»»
54
• CATATUMBO
»»
55

Figure 24. Structural section B-B’. Structural section through the Mercedes Fault and the Sardinata Sur and Petrólea fields. Source: Servicio
Geológico Nacional and Inventario Minero. Nacional (1967).
»»
56
• CATATUMBO
»»
57

Figure 25. Structural section C-C’.
Structural section through the Mercedes and Cerro Gordo Faults and the Río Zulia field. Source: Servicio Geológico Nacional and Inventario Minero. Nacional (1967).
»»
58
• CATATUMBO
»»
59

Figure 26. Structural section D-D’.Structural section through the
Mercedes and Aguardiente Faults and the Tasajero Anticline. Source:
Servicio Geológico Nacional and Inventario Minero Nacional (1998).
»»
60
• CATATUMBO
»»
Figure 27. Structural section E-E’. Structural 61
section through the Boconó Fault System. Source:
Geosearch (2011).

»»
62
Figure 28. Bouguer’s total anomaly map.Source:

Graterol and Vargas (2010).
5. EXPLORATORY WELL
INFORMATION
CHAPTER 5 - EXPLORATORY WELL INFORMATION
The sedimentary succession of the Catatumbo Basin is more than

15.000´ feet thick, of which a maximum of 13.320 feet have been drilled Table 6 shows the stratigraphic thickness drilled by some wells
by Oripaya-1, the deepest well of the Basin (Asociación Colombiana de distributed all over the Basin. These data were used to build figure 30,
Generadores de Energía Eléctrica [ACOLGEN], 2011). At least 872 wells have which shows stratigraphic thickness variations along a north-south
been drilled in the Basin, most of them on the border with Venezuela (figure transect. By comparison, figures 31 and 32 show thickness variations along
29). They possibly outnumber 1000 (Llerena & Marcano, 1997, p. 540). a west-east transect.
»»
66
Figure 29. Wells map. Drawn with ANH data.

• CATATUMBO
Table 6. Well data.

Information supplied by ANH
»»
67

Figure 30. Well data correlation.
CHAPTER 5 - EXPLORATORY WELL INFORMATION
»»
68
Figure 31. Isopach maps of the Cretaceous units. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002).
• CATATUMBO
»»
69

Figure 32. Isopach maps of the Paleogene units. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002).
6. SEISMIC
INFORMATION
CHAPTER 6 - SEISMIC INFORMATION
As reported by Mondragón et al. (2002, p. 1), several 2D seismic of hydrocarbons (plays). In a similar fashion, representative seismic lines
campaigns have been carried out in the Basin (figure 33). Of these, Cediel, from those interpreted by Cediel et al. (1998), were selected (see figure
Barrero and Cáceres (1998) interpret around 510 km, whose distribution 34). In these, some structures prospective of hydrocarbon accumulations
is shown in figure 34. Bearing in mind that in the Catatumbo Basin, two were identified (figures 35, 36, 37 and 38), focusing in new exploration
regional exploratory scenarios have been identified, i.e. a Cretaceous and opportunities mainly located toward the western part of the Basin. On the
a Paleogene one located west and east of the Basin, respectivamente, other hand, aiming to visualize the regional structures and other structural
various authors as Exxon in 1993, ICP in 1998, Amoco in 1998, Ecopetrol styles that characterize the Basin (folds, reverse and thrust faults generated
in 2001, and Alfonso & Mondragón in 2001 (in Mondragón et al., 2002) by transpression) in 3D, fence diagrams were built, including some
have identified opportunities or exploratory concepts for the prospection representative seismic lines (figures 39, 40 and 41).
Figure 33. Seismic lines map.

Drawn with ANH data. Seismic programs have 3.873, 765 km
length, distributed as: 1) AM-1980, 114,178 km; 2) C-1983,
»» 66,313 km; 3) CAR-1978, 78,286 km; 4) CAR-1987, 66,477
72 km; 5) CAR-1990, 113,722 km; 6) CAT-1976, 530,109 km; 7)
CAT-1977, 239,064 km; 8) CAT-1978, 239,807 km; 9) CAT-
1987, 153,664; 10) CAT-2006, 230,918 km; 11) CAT-2008,
100,3 km; 12) CEL-2003, 166,527 km; 13) CH-1974, 25627

km; 14) CH-1987, 65,063 km; 15) HC-1986, 54,06 km; 16)
HUIORU-1988, 114,863 km; 17) MU-1962, 18,666 km; 18)
MUC-1979, 78,455 km; 19) NL-1999, 222,823 km; 20) NRZ-
1998, 168,089 km; 21) RZ-1978, 61,245 km; 22) TC-1986,
187,172 km; 23) TPEC-2008, 78,829 km; 24) TSF-1990, 228,858
km; 25) TX-1988, 147,154 km; y 26) W-1981, 323,496 km.
• CATATUMBO
»»
73

Figure 34. Interpreted seismic lines map.
Redrawn after Cediel et al. (1998).
Figure 35. Oil traps in the region of the Río de Oro Field. Redrawn after Cediel et al. (1998).
»»
74
Figure 36. Oil traps northwards from the Orú Field and west-southwestwards from the Tibú Field. Redrawn after Cediel et al. (1998).
• CATATUMBO
Figure 37. Oil traps southwestwards from the Sardinata

Sur Field and in the Cerro Gordo Field.
»»
75

Figure 38. Oil traps in the Río Zulia Field and southwestwards from the Cerrito-1 Well.
»»
76
Figure 39. Northern fence diagram.

