KTUQBANK.

COM

EE 206 MATERIAL SCIENCE

 KTUQBANK.COM

Insulating materials
• An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric
charges do not flow freely, and therefore make it nearly
impossible to conduct an electric current under the influence
of an electric field.
• The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity;
insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or
conductors.
• In addition, all insulators become electrically
conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied that the
electric field tears electrons away from the atoms. This is
known as the breakdown voltage of an insulator.
• Some materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have
high resistivity, are very good electrical insulators
 KTUQBANK.COM

Important requirements of good

insulating materials
• The requirement of good insulating materials
can be classified as:
• Electrical
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Chemical
 KTUQBANK.COM

Electrical
• Electrically the insulating materials should have
high resistivity to reduce the leakage current

• High dielectric strength to enable it to withstand

higher voltage without being punctured or
broken down

• Insulator should have small dielectric loss (loss

occurs on the insulating material due to current
flow is known as dielectric loss)
 KTUQBANK.COM

Mechanical
• When used for electric machine insulation, the
insulator should have sufficient mechanical
strength to withstand vibration
• Good heat conducting is also desirable in such
cases

• Since the insulators are used on the basis of

volume and not weight, a low density is
preferred
 KTUQBANK.COM

 high mechanical strength

 flexibility
 viscosity (transformer oil – low viscosity)
Hardness
 toughness
Porosity : presence of small holes in the
insulation reduce the dielectric strength, to
avoid this material should immersed in oil
or other chemical solvents like varnish. This
process is known as impregnation.
 low density
 KTUQBANK.COM

Chemical
• Insulators should be resistant to oils, liquids,
gas fumes, acids and alkalis
• It should not deteriorate by the action of
chemicals in soils or by contact with other
metals
• The insulator should not absorb water particles,
since water lowers the insulation resistance and
the dielectric strength
 KTUQBANK.COM

Thermal
• Thermal stability: insulating material must be
stable within the allowable temperature range
• Melting point : melting point of a insulating
material should be higher than that of operating
temperature
• It should be non-ignitable
• Thermal conductivity: Good heat conducting is
also desirable
• Thermal expansion : Insulator should have small
thermal expansion to prevent mechanical
damage/breakdown
 KTUQBANK.COM

Classification of insulators
 Insulating materials can be classified
depending upon the

1) Thermal withstandability
2) physical state
 KTUQBANK.COM

classification of insulators based on temperature

Insulation classes Maximum permissible

temperature (°C)
Y 90
A 105
E 120
B 130
F 155
H 180
C Over 180
 KTUQBANK.COM

Class Limiting
Temperature
in degree Materials (Example)
celsious
Y 90 Cotton, silk, paper, rubber, PVC
A 105 Impregnated paper, polymide
resins
E 120 Enamelled wire insulations, epoxy
resins, powder plastics, poly
urethane
B 130 Inorganic materials (mica fibre
glass, asbestos impregnated with
varnish and other compound)
F 155 Mica, polyester, epoxide varnishes
and other varnishes
H 180 Composite materials on mica, fibre
glass, Asbestos, impregnated with
silicon
C Above 180 Ceramics, Glass, Teflon, quartz
 KTUQBANK.COM

based on physical state

1) Solid Insulating materials
 Organic material:
Eg: - Paper, rubber, cotton, silk, fiber, plastic,
Bakelite
 inorganic Material
Eg: - Mica, Porcelain, Glass, Asbestos

2) Liquid Insulating materials

Eg: Transformer oil
3) Gas insulating Materials
Eg: - Air, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Sulphur hexafluoride (
SF6)
 KTUQBANK.COM

Common insulator materials used in

electrical apparatus
 KTUQBANK.COM

MICA
• Inorganic solid Insulating Material, having
natural cleavage and splittings
• Properties:-
 high mechanical strength
 high electrical resistivity
 high moisture resistance
 not flexible
• Insulating leaves between commutator segments
• Sticking mica splittings on sheets of paper by
means of a drying varnish called as shellac
• Thick mica tape is largely employed for taping
armature and field coils of motors and for taping
the stator coils of H.V. alternators
 KTUQBANK.COM

Mica
 KTUQBANK.COM

Ceramics (porcelain)
 ceramics are clay products
Properties : -
 resistance to heat
 resistance to moisture
 Low thermal expansion
 good electrical properties
 KTUQBANK.COM

