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SCI 115
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

1. ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT
One of the important tools of chemistry is measurement. In measurement, there all of the data
are accurately reported and quantitatively interpreted. There are three elements of measurement
namely – number, unit, and uncertainty or error. A number indicate the size or magnitude of the
quantity being measured. The unit in a measurement provides a basis for comparing a certain quantity
with a standard reference. Uncertainty or error indicates the degree of accuracy and precision of a
quantity being measured. This usually indicates the number of significant figures in a measurement.

For example, the normal body temperature of a human being is 37.0 o C. The number is
reported as 37.0 while C (Celcius) is the unit. The number of decimal places indicates the degree of
uncertainty or error.
Uncertainty or error

37.0 o C Unit

Number

There are also two types of properties being measured, the macroscopic and microscopic
properties. Macroscopic properties can be measured or determined directly using measuring
instruments like the meter stick, thermometer, graduated cylinder, beam balance, barometer, and many
others. Microscopic properties must be determined using an indirect method. It is difficult to
determine directly microscopic properties because they usually exist in an atomic or molecular scale.

Significant Figures

In a measurement, the degree of uncertainty or error can be corrected using significant figures.
Significant figures are the reliable digits or numbers in a measurement. These digits are reliable for the
reason that it only includes those digits in a measurement based on the degree of accuracy or precision
of measuring instrument being used.

Table 1.1 Accuracy of Measuring Instruments

Instrument / Equipment Accuracy

Thermometer ±0.2 oC
Buret ±0.02 mL
Pipet ±0.02 mL
Graduated cylinder ±0.1 mL
Meterstick ±0.1 cm (±1 mm)
Top-loading balance ±0.001 g (±1 mg)
Analytical balance ±0.0001 g (±0.1 mg)

Adopted from Brown, LeMay, & Bursten (2000). Laboratory Experiments /

to Accompany/ Chemistry: The central Science.

Prepared by: Denson M. Liday, MA CHEM

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Health Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics
Fostering wellness

Guidelines for Using Significant Figures

You might wonder that as you switch on the calculator, the first number that appears in the LCD
is a zero with a decimal point after it or if you press any number, there is always a decimal point after it.
The decimal point has something to do with significant figures and this could be explained by the
following set of guidelines for using significant figures:
1) All nonzero digits are significant. For example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or a combination of
these numbers are considered significant
2) Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. Example, 501 contains 3 significant figures,
10203, contains 5 significant figures, 6040809, contains 7 significant figures and so on.
3) Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are considered not significant. The zero digits are
used to indicate the placement of the decimal point. For example, 0.1, 0.07, 0.005, 0.0008,
and 0.0000003 contain 1 significant figure. While 0.023, 0.00357, 0.0008192, contain 2,3,
and 4 significant figures, respectively.
4) If a number is greater than 1, then all the zeros to the right of the decimal point is
considered significant. Example, 3.0 have 2 significant figures, 5.00 have 3 significant figures,
and 67.000 have 5 significant figures.

The fifth and last guideline says that, for numbers that contain decimal points, the trailing zeros
(zeros before and after the last nonzero digit) may or may not be significant. For example, 300 may
contain only 1 significant figure (3), or 2 significant figures (30), or 3 significant figures (300). This
guideline will not be included in our discussion two avoid confusion. However, this guideline could be
corrected if all of the numbers are written in scientific notation.

Scientific Notation

To make all measurements reliable and accurate, scientific notation is used. Scientific notation
is a simple and short form of expressing extremely small and extremely large numbers. It is a number
between 1 and 10 times 10 raised to some exponent (power). It is said that all of the digits in a number
are considered significant because the zeros are no longer used to set the placement of the decimal
point.
Scientific notation could be expressed as written in the mathematical symbols below:

N = Number between 1 & 10 in a positive or negative

Integer.
N x 10 n 10 = Number of times 10 is multiplied by itself.
n = Exponent or power

Guidelines in Rounding Off Numbers

There are only two guidelines to take note in applying scientific notations. However, in applying
these guidelines, the rounding off numbers should also be considered. In this text, we shall used only
one convention in rounding off numbers, that is, if the number to be drop is equal or greater (≥) than 5,
we will add one to the number to the number preceding it. However, if the number to be drop is equal
or lesser than 4 (≤), then, we will retain the number preceding it.