• CATATUMBO
»»
77

Figure 40. Central fence diagram.
»»
78
Figure 41. Southern fence diagram.

7. OIL AND GAS FIELDS
CHAPTER 7 - OIL AND GAS FIELDS
The discovery of oil and gas fields in the Catatumbo Basin is Formation, which was found at a depth of 12.530 feet, with a bulk thickness
summarized by Mondragón et al. (2002, p. 11-12). In 1920, a concession of 680 feet. Well logs indicated a porosity that varies between 5% and 9%,
was given to General Virgilio Barco who discovered the Río de Oro Field. whereas preliminary analyses indicated the presence of dry gas, mostly
Later on, the Colombian Petroleum Company (COLPET) discovered the methane. In Septiember 2010, flux production tests indicated 6,6 Mcf/day.
fields Petrólea in 1933, Carbonera in 1938, Tibú in 1940, Sardinata in 1951, From that date, a 3D seismic campaign is carried out in order to define the
and Puerto Barco, Orú and Yuca in 1958. Chevron in 1962 discovered the location of a second well, to follow with extensive tests planning to start
Río Zulia Field. Amoco and Texaco discovered the gas fields, Cerrito in 1980 the production phase in 2013.
and Cerro Gordo in 1987, respectively.
Figure 42 shows the location of the oil fields, together with their
ACOLGEN (2011) announced that through the Uribante Exploration productive geological units. These correspond to Cretaceous fractured
and Production Contract with the ANH, Ecopetrol would run the field carbonate and clastic, and Paleogene clastic reservoirs. A synthesis of the
where the gas well Oripaya-1 was recently discovered. This is located petrophysical characteristics of most reservoirs is presented in Table 7, whereas
about 20 km away from Cúcuta. Drilling of the Oripaya-1 well started on 25 the structural characteristics of the oil and gas fields, so far discovered, are
March 2010 and reached a total depth of 13.320 feet. The main objective observed in figures 43 to 52. These include structural and seismic sections
of the well was to test the occurrence of hydrocarbons in the Aguardiente and/or structural maps for the tops of each stratigraphic unit.
»»
82
Figure 42. Fields map.

Compiled from Servicio Geológico Nacional and Inventario
Minero Nacional (1967, 1998) and Mondragón et al. (2002).
• CATATUMBO
Table 7. Petrophysical data summary.

*Aguardiente Formation according to the Petrólea Field data.
»»
83

Figure 43. Río de Oro Field. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). a. Structural section. b. Seismic section.
»»
84 Figure 44 a. Aguardiente Formation-top structural map. b. Yuca & Orú Fields. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). Catatumbo Formation-top structural map.
• CATATUMBO
»»
85
Figure 45. Puerto Barco Field. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). a. Seismic section. b. Capacho Formation-top structural map.

»»
86
Figure 46. Tibú-Socuavo Field. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). a. Seismic section. b. Aguardiente Formation-top structural map.
• CATATUMBO
»»
87
Figure 47. Sardinata Field. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). a. Structural section. b. Mito Juan Formation-top structural map.

»»
88
Figure 48. Petrólea Field. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). a. Structural section. b. La Luna Formation-top structural map.
• CATATUMBO
»»
89

Figure 49. Carbonera Field. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). a. Seismic section. b. Tibú Formation-top isochron map.
»» Figure 50. Cerro Gordo Field. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). a. Structural section. b. La Luna Formation-top structural
map.
90
• CATATUMBO
»»
91

Figure 51. Río Zulia Field. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). a. Structural section. b. Mirador Formation-top structural map.
Figure 52. Cerrito-1 Well. Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002). a. Structural section. b. La Luna Formation-top structural map.
»»
92
8. PROSPECTIVITY
CHAPTER 8 - PROSPECTIVITY
A regional evaluation of the Catatumbo Basin, by means of a judicious and seal. This exploratory synthesis also allowed the identification of 14
and systematic drawing of maps targetted to highlight critical aspects of leads (figure 53), which correspond to areas of interest for hydrocarbon
generation, migration, reservoir, and trapping of hydrocarbons were done by exploration, localized within specific plays and characterized by trap
Alfonso & Mondragón (2001), and Mondragón et al. (2002). This allowed the geometries poorly defined and with low confidence levels in the risk and
identification of six new exploratory concepts within the petroleum system estimated reserves. Figure 53 also shows the location of the Rio Zulia and
of the Basin, thus defining them as plays or hydrocarbon accumulations González Prospects.
with analogous geological conditions for the generation, reservoir, trapping
»»
96
• CATATUMBO
»»
97