Porcelain
• used for low voltage and high voltage insulation
• Produced in 2 ways
• Dry process- low voltage porcelain, which is used for
switch bases, fuses, etc..
• Product is hygroscopic (porous structure) and
porous unless well glazed
• Wet process- non-hygroscopic porcelain which is
used for H.V. transmission line insulators,
conductors, rail support on railways, high voltage
switch parts
• Porcelain insulators- insulating the terminals of
H.V. machines
Application : used in transmission and distribution
lines, transformer bushing, isolator, fuse unit
KTUQBANK.COM
 KTUQBANK.COM

ISOLATOR
 KTUQBANK.COM

Glass
• Properties:
transparent, brittle , hard, high mechanical
strength, high chemical resistance.
• ordinary glass is a good insulator but is too
brittle
• Toughened glass is produced by processing
ordinary glass to desired shape at about 10000C
and then rapidly cooling in a current of
compressed air
• Toughened glass for insulation in extra H.V.
lines( above 100 KV)
• Used for making electrical lamps
 KTUQBANK.COM

Difference between porcelain & Glass

• The electric strength of toughened glass is 3.4

times higher than that of porcelain
• Damage insulators can easily be detected by
visual observation whereas special testing outfit
is required for minor damage in porcelain
insulators
 KTUQBANK.COM

Asbestos
• A fire-resistant mineral that is cheap, durable

• Used in very high temperature surroundings

• Used as a covering for conductors in highly rated

machines
 KTUQBANK.COM

Paper
• Hygroscopic in nature
• Paper usually impregnated with oil or varnish is an
essential insulator in high voltage application
• Like cotton & silk paper will carbonize at 1250C, so
temperature of paper insulated apparatus is limited
to 1000C
• Manufacture of various forms of insulating boards
and tubes
• dielectric in capacitors.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Rubber
• Manufactured from juice of plants.
• 30% of sulphur added to rubber & heated it at
1500C- vulcanization
• By this process, rigid, harder and more stronger
material is obtained.
• does not dissolve in organic solvents.
• High temperature resistant.
• High chemical resistant

• It is Used for cable insulation, & used for making

hand gloves and shoes , switch panels
 KTUQBANK.COM

Wood
• Typical application of wood are for
• Terminal blocks
• Wedges for armature windings
• Operating rods in H.V. switch gear
• L.V. distribution line supports
 KTUQBANK.COM

Cotton
• Hygroscopic, So it must be impregnated with
varnish or wax
• Low dielectric strength
• Cotton covered wire is widely used for winding
of small magnet coils, armature winding of small
and medium sized machines, small transformer
coils
 KTUQBANK.COM

Silk
• More expensive than cotton but takes
less space
• Less hygroscopic and has higher
dielectric strength than cotton, but like
cotton it requires impregnating
• are used for insulating armature
windings and wrapped magnet coil
• Carbonization occurs at 125 degree
celsious, so operating point limited to
100 deg. celsious
 KTUQBANK.COM

Plastics
• Polymers- large group of organic and
organometallic high molecular compounds
• good mechanical strength & it can be moulded
in any shape.
• less shrinkage
• Insolubility in water (highly moisture resistant)

• Used as insulation coating and manufacture of

laminating boards.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Bakelite
• Phenol formaldehyde
• Hard, dark coloured material widely used for
small moulded parts such as lamp holders,
terminal blocks, switch covers, instrument cases
and small panels
 KTUQBANK.COM

Resins - Varnishes
• Insulating varnishes and impregnating resins are almost
always thermosetting resins such as epoxies or
phenolics.
• These materials crosslink when applied and are
therefore inherently strong, environmentally stable,
impervious and durable.
• Aircraft transformers
• AC motor stator coils
• AC and DC armature
• Insulating varnishes and impregnating resins are used to
ensure electrical devices, including motors, generators,
transformers, sensors and other devices that function by
electromagnetic induction, have the necessary electrical
insulation and structural integrity for operation.

• Application : used as impregnating solvent.