Prepared by: Denson M. Liday, MA CHEM

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Health Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics
Fostering wellness

Examples in rounding off numbers in 3 significant figures:

1) 23.55 = 23.5
2) 694.2 = 694
3) 0.0008126 = 0.000813
4) 0.000003654 = 0.00000365

Guidelines in Applying the Scientific Notation

The two guidelines in applying the scientific notation are as follows:

1) An extremely large number can be converted into a scientific notation with a positive
exponent (N x 10 n) by moving the decimal point to the left ( ). The number of
places the decimal point is moved to the left indicates the number of power or
exponent.

Examples: (Scientific notations with 3 significant figures)

1 = 1.00 x 10 0
10 = 1.00 x 10 1
100 = 1.00 x 10 2
1000 = 1.00 x 10 3
10000 = 1.00 x 10 4
100000 = 1.00 x 10 5

2) An extremely small number can be converted into a scientific notation with a negative
exponent (N x 10 – n ) by moving the decimal point to the right ( ). The number
of places the decimal point is moved to the right indicates the number of power or
exponent.

Examples: (Scientific notations with 3 significant figures)

0.1 = 1.00 x 10 – 1
0.01 = 1.00 x 10 – 2
0.001 = 1.00 x 10 – 3
0.0001 = 1.00 x 10 – 4
0.00001 = 1.00 x 10 – 5
0.000001 = 1.00 x 10 – 6

SI Units of Measurement

There were two systems of measurements that are widely used word wide. These two systems
are the English and the Metric Systems of measurement. The English units are commonly used by
laypersons and the Metric units use measurements with the powers of 10.

In 1960, a General Conference of Weights and Measures, an international authority on units,

proposed a new system of measurement that is patterned from the metric system of measurement.
This new metric system of measurement is called as the International System of Units (SI or Syteme
International d’ Unites in French). The SI units of measurement were created to standardized and

Prepared by: Denson M. Liday, MA CHEM

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Health Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics
Fostering wellness

simplify measurements for the pursuit in the promotion of advances in science and technology. Tables
1.2 shows the SI base units which are commonly used in measurements.

Table 1.2 SI Base Units

Base Quantity Name of Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electrical current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Adopted from Chang, Raymond (1995). Chemistry 5th Edition.

From the seven SI base units, only the units of length, mass, time, temperature, and amount of
substance will be frequently utilized in our study of chemistry. The rest of the units will no longer be
used in studying the behavior, properties, and changes that occur in matter. However, derived units like
volume, density, pressure, and many others will also be included in this course.

Table 1.3 shows the prefixes used for the multiples and submultiples of SI units.

Table 1.3 Prefixes Used with SI Units

Factor Prefix Symbol

10 18 Eka E
15
10 Peta P
10 12 Tera T
9
10 Giga G
10 6 Mega M
10 3 Kilo K
2
10 Hecto H
10 1 Deka da
10 – 1 Deci d
10 – 2 Centi c
–3
10 Milli m
10 – 6 Micro μ
–9
10 Nano n
10 – 12 Pico p
– 15
10 Femto f
10 – 18 Atto a
Adopted with modification from Chang, Raymond (1995). Chemistry 5th Edition.

Prepared by: Denson M. Liday, MA CHEM

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Health Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics
Fostering wellness

For convenience, we will be using the prefixes from milli (m) to kilo (k) to the following units of
length, mass, and volume. The corresponding units like meter (m), gram (g) and liter (L) will be used as
base units for length, mass, and volume, respectively. In this text, you learn that changing the base units
of meter, gram, and liter will only change the quantity being measured but not for the corresponding
value of the prefixes. Refer to Table 1.4 for the application of these base units.

Table 1.4 Application of Prefixes and Base Units

Prefix Equivalent Quantity

Length (m) Mass (g) Volume (L)
10 m (milli) = 1 c 10 mm = 1 cm 10 mg = 1 cg 10 mL = 1 cL
10 c (centi) = 1 d 10 cm = 1 dm 10 cg = 1 dg 10 cL = 1 dL
10 d (deci) = 1 base unit 10 dm = 1 m 10 dg = 1 g 10 dL = 1 L
10 base unit = 1 da 10 m = 1 dam 10 g = 1 dag 10 L = 1 daL
10 da (deka) = 1 h 10 dam = 1 hm 10 dag = 1 hg 10 daL = 1 hL
10 h (hecto) = 1 k 10 hm = 1 km 10 hg = 1 kg 10 hL = 1 kL
1 k (kilo) = 1000 m 1 km = 1000 mm 1 kg = 1000 mg 1 kL = 1000 mL

Unit Relationship Between SI Units and English Units

It is also important to know the unit relationship between the SI units and the English units of
measurement. The following are list of unit relationship between the SI and English units of
measurements for length, mass, volume, and pressure:

Units of Length Units of Mass Units of Volume Units of Pressure

1m = 1.094 yd 453.6 g = 1 lb 1 L = 1.057 qt 1 atm = 760 mm Hg
= 39.37 in 1 kg = 2.2 lbs 3.785 L = 1 gal = 760 torr
= 3.28 ft 1000 kg = 1 ton = 76 cm Hg
1.61 km = 1 mi = 101325 Pa
30.48 cm = 1 ft = 101325 N/m2
25.4 mm = 1 in = 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi
Units of Density and Temperature
The units of density and temperature are also relevant in understanding the nature of matter.
Density (d) is the mass of substance divided by its volume. On the other hand, temperature (T) is a
quantitative measure for the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Temperature is also the measure
of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of matter. Below are the units for density and formulas
for the conversion of temperature of substances.

Density = mass / volume Temperature

1 g / mL = 1000 kg / m 3 K = 273 + oC
o
1 g / L = 0.001 g / mL F = 9 / 5 oC + 32
o
C = 5 / 9 ( oF - 32)

Prepared by: Denson M. Liday, MA CHEM

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Health Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics
Fostering wellness

Factor – Label Method

In the conversion of units, the Factor –Label Method is commonly used to show the
relationships between the given units and the required units. It is also known as dimensional analysis
method because all of the given units are cancelled and the required units are left in the equation. The
general formula in applying the factor –label method is shown below:

Factor – Label Method = given unit x unit factor = required unit

or

Factor – Label Method = given unit x required unit = required unit

given unit

Example:
1.50 km = ______ mm

1.50 km x 1000000 mm = 1.50 x 10 6 mm or it could be,

1 km

1.50 km x 10 hm x 10 dam x 10 m x 10 dm x 10 cm x 10 mm = 1.50 x 10 6 mm

1 km 1 hm 1 dam 1m 1 dm 1 cm

Activity No. 1
On Measurement

Significant Figures
Identify the number of significant figures in the following items below:

1) 12300 = _______ 6) 63.020 = ________ 11) $ 96.00 = _________

2) 50.020 = _______ 7) 0.0250 = ________ 12) 37.0 o C = __________
3) 002300 = _______ 8) 0.009100 = ______ 13) 8.1 x 10 — 3 = ______
4) 9610100 = ______ 9) 98750010 = ______ 14) 3.00 x 10 4 = _______
5) 6.300000 = ______ 10) 60500 = _________ 15) 2 x 10 31 = ________

Scientific Notation
Write the scientific notation of the following numbers in three significant figures:

1) 0.000023056 = ________________ 6) 569321 = _______________

2) 0.000236005 = ________________ 7) 963990 = _______________
3) 0.000000964 = ________________ 8) 6323.10 = _______________
4) 0.00000006912 = ______________ 9) 84063.99 = ______________
5) 0.000000506020 = _____________ 10) 0.989452 = _____________

Prepared by: Denson M. Liday, MA CHEM

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Health Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics
Fostering wellness

SI Units
Convert the following units into the desired SI units by applying the Factor – Label method:
Show all pertinent calculation and round off your final answers in three significant figures.

1) 963 K = __________ o F 2) – 18.0 o C = ____________ K

3) 23655 mg = ______________ hg 4) 36.0 psi = ___________ mmHg

5) 2136.00 cm = __________ km 6) 0.000065236 kg = _________ dag

7) 549.960 mL = ___________ Dl 8) 9688.00 cm3 = ___________ dm3

9) 0.0000m3 = _____________ cm 10) 36.58 g / L = _____________ dag / m3

References:

Atkins, P.W.. Physical Chemistry Fifth Edition. Oxford University Press. Oxford. 1994. p. 1.

Bodner, George & Harry Pardue. Chemistry: An Experimental Science. John Wiley & Sons. New
York. 1995.

Brown, T., LeMay, H. Jr., & Bursten, B. Chemistry: The Central Science Eight Edition.. Prentice
Hall. New Jersey. 2000.

Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. Fifth Edition.. Mc Graw – Hill, Inc.. New York. 1994.

Clugston, Michael & Rosalind Flemming. Advanced Chemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford. 2000.

Hargis, Larry. Analytical Chemistry: Principles and Techniques. Prentice Hall. New Jersey. 1988.

Levine, Ira. Physical Chemistry. Mc Graw – Hill, Inc. New York. 1995.p. 1.

Mortimer, Charles. Chemistry. Sixth Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company. California.1986.

Prepared by: Denson M. Liday, MA CHEM