Figure 53. Leads map of Catatumbo Basin.
Redrawn after Mondragón et al. (2002), with changes in
the stratigraphic nomenclature. The Rio Zulia and González
Prospects graphics redrawn after Cediel et al. (1998).
9. CURRENT KNOWLEDGED AND
FUTURE RESEARCH TARGETS
CHAPTER 9 - CURRENT KNOWLEDGED AND FUTURE RESEARCH TARGETS
The importance of the Catatumbo, as a hydrocarbon exploratory

target, lies in its meaning as southwestern prolongation (up-dip) of the
Maracaibo Basin, the most prolific of the Western Hemisphere. This
volume is the product of the evaluation, selection and integration of the
extensive geological information available, plus the knowledge of authors
and editors. Regional and structural geology, stratigraphy, well and seismic
information, oil and gas fields, and hydrocarbon prospectivity are integrated
to conclude that: 1) there exist all the elements and essential processes for
the occurrence of commercial hydrocarbon accumulations in the Basin,
i.e. source, reservoir, and seal rocks, and an overloading sedimentary
column, which show that there is an active and efficient petroleum system,
2) the abundant information on opportunities and exploratory and new
exploratory concepts (plays) includes those by Alfonso & Mondragón (2001),
Mondragón et al. (2002), and references therein such as Exxon, ICP, Amoco,
and Ecopetrol, besides Rojas or Barrero cited by ANH (2005), 3) there exist
a number of areas with excellent conditions for hydrocarbon exploration
(leads), thus suggesting that there is a great potential for the discovery of
new hydrocarbon accumulations and, 4) as an important geo-scientific fact,
based on surface geology and well histories, it is suggested that the oldest
sedimentary rocks lying over the economic basement in the Basin, are late
Aptian in age.
Even though this volume provides sensu lato a precise geological

knowledge of the Catatumbo Basin, it needs of further data search such
as: 1) a detailed cartography and additional wells data that would allow
a more precise definition of structural features, trap geometries, and
thickness of the stratigraphic units present in the areas where the leads
have been defined, 2) a detailed stratigraphic and bioestratigraphic set
of data to better reconstruct the depositional environments and lateral
variations of the sedimentary units, thus allowing to precise the knowledge
of the tecto-sedimentary relations, 3) gravimetric and/or magnetometric
studies of enough resolution leading to a precise interpretation of
basement structures, lithology and thickness of the sedimentary cover
and, 4) petrophysics data to evaluate more precisely the porosity and
permeability of reservoirs.
»»
100
10. PETROLEUM SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 10 - PETROLEUM SYSTEMS
This chapter succinctly identifies and characterizes the basin’s Formation), as well as fractured shales and carbonates of Upper Albian-
principal petroleum system elements and processes. Due to the diverse Cenomanian age (Capacho Formation). Other potential reservoir rocks
and complex stratigraphic nomenclature used by various authors, the also occur in the Basin, such as the Late Maastrichtian Mito Formation, the
most adequate for this exercise has been adopted.
It is important to emphasize that the site chosen for 1-D geochemical

modeling (in deep areas of the basin) represents hydrocarbon generation
and expulsion conditions that are only valid for source rocks at that
particular site. Extending these results beyond this site, or building general
conclusions based on this site alone, is therefore inappropriate.
The Catatumbo Basin is regarded as a Mature basin from an

exploratory point of view. Here, 872 wells have been drilled and 12 oil
fields with important oil production have been discovered. The initiation
of exploratory activities occurred with the signing of the Barco concession
in 1920.
Geochemical evaluation of crude oil, extracts and rocks, integrated

along with structural and stratigraphic information, help to identify the
elements and processes needed to support the presence of petroleum
systems within the basin. Figure 54.
10.1 ELEMENTS AND PROCESSES
10.1.1 SOURCE ROCK
The dark gray limestones interbedded with finely laminated black

shales of the La Luna Formation (Turonian - Middle Campanian) and the
black shales of the Capacho Formation (Upper Albian-Cenomanian), are
considered as the key hydrocarbon source rocks of the Basin.
In addition, shales, mudstones and coals of Paleocene age (Barco –

Los Cuervos Formations) also show favorable conditions for hydrocarbon
generation.
On a regional scale, the Uribante Group (former name for the Tibú,
Mercedes and Aguardiente formations grouping), is a source rock with poor
generation potential because of a probable originally low organic matter
»»
104 concentration. Locally, there might have been a higher organic matter
concentration, creating sectors abnormally favorable for the formation of
source rocks. (Mondragón et al., 2002).
10.1.2 RESERVOIR ROCK Figure 54. Geographic location of the Catatumbo Basin, including fields and
well sites. Below, Figure 55. shows the features and processes of the proposed
The Catatumbo Basin crude reservoirs are presented in different petroleum systems.
stratigraphic intervals such as siliciclastic sandstones of Albian age
(Aguardiente Formation), fractured limestones of Late Aptian age (Tibú
• CATATUMBO
Paleocene Orocué Group (which includes the Catatumbo, Barco and Los are propagated from the basement to Cenozoic sequences and involve
Cuervos basins), and the Eocene Mirador and Carbonera formations. reservoirs such as Tibú, Aguardiente, Capacho, Mito-Juan and Mirador.
10.1.3 SEAL ROCK The fourth type corresponds to stratigraphic traps located on the
western side of the Tibú-Sardinata structures.
Seals correspond to shales of the Tibú and Mercedes formations (Aptian),
The fifth type is related to normal faults located at the Orú monocline,
shales of the Mito Juan formations (Maastrichtian), transitional shales
of the Barco Formation (Paleocene), shales of the Carbonera Formation formed at the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, during the distensive phase
(Eocene) and shales of the León Formation (Oligocene-Early Miocene),
which is regarded as the regional seal (Mojica, 2009). 10.1.5 OVERBURDEN
10.1.4 TRAP Considering the source rock characteristics of the La Luna and
Capacho formations, the overburden is represented in the rock sequence
The basin has five main types of traps: The first type corresponds to deposited from the Upper Cretaceous to recent times.
anticlines related to the Catatumbo fault-bend folds or to the Las Mercedes
fault system. This type of trapping occurs in the Puerto Barco and Rio de 10.1.6 PROCESSES OF HYDROCARBON GENERATION AND EXPULSION
Oro fields.
The processes of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion for the
The second type is folding due to propagation faults on the eastern modeled point within the Basin, occur mainly from the Early Paleocene to
margin of the basin, high-angle propagation faults diping westward, related recent times, with a critical moment located around the Pliocene, about 3
to the Tibú fault system. These faults involve the basement and Cenozoic million years ago.
sequences. Examples: Tibú, Petrolea, Rio Zulia and Sardinata fields.
10.1.7 EVENT CHART
The third type is related to folds at the footwall of fault blocks.
The preferential vergence of the faults is eastward in the western area Below, Figure 55. shows the features and processes of the proposed
of the Basin and westward in the eastern area of the Basin. The faults petroleum systems
»»
105