• finishing agent (gives aesthetic behaviuor)
 KTUQBANK.COM

• Insulating varnishes and impregnating resins must

be superior electrical insulators with long life. The
products must not degrade with exposure to heat,
cold, water, chemicals or other environmental
factors that might reduce the insulating
characteristics of the products
• Organic varnishes & solventless resins are widely
used in the Insulation system of electrical machines
for impregnation and finishing applications.
Impregnating & finishing agents offer several
advantages, such as:
• Increased mechanical bonding to the winding wire
• Improved dielectric properties
• Improved thermal conductivity
• Protection to the winding against moisture &
chemically corrosive environment
 KTUQBANK.COM

Transformer oil
• it is a liquid insulator
• It is obtained after distilling off the lighter
fractions (gasoline, naphtha and kerosene)in the
process of crude oil distillation
• Transformer windings and cores are immersed
in oil-transformer oil
• Insulator as well as cooling medium
• Transformer oil is also used in switch gears and
circuit breakers
 KTUQBANK.COM

• Properties of transformer oil are:

• Properties of transformer oil are: when specifying
the properties a distinction is made between ‘fresh
oil’ i.e the oil that has just poured into the
transformer and ‘used oil’ i.e, the oil in an operating
transformer

• High Dielectric strength

• Low Viscosity
• High Flash point : Flash point is the minimum
temperature at which a mixture of oil is ignited by a
spark or flame
 KTUQBANK.COM

• If the dielectric strength is low, the oil is of poor

quality containing water and other impurities
• Viscosity of the transformer oil should be low
• Flash point is the temperature at which a mixture of
oil vapour and air is ignited by a spark or flame
which is brought close to it
• The transformer oil should have high flash point in
order to reduce fire hazard
 KTUQBANK.COM

AIR
• Gas insulating material.

• Breakdown voltage 30 kV/cm at 1 atm.

(standard value in SI unit).
• pressure has a considerable influence on
dielectric strength of air.
• dielectric strength of the gas is increases with
pressure.
• Current leakage through air is less.
• can act as additional insulation
 KTUQBANK.COM

Hydrogen
• Hydrogen is a gas insulator.
• very light gas
• Like any other gas, if a high voltage is applied,
electrons separate from the nucleus, creating a
plasma which does conduct. Some experimental
fusion generators use hydrogen plasma.
• temperature withstanding capacity is very high
• can use hydrogen as a coolant in machines
instead of air, which improves the efficiency
• the metal tank casing should be tight to avoid
the entry of air from outside.
• Turbo generator – using hydrogen as a coolant.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6
• Sulfur hexafluoride is an colorless, odorless,
non-flammable, extremely potent greenhouse
gas which is an excellent electrical insulator.
• SF6 has an octahedral geometry, consisting of
six fluorine atoms attached to a central sulfur atom.
• Typical for a non polar gas, it is poorly soluble in
water but soluble in non polar organic solvents. It is
generally transported as a liquefied compressed gas.
It has a density of 6.12 g/L at sea level conditions,
which is considerably higher than the density of
air (1.225 g/L).
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6
• SF6 is used in the electrical industry as
a gaseous dielectric medium for high-
voltage circuit breakers, switchgear, and
other electrical equipment.
• it has a much higher dielectric
strength than air or dry nitrogen.
• SF6 gas under pressure is used as an insulator
in gas insulated switchgear (GIS) because it has
a much higher dielectric strength than air or
dry nitrogen. This property makes it possible to
significantly reduce the size of electrical switch
gear (circuit breaker)
 KTUQBANK.COM

Capacitors
• A basic capacitor has two parallel plates separated by
an insulating material
• A capacitor stores an electrical charge between the
two plates
• The unit of capacitance is Farads (F)
• Capacitance values are normally smaller, such as µF,
nF or pF
 KTUQBANK.COM

Capacitors
• Basic capacitor construction

Dielectric
material
The dielectric material
Plate 2
is an insulator
therefore no current
flows through the
capacitor
Plate 1
 KTUQBANK.COM

Capacitors
Storing a charge between the
plates
• Electrons on the left plate +
_
are attracted toward the + _
positive terminal of the
voltage source
• This leaves an excess of
positively charged holes
• The electrons are pushed
toward the right plate
• Excess electrons leave a + -
negative charge
 KTUQBANK.COM

Capacitors
• Capacitors are divided
into two mechanical
groups:
1) Fixed capacitors with
fixed capacitance values
2) variable capacitors
with variable (trimmer)
or adjustable (tunable)
capacitance values.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Types of capacitors
• Common types of capacitors are:
▫ Mica
▫ Ceramic
▫ Plastic film
The dielectric material determines the type of capacitor
Fixed – mica, ceramic, electrolytic, tantalum and
polyester-film
 KTUQBANK.COM