Figure 55. Event chart showing the
features and processes of petroleum
systems at the Catatumbo Basin.
10.2 SOURCE ROCK PROPERTIES window. Figure 57. The Barco and Los Cuervos Units show Tmax values
between 430 to 450 ° C, their maturities being characterized in the range
10.2.1 ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT of immature to peak oil generation.
The La Luna Formation is considered the main source rock of the 10.2.4 GENERATION POTENTIAL
basin, with values of total organic carbon (% TOC) ranging from 1 to 11.2 and
averaging in the order of 3.2, indicating good to excellent characteristics. La Luna Formation features organic matter mainly of liptinite
and amorphous types. % TOC contents are very good to excellent, and
The Capacho Formation contains% TOC values between 0.35 and maturity values are favorable for the oil generation and gas window. These
13.87 with an average of 1.6, ranging from good to excellent. geochemical characteristics indicate that the potential for this Formation
to generate liquid hydrocarbons can be characterized as excellent. This fact
In an analysis performed by Mora et al. (2001) for the Barco and Los is supported by correlations between crude rock from this unit and most
Cuervos Formations, TOC values greater than 1% were obtained. These values crude oils produced at the Basin (Figure 58).
range between 1.02% and 69.84%, with an average TOC of 5.9%. However, it is
important to state that the source rocks in this sequence are marginal, when
considering the fact that the presence of intervals rich in organic matter is
linked to low coal appearance of fine facies, which are rare in fluvial systems
such as those that formed these rocks (Mondragón et al., 2002).
10.2.2 ORGANIC MATTER QUALITY
The values of hydrogen index (HI) for the La Luna Formation range
between 37 and 241 mg HC/g TOC (values have been diminished due to
the maturity of organic matter from type II, III and IV kerogens, Figure 56):
Visual characterization of kerogen indicates very high content of amorphous
organic matter and liptinite (88%) and less contents of inertinite (8%) and
vitrinite (4%). Organic matter is mainly marine amorphous with fragments
of algae and vitrinite.
The Tibú, Mercedes and Aguardiente formations show low values of

HI, due to the high thermal maturity of these rocks
The Capacho Formation contains HI values between 3 and 406 mg

HC / g TOC, where mixed type II and III kerogens prevail, with a greater
contribution from terrestrial organic matter.
For the Barco and Los Cuervos formations, the kerogen is classified
as type III with the presence of higher contents of vitrinite than amorphous
»»
106 organic matter, with generation potential favorable mainly for gas. In certain
sectors, there is presence of type II kerogen with oil generation capacity.
10.2.3 ORGANIC MATTER THERMAL MATURITY
The stratigraphic sequence corresponding to the La Luna and

Capacho formations is considered mature, with values of maximum Figure 56. Visual characterization of kerogen indicates very high content of
temperature (Tmax), between 430 and 470 °C and %Ro values ranging amorphous organic matter and liptinite (88%) and less contents of inertinite (8%)
between 0.6 and 1.4, located within the range of oil to gas generation and vitrinite (4%). Organic matter is mainly marine amorphous with fragments
of algae and vitrinite.
• CATATUMBO
The Capacho Formation features good to very good organic matter

content, with a mixture of kerogen types II and III, indicating a good to very
good oil and gas generation potential.
The Barco and Los Cuervos formations feature considerable % TOC

contents with presence of type III kerogen. Thus, the generation potential
is mainly related to gaseous hydrocarbons.
It is important to bear in mind that the generation potential is

affected by the thermal maturity of the rock, especially at the stratigraphic
units located below the Turonian.
Figure 59 shows a summary of the main geochemical characteristics

that identify the La Luna, Capacho, Barco and Los Cuervos formations.
10.2.5 CRUDE OIL SPECIFICATIONS
Crude oils generally feature high API gravity with values above 35°,
Figure 57. Tmax Vs hydrogen index (HI) chart, rocks of the La Luna and although values of about 17° have been reported at the Tibú 479C Field
Capacho formations show maturity values for oil to gas generation, while those (Yurewicz et., al, 1998). The saturated hydrocarbon fraction is dominant,
from the Barco and Los Cuervos formations range from immature to peak oil with values that can vary between 20 and 90% (Figure 60). Sulphur content
generation ranges between 0.08 and 2.12% (Figure 61). Nickel content ranges between
0.01 and 22 ppm while vanadium reaches values up to 199 ppm.
»»
107

Figure 58. % TOC Vs GP Chart. The La Luna Formation records the highest
generation potential values, followed by the Capacho and Barco Los Cuervos Figure 59. Synthesis of geochemical assessments of rocks from the Catatumbo
formations. It is important to state that the original values for generation potential Basin. This table is derived from the averaging values of the studied geochemical
have been reduced due to the maturity state of the rocks. parameters
Conversely, several authors agree to propose the existence of

Cretaceous-Paleogene crude mixtures within the Basin. The Paleogene
component would probably be derived from shales and coals rich in
organic matter from the Barco and Catatumbo formations. These have low
sulfur contents, a Pristane/Phytane ratio value of 3, low Tricyclic Terpane
contents, Oleanane abundance and a C29 Steranes and Diasteranes
dominance. The Cretaceous-Paleogene crude oil group is featured at the
Mirador Formation on the Zulia River Field.
Figure 61. API Vs% sulfur chart, crude oils mostly have API gravity value
above 35°, which characterizes them as light crude oils.
10.2.6 CRUDE OIL PROPERTIES SUMMARY
Below, Table 8 summarizes some key geochemical properties

obtained for the Basin’s crude oils.
»»
108
Figure 60. Ternary diagram of SARA crude oil fractions shows a greater
proportion of saturates than the other fractions.
• CATATUMBO
10.2.7 CRUDE OIL FAMILIES and higher sulfur content. These features indicate a siliciclastic marine
depositional environment with some contribution of terrestrial organic
Basic composition and biomarker parameters featured by crude oils matter.
such as API gravity, sulfur content, vanadium/nickel and Pri/Phy ratios
indicate the existence of three crude oil families within the Catatumbo Family C
Basin:
Contains crude oils characterized by high API gravity values, saturate
Family A percentages higher than 65%, Sulfur percentages less than 0.5, low NI and
V concentrations (less than 10 and 20 ppm, respectively), and high Pri/Phy,
Characterized by high API gravity values, a greater proportion of the Oleanane/C30 and Hopane ratios
saturated fraction, Pri/Phy ratios lower than 1, and low sulfur and oleanane
contents. Therefore, these crude oils possibly originated in marine anoxic 10.2.8 CRUDE OIL-ROCK CORRELATION
environments with high carbonate influences and low terrestrial organic
matter inputs. Figure 62. According to biomarker relations, these crude oils are related to
organic facies deposited mainly at carbonate and siliciclastic marine
Family B environments, though an increase in the proportion of C29 Steranes is
seen in some samples, indicating a more proximal state to the depositional
Features lower API gravity values than family A, lower saturate environment and a greater contribution of organic matter from the
contents, Pri/Phy ratio around 1, a moderate presence of Oleanane continent in the generating facies (Figure 63).
»»
109
Figure 62. Pri/Phy ratio chart, families A and B are located at a redox environment,

while family C features oxic conditions promoted probably by a proximal marine
Figure 63. %C29 Steranes Vs %C27 Steranes indicates a carbonate and
environment.
siliciclastic marine depositional environment.
Geochemical data allow the inference of a marine environment According to the geological evolution model for this sector of the
with anoxic reducing conditions (ie, normal Steranes ratio, low Basin, the base of the Aptian sequence attained a maximum burial depth
contents of Ni/Va, and C35/C34 ratio higher than 1) of Cretaceous age of 18,000 feet during the Late Pliocene and maximum temperatures of
(considering low Oleanane values), where the La Luna Formation was 403°F (Figure 65).
deposited.
Similarly, crude oils with low sulfur contents Pri/Phy ratios of about
3, low Tricyclic Terpane contents, Oleanane abundance and dominance
of C29 Steranes and Diesteranes point to the existence of a Cenozoic
(Paleogene) component in these crude oils, probably derived from muddy
and carbonaceous facies of the Barco, Los Cuervos and Catatumbo
formations.
10. 3 PETROLEUM SYSTEMS MODELING
The simulation of the processes of hydrocarbon generation and

expulsion at the Catatumbo Basin was conducted from 1D modeling of
a pseudo-well located on the CAT-1978-14 seismic line, where the basin
reaches important burial values (Figure 64).
Figure 65. Maximum burial curve occurred during the Pliocene. (1) Cretaceous
thermal subsidence, (2) Flexural subsidence during the Late Cretaceous and
Paleocene (Perijá Uplift). (3) Tertiary flexural subsidence (Merida and Perijá)
Eocene unconformity.
A history of variable heat flux was used, from 67 mw/m2 during the
Aptian to 62mw/m2 at present times. Based on local and regional rock
geochemistry information, three generating intervals were included in the
model, the Capacho, La Luna and Barco formations.
The simulation results indicate that these intervals reached maturity

levels in the range of dry gas generation (% Ro> 1.35, Capacho and La Luna
formations) and late phase of the oilgeneration window (Ro = 1%, Barco
»» Formation, Figure 66), with presence of hydrocarbon expulsion processes
110 at the Capacho and La Luna formations during the Late Paleocene-Early
Eocene associated with the deposition of the Barco and Los Cuervos
formations, and a process of further expulsion during the Late Eocene-