Mica capacitor
▫ Mica capacitor consists of mica
sheets separated by sheets of metal
foil. The plates are connected to
two electrodes. The entire system
is encased in a plastic insulating
material.
▫ The mica capacitor exhibits
excellent characteristics under
stress of temperature variations and
high voltage applications.
KTUQBANK.COM
 KTUQBANK.COM

Applications for Mica Capacitors

The applications of mica capacitors can be found in a

large range of high frequency applications including the
following
• LC Filter circuit
•Resonant circuits

•High-power RF broadcast transmitters

•Defense Electronic Devices
•High voltage inverter circuits
 KTUQBANK.COM

Electrolytic Capacitors

• Most commonly used in

situations where capacitances
of the order of one to several
thousand microfarads are
required
• Electrolytic capacitors are
polarised
• maximum working voltage is
500 V.
• metal plates are made up of
aluminium foil.
• impregnated paper is used as
dielectric
KTUQBANK.COM
 KTUQBANK.COM

Polyester-film Capacitors

• Basic construction consists of two metal foils

separated by a strip of polyester material such as
Mylar.
• Operating temperature: these capacitors
are often able to operate up to temperatures of
125°C
• they are able to accommodate high dV/dt , ie
can withstand high voltage spikes.
•
KTUQBANK.COM
 KTUQBANK.COM

Polyester capacitor applications

Some typical polyester capacitor applications include:

•Filtering
•Audio applications
• used to remove radio frequency noise
 KTUQBANK.COM

Ceramic Capacitors (disc type

capacitor)
• Ceramic disc is used as dielectric
• Ceramic capacitors are very small in size
• Ceramic capacitors have very low leakage
current and can be used in both dc and ac
networks
• working voltage is in between 16 volts to 15 kV
 KTUQBANK.COM

Application : They are used in converter circuit for

eliminating ripples
 KTUQBANK.COM

Variable Capacitors
• Most common are shown in the figure below.
The dielectric is air. The capacitance is changed
by turning the shaft.
• Variable capacitors are often used in LC
circuits to set the resonance frequency
 KTUQBANK.COM

Electronegative Gases
• Electro negativity is a chemical property that
describes the tendency of an atom to
attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 GAS
• Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is an inorganic, colorless,
odorless, non-flammable, extremely potent greenhouse
gas, which is an excellent electrical insulator.
• SF6 has an octahedral geometry, consisting of
six fluorine atoms attached to a central sulfur atom. It is
a hypervalent molecule.
• Typical for a nonpolar gas, it is poorly soluble in water
but quite soluble in nonpolar organic solvents.
• It is generally transported as a liquefied compressed gas.
It has a density of 6.12 g/L at sea level conditions,
considerably higher than the density of air (1.225 g/L).
 KTUQBANK.COM

Properties of SF6 Gas

• The electric power industry has been using Sulfur
Hexafluoride (SF6) gas as a dielectric and insulating
material for many years. Its popularity is mainly due
to its unique physical and electrical properties
including:
• 1) Dielectric strength twice that of air.
• 2) Nontoxic, nonflammable and noncorrosive.
• 3) Chemically stable with high breakdown strength.
SF6 molecules provide excellent arc extinction
during electrical operations which minimizes
contact wear and maintenance.
• 4) Excellent thermal conductivity. High heat
transfer permits lower operating temperatures.
• 5) Readily available in many commercial locations.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 GAS
Physical properties
• It is about five times heavier than air, and has a density of
6.1 4kg / m3.
• It is colorless, odorless and non-toxic.
• Tests have been carried out replacing the nitrogen content
of air by SF6 (the gaseous mixture consisted of 79 % SF6
and 24 % oxygen): five mice were then immersed in this
atmosphere for 24 hours, without feeling any ill effects.
• It is a gas which the speed of sound propagation is about
three times less than in air, at atmospheric pressure. The
interruption of the arc will therefore be less loud in SF6
than in air.
• The dielectric strength of SF6 in on average 2.5 times that
of air, and, by increasing pressure, it can be seen that the
dielectric strength also increases and than around 3.5 bar
of relative pressure, SF6 has the same strength as fresh oil.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 GAS - Advantages

• For distribution voltage switchgear, SF6 provides

these important advantages:
• 1) Size reduction
• 2) Weight reduction
• 3) Reliable operation
• 4) Ease of installation
• 5) Ease of handling
• 6) Ease and reduction of maintenance
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 GAS - Applications