Early Oligocene associated with the deposit of the Carbonera and León
Figure 64. Profile location of the studied pseudo-well, on seismic line formations (38 - 31 Ma). During the deposition of the Guayabo Formation,
CAT-1978-14. a small expulsion process is identified for the Early Cretaceous formations,
mainly associated with the La Luna Formation during the Late Miocene
(11-5 Ma). The expulsion process for the Barco Formation started during
the Early Pliocene (Figure 67).
• CATATUMBO
10.4 PETROLEUM SYSTEM DEFINITION
Integration of geological, geochemical and modeled information of

the Catatumbo Basin suggests the existence of two petroleum systems
with evidence of crude oil migration to the surface (seep), and several oil
producing fields. Figure 68.
This allows to consider and define the following petroleum systems:
• La Luna Cretaceous/Paleogene (!)
• Paleocene-Mirador (.)
La Luna Cretaceous/Paleogene (!)
Accumulations of oil are located at reservoirs built mainly by

Cretaceous limestones and sands of the La Luna and Capacho Formations,
the Uribante Group and Cenozoic (Paleogene) (Mirador Formation).
These are genetically correlated with the La Luna Formation as a source
rock, allowing the definition of the La Luna- Cretaceous / Paleogene (!)
petroleum system as known.
Paleocene-Mirador (.)
This petroleum system consists of source rocks of Upper Paleocene

Figure 66. %Ro profile over time, the evaluated sequence reached the oil
Maastrichtian age (Catatumbo, Barco and Los Cuervos formations). Ithas
generation window.
been reported by authors such as Talukdar and Marcano (1994); Cassani
et al. (1989); Tocco et al. (1990). According to these authors, the crude
oil source rocks are derived from terrestrial type III kerogen, while some
of these hydrocarbons could be mixed with marine sources from the La
Luna Formation and would be responsible for oil accumulations in both
the Maracaibo Basin in Venezuela and the Catatumbo Basin.
Due to the fact Paleogene hydrocarbons are originated mainly from

Paleocene levels that were accumulated mostly at the Mirador Formation,
the petroleum system is defined as Paleocene-Mirador (.), which is
considered as hypothetical because the hydrocarbon and source rock
geochemical analyses suggest a genetic relationship, but no crude-rock
correlation has been yet reported.
»»
111

Figure 67. The expulsion process for the La Luna Formation was reached at the
end of the Miocene, while the Barco Formation reached it on the Pliocene.
»»
112
Figure 68. Geographical coverage of petroleum systems

and location of the site where the pseudo-well modeling
was performed.
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norandino en el sector Lobateria-El Vigia: memoir, seventh Escalona, A., & Mann, P. (2006). An overview of the petroleum system of
Venezuelan Geological Congress, Caracas, Venezuela, Vol. 3, pp. Maracaibo Basin. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum
1668-1391. Geologists (AAPG), 90(4), 657-678.
Cediel, F., & Cáceres, C. (2000). Geological Map of Colombia (Third Edition.). Etayo, F. (1985). Paleontología Estratigráfica del Sistema Cretácico en
Bogotá: Geotec Ltda. la Sierra Nevada del Cocuy. Proyecto Cretácico (Ed. Etayo, F. &
Montaño, F.), XXIV: 1-40. Bogotá: Publicación Geológica Especial de
Cediel, F., Barrero, D., & Cáceres, C. (1998). Seismic Atlas of Colombia, INGEOMINAS.
seismic expression of structural styles in the basins of Colombia:
»»
116 Catatumbo Basin. Georesources Ltda. (2001). Geología de superficie del Bloque Los Cedros.
Bogotá: La Luna Oil Company.
Cediel, F., Shaw, R. P., & Cáceres, C. (2003). Tectonic assembly of the
Northern Andean block. The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Geosearch Ltda. (2011). Geología de un área comprendida entre los
Caribbean: Hydrocarbon Habitats, Basin Formation and Plate municipios de Cúcuta, Ragonvalia, Bochalema, Arboledas y San
Tectonics: American Association of Petroleum Geologist (AAPG) Cayetano (Norte de Santander). 1 mapa escala 1:100.000. Bogotá.
Memoir, 79, 815–848.
• CATATUMBO
Gómez, E., Jordan, T., Allmendiger, R., Hegarty, K., & Kelly, S. (2005). 90(4), 445-477.
Syntectonic Cenozoic sedimentation in the northern middle
Magdalena Valley Basin of Colombia and implications for Martínez, F., Roux, J., Castillo, J., Bastardo, M., & Carrasquel, M. (2010).
exhumation of the Nothern Andes. Bulletin of the Geological Relación de la deformación extensional y contractiva en la región
Society of America, 117(5/6), 547-569. centro-sur de la cuenca de Maracaibo: implicancias para el desarrollo
de potenciales trampas petrolíferas. Interciencia: Revista de ciencia y
Graterol, V., & Vargas, A. (2010). Mapa de anomalía de Bouguer total tecnología de América, 35(12), 883–890.
de la Republica de Colombia. Lithosphera Earth Sciences. Agencia
Nacional de Hidrocarburos (ANH). Martinez, J. I. (1989). Foraminiferal biostratigraphy and paleoenvironments
of the Maastrichtian Colon mudstones of northern South America.
Hedberg, H. (1932). Stratigraphy of the southern Barco Concession, Micropaleontology, 35(2), 97-113.
Santander del Norte Colombia. (págs. 1-67). Cúcuta, Colombia:
Colombian Petroleum Company. Maze, W. (1984). Jurassic La Quinta Formation in the Sierra de Perijá,
northwestern Venezuela: Geology and tectonic enviroment of red
Hoffmeister, W. (1938). Aspecto y división en zonas de la fauna de moluscos beds and volcanic rocks. Geological Society of America Memoir, 162,
en las formaciones La Rosa y Lagunillas, campos costaneros de 263-282.
Bolívar, Venezuela. Boletín de Geología y Minería, 2, 103-122.
Mojica, J. (2009). Cuencas Catatumbo, Cesar – Ranchería, Cordillera
Julivert, M., Barrero, D., Botero, D., Duque, H., Hoffstetter, R., Navas, Oriental, Llanos Orientales, Valle Medio y Superior del Magdalena.
J., Porta, J. de, Taborda, B., Téllez, N., & Zamarreño, I. (1968).
Lexique Stratigraphique, Amerique Latine, Colombie (première Mondragón, J., Alfonso, A., Córdoba, F., García, D., Goncalvez, F., Mora,
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Mésozoïque-Tertiaire (Vol. 5). París: Centre National de la Recherche Cuenca del Catatumbo (págs. 1-460). Bogotá: Empresa Colombiana
Scientifique. de Petróleos S.A.(ECOPETROL S.A.).
Kuyl, O., Muller, J., Waterbolk, H. (1955). The application of palynology to oil Notestein, F., Hubman, C., & Bowler, J. (1944). Geology of the Barco
geology with reference to Western Venezuela. Geologie en Mijnbouw, Concession, Republic of Colombia, South America. Bulletin of the
17, 49-76. Retrieved from http://www.pdvsa.com/lexico/l45w.htm Geological Society of America, 55, 1165-1216.
Llerena, J., & Marcano, F. (1997). El sistema petrolífero en la Subcuenca de Nuttal, C. (1990). A review of the Tertiary non-marine molluscan faunas
Catatumbo, Cuenca de Maracaibo, Venezuela. (Vol. I, págs. 540-551). of the Pebasian and other inland basins in north-western South
Presented at the VI Simposio Bolivariano «Exploración petrolera en America. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History, Geology
las Cuencas Subandinas», Cartagena de Indias, Colombia: Asociación Series), 45(2), 165-371.
Colombiana de Geólogos y Geofísicos del Petróleo.
Pardo, A. (2004). Paleocene - Eocene Palynology and Palynofacies from
Lorente, M. (1986). Palynology and palynofacies of the upper Tertiary in northeastern Colombia and Western Venezuela (Ph. D. Thesis).
Venezuela. (Ph. D. Thesis). Berlín-Stuttgart: University of Amsterdam. Université de Liège.
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Patarroyo, P. (2002). Sobre las sucesiones marinas del Aptiano en cercanías 117
Lugo, J., & Mann, P. (1995). Jurassic-Eocene tectonic evolution of Maracaibo de Ortega y Ataco (Tolima – Colombia). Geología Colombiana, 27,
basin, Venezuela. Petroleum Basins of South America: American 87-93.

Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) Memoir, 62, 699–725.
Petters, V. (1955). Development of Upper Cretaceous foraminiferal faunas
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stratigraphique international. Amerique Latine (Vol. V). Paris: Centre Vol. 23, pp. 311-327.
National de la Recherche Scientifique.
Useche, A., & Odremán, O. (1997). Formación Río Negro. Código
Preston, C. (1975). The geology of the Cúcuta area, Norte de Santander, Estratigráfico de las Cuencas Petroleras de Venezuela. Petróleos
Colombia. Presented at the Colombian Society of Petroleum de Vezuela S.A. (PDVSA). Retrieved from http://www.pdvsa.com/
Geologists and Geophysicists, Fifteenth Annual Field Conference. In lexico/r27w.htm
Geological Field Trips Colombia., Ediciones Geotec Ltda.
Van Houten, F., & James, H. (1984). Late Cenozoic Guayabo delta complex
Renz, O. (1959). Estratigrafía del Cretáceo en Venezuela Occidental. Boletín in southwestern Maracaibo Basin, northeastern Colombia Memoir
de Geología, 5(10), 3-48. of the Geological Society of America 162 (pp. 325-332.).
Renz, O. (1982). The Cretaceous ammonites of Venezuela. Caracas, Ward, D., Goldsmith, R., Cruz, J., & Restrepo, H. (1973). Geología de los
Venezuela: Maraven. Cuadrángulos H12 Bucaramanga y H-13 Pamplona, Departamento
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Richards, H. (1968). Cretaceous section in Barco area of northeastern
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ANNEXES
ANNEXES
ANNEX 1: OIL AND GAS FIELDS

(ATLAS Oil and Gas Fields of Colombia)
Geotec & Robertson Research 1996
Río de Oro
»»
122
• CATATUMBO
OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Río de Oro
STRUCTURAL CROSS SECTION. WELLS. RÍO DE ORO 19 AND 21K
»»
123

ANNEXES
OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Río de Oro
»»
124
STRUCTURAL CROSS SECTION. WELLS. RÍO DE ORO 14, 15 AND 20K

• CATATUMBO
OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Río de Oro
STRUCTURAL MAP ON TOP OF CATATUMBO FORMATION
STRUCTURAL MAP ON TOP OF URIBANTE FORMATION