• Electrical uses include high voltage circuit breakers,
high voltage transformers, distribution voltage
switchgear, gas insulated power substations, gas
insulated transmission lines, radar equipment, linear
particle accelerators and generators.
• Approximately 80% of the annual consumption of SF6
is used for gas insulated substation (GlS) equipment
and medium voltage switchgear including circuit
breakers and load break switches. Of the 80%,
medium voltage switchgear accounts for
approximately 10%.
• In both electrical applications, the equipment is
designed to contain the gas in sealed pressure systems
which are assembled, filled and tested in a controlled
environment.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 GAS - Applications

• SF6 is used in the electrical industry as a gaseous
dielectric medium for high-voltage circuit
breakers, switchgear, and other electrical equipment,
often replacing oil filled circuit breakers (OCBs)
• SF6 gas under pressure is used as an insulator in gas
insulated switchgear (GIS) because it has a much
higher dielectric strength than air or dry nitrogen. This
property makes it possible to significantly reduce the
size of electrical gear & makes GIS more suitable for
certain purposes such as indoor placement.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 GAS - Applications

• Nonelectrical uses include molten magnesium and
aluminum protection and purification, leak detection,
tracer gas studies, propellants, insulating windows,
shock absorbers, lasers and in the electronics industry
as a plasma etchant gas. The other 20% of the annual
consumption of SF6 is used in these applications
which typically require release of the gas into the
atmosphere.
• SF6 is also commonly encountered as a high voltage
dielectric in the high voltage supplies of particle
accelerators, such as Van de Graaff
generators and Pelletrons and high voltage
transmission electron microscopes.
• used as plasma etchant gas, which fabricating
integrated circuits.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 GAS - Applications

• The magnesium industry uses large amounts of SF
6 as inert gas to fill casting forms.
• Pressurizes waveguides in high
power microwave systems. The gas insulates the
waveguide, preventing internal arcing.
• Has been used in electrostatic
loudspeakers because of its high dielectric strength
and high molecular weight.
• Was used to fill Nike Air bags in all of their shoes
from 1992-2006.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 mixtures with nitrogen

• As the size of high voltage equipments increases
the cost of SF6 as an insulating gas becomes
appreciably high.
• Moreover, its ability to absorb and reemit IR
makes it a potent greenhouse gas
• With its high lifetime (more than 2000 years), it
accumulates in the atmosphere and contribute
to the global warming.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 mixtures with nitrogen

• SF6 mixtures are presently applied or
considered for application in two major fields,
primarily to enable switchgear operation at low
ambient temperatures and to save SF6 in large
insulation systems.
• This two has the general consequence that
existing equipment must always be de-rated or
redesigned when pure SF6 is to be replaced by a
mixture.
• SF6-N2 mixtures with 10% of SF6 are likely to
be a good solution mainly due to the synergetic
effect of the nitrogen.
 KTUQBANK.COM

SF6 mixtures with nitrogen

• Using N2/SF6 mixtures, with a small amount of
SF6, the dielectric strength of N2 can be
significantly increased.
• Even now, N2/SF6 mixtures are used in GIL
with up to 95% nitrogen.
• However, N2/SF6 mixtures are subjected to the
heavy influence of conducting particles with
increasing gas pressure, as well as with
decreasing SF6 amount.
• for CB s mixture should contain 69 % Sf6 and 31
% N2.
 KTUQBANK.COM

• Any benefit will be offset by the rather complicated gas

handling that will have to be introduced, risking further
emissions and increasing costs.
• In GIS therefore, the substitution of SF6 by N2/SF6
mixtures would lead to uneconomical technical solutions
and would have no ecological advantage.
• In outdoor circuit-breakers, SF6 is used mainly as an arc
quenching medium but also performs an insulating
function.
• A substitution of SF6 by a N2/SF6 mixture would
introduce a requirement for additional switching units to
obtain the same switching capability as before.
• Normally the number of interrupting units has to be at
least doubled when 50% N2 content is used (this is
necessary for low temperature application only, when
SF6 liquefaction has to be avoided).
 KTUQBANK.COM