TYPE ELECTRICAL LOG OF RÍO DE ORO FIELD
»»
125

ANNEXES
OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Río Zulia
»»
126
• CATATUMBO
OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Río Zulia
RÍO ZULIA FIELD ORIGINAL MIRADOR POOL
»»
127

CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION (MBBLS)
ANNEXES
OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Río Zulia
STRUCTURAL CROSS SECTION OF THE RÍO ZULIA AREA.
»»
128
EAST-WEST CROSS SECTION THROUGH RÍO ZULIA-34

• CATATUMBO
OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Río Zulia
REGIONAL STRUCTURE OF RÍO ZULIA AREA. PRODUCING INTERVALS OF THE RÍO ZULIA FIELD
»»
129

ISOPACH MAP OF THE MIRADOR SANDS.
STRUCTURAL MAP ON TOP OF

THE MIRADOR FORMATION
ANNEXES
OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Río Tibú
»»
130
• CATATUMBO
OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Río Tibú
STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION THROUGH YUCA-TIBU FIELDS. CATATUMBO FORMATION
»»
131

STRUCTURAL MAP OF THE BARCO FORMATION. (BASE OF THE SILTSTONE MARKER)
SOCUAVO & TIBU ANTICLINE. TIBU FIELD
ANNEXES
ANNEX 2: OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION

ACIPET 2011
»»
132
• CATATUMBO
OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION
»»
133

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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA

Editor, Fabio Cediel

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA Catatumbo Basin

AGENCIA NACIONAL DE HIDROCARBUROS

Printed by Impresos El Día

Geology and Hydrocarbon Potential

Minister of Mines and Energy

AGENCIA NACIONAL DE HIDROCARBUROS

General Director ANH

ACPB, Amagá – Cauca - Patia

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA

Editor, 1Fabio Cediel, Co-Editor, 2Germán Y. Ojeda, Co-Editor, 3Fabio Colmenares

VOL. TITTLE - BASIN AUTHOR PAGES FIGURES

3 Atrato - San Juán – Urabá, AT-SJU-UR 1

8 Guajira - Cayos, GU-CAY Aguilera, R.

9 Eastern Llanos, LLA 10

12 Sinú - San Jacinto, SI-SJA Aguilera, R.

1 – Department of Geology, University EAFIT, Medellín 8 – ECOPETROL, Bogotá

2 – LAEFM Colombia, Ltda., Subsuelo 3D, Bogotá 9 – Lithoil Ltd., Bogotá

3 – Geosearch Ltd., Bogotá 10 – Consultant, Bogotá

4 – Greenfields Exploration, AngloGold Ashanti Colombia S.A., 11 – RaGeologia E.U.

University of Barcelona 12 – Pacific Rubiales Energy, Bogotá

5 – Exploration Geologist, Medellín 13 – Delft University of Technology

6 - MINRESOUR, Faculty of Geology, University of Barcelona 14 – Gems Ltda.

7 - Mubadala Oil & Gas Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur

65 5 EXPLORATORY WELL INFORMATION

81 7 OIL AND GAS FIELDS

99 9 CURRENT KNOWLEDGED AND FUTURE RESEARCH TARGETS

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA

2.1.2 CORDILLERAN-TYPE OROGENY

The second orogenic event is partly recorded as a lower- to

2.1.3 BOLÍVAR AULACOGEN

the development of an inter-continental rift during the Pennsylvanian-

Figure 2. Grenvillian granulite belt. Figure 3. Low grade metamorphic belt.

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA

Table 1. Economic basement ages and dating criteria.

UNIT DATING CRITERIA AGE

1) pre-Cambrian to pre-Devonian radiometric ages (Goldsmith et al. in Clavijo,

The brachiopods: Kochiproductus sp., Neospirifer sp., Wasgenoconcha sp.,

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA

3.2 JURASSIC 3.3 CRETACEOUS

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA

Table 2. Age assigments of Cretaceous stratigraphic units and dating criteria.

UNIT DATING CRITERIA AGE

The ammonoids Roloboceras saxbyi Casey, Roloboceras hambrovi (Forbes)

The ammonoids Heminautilus etheringtoni Durham and Cheloniceras »»

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA

UNIT DATING CRITERIA AGE

Anisoceras cf. armatum (Sowerby) in the limestone succession of the

(1) based on the presence of Inoceramus labiatus, Hedberg (1932, p. 22-24)

The occurrence of the Siphogenerinoides bramlettei zone, that is assigned

Fauna cited by Sutton (1946): The ammonites Sphenodiscus and Coahuilites

Table 3. Ages of Cenozoic stratigraphic units and dating criteria.

UNIT DATING CRITERIA AGE

1) the presence of the Ammomarginulina colombiana foraminifera zone at the

The palynological content is analogous to the one of the Picacho Formation

Hannatoma, a brackish fauna collected by Preston (1975, p. 444) around Cúcuta,

1) mollusks, analogous to those of La Cira horizon of the Middle Magdalena Valley,

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF COLOMBIA

3.5 DETAILED STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMNS

At the northern part of the Catatumbo Basin a number of detailed

The Cenozoic sedimentary succession includes: 1) carbonaceous

1 Santa Elena creek section: Tibú, Mercedes, Aguardiente, Capacho, La Luna