Ferro electricity
• Ferro electricity: property of certain non
conducting crystals, or dielectrics, that exhibit
spontaneous electric polarization (separation of the
centre of positive and negative electric charge,
making one side of the crystal positive and the
opposite side negative) that can be reversed in
direction by the application of an
appropriate electric field.
• Ferro electricity is named
by analogy with ferromagnetism, which occurs in
such materials as iron.
• Iron atoms, being tiny magnets, spontaneously align
themselves in clusters called ferromagnetic
domains, which in turn can be oriented
predominantly in a given direction by the
application of an external magnetic field.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Ferro electricity
• Ferroelectric materials—for example, barium titanate
(BaTiO3) and Rochelle salt—are composed of crystals in
which the structural units are tiny electric dipoles; that
is, in each unit the centres of positive charge and of
negative charge are slightly separated.
• In some crystals these electric dipoles spontaneously line
up in clusters called domains, and in ferroelectric
crystals the domains can be oriented predominantly in
one direction by a strong external electric field.
• Reversing the external field reverses the predominant
orientation of the ferroelectric domains, though the
switching to a new direction lags somewhat behind the
change in the external electric field.
• This lag of electric polarization behind the applied
electric field is ferroelectric hysteresis, named by analogy
with ferromagnetic hysteresis.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Ferro electricity
• The direction of the spontaneous polarization
conforms to the crystal symmetry of the
material. While the reorientation of the
spontaneous polarization is a result of atomic
displacements.
• The magnitude of the spontaneous polarization
is greatest at temperatures well below the Curie
temperature and approaches zero as the Curie
temperature is neared.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Ferro electricity
• Ferro electricity ceases in a given material above
a characteristic temperature, called its Curie
temperature, because the heat agitates the
dipoles sufficiently to overcome the forces that
spontaneously align them.
• Curie point, also called Curie Temperature,
temperature at which certain magnetic materials
undergo a sharp change in their magnetic
properties.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Most ordinary crystals would give a

straight line figure
because they obey the familiar
linear relationship,
Q = CV

The Rochelle salt gave a very different figure

a hysteresis loop.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Trace this loop through a cycle

At the extreme right hand corner, high voltage
causes saturation, and we have a linear region.
The low slope represents low incremental
capacitance.
As the field is reduced, the charge remains very
high.
The field continues through zero
and becomes negative.
Suddenly the charge drops abruptly
and becomes very large the other way.
This is because all dipoles reverse direction.
 KTUQBANK.COM

• Further increase in negative voltage merely

causes saturation again.
• Then the voltage reverses, passes through zero
again, and finally, at the coercive field,
• the dipoles reverse again to their original
direction, and then saturate.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Behavior of this type is found only in

ferroelectric crystals.
The charge at zero field is called
remnant charge.
• To this day, display of a saturating-
type hysteresis loop with finite
remnant charge is prime
experimental evidence of
ferroelectricity in a new material.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Curie Temperature
Most ferroelectric crystals lose
their dipole arrangement and
become non-polar (paraelectric) if
they are heated.

The temperature at which they lose

their polar nature and acquire
instead a center of symmetry and
linear capacitance is called the
Curie temperature.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Dielectric constant becomes high

For most ferroelectrics, the dielectric constant
becomes very high at this temperature, as much
as 10,000 to 20,000.
• The dielectric constant is frequently rather high,
too, typically several hundred, at temperatures
in the ferroelectric range.
• There are exceptions to all of these
generalizations.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Ferro electricity
• While there are some 250+ materials that
exhibit ferroelectric properties, some of the
more common/significant materials include:
• Lead titanate, PbTiO3
• Lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
• Lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (PLZT)
 KTUQBANK.COM

Ferroelectric materials
• These are materials in which polarisation is not
a unique function of field strength.
• These materials exhibit hysteresis loop.
 KTUQBANK.COM

• When ferroelectric material is subjected to an

electric field and the field is gradually increased,
the polarisation P increases along OABC.
• When the field is then gradually decreased, it is
found that if E=0, there is polarisation still left.
This polarisation is called remnant polarisation
Pr. In other words, the material is
spontaneously polarised.
• An electric field Ec is required to reduce the
polarisation down to zero. Ec is called coercive
field.
 KTUQBANK.COM

• The existence of dielectric hysteresis loop in

material implies that the substance possess
spontaneous polarisation i.e, polarisation that
persist when applied field is zero.
• Ps- spontaneous polarisation.
 KTUQBANK.COM

Applications for Ferroelectric

Materials
• Capacitors
• Non-volatile memory
• Piezoelectrics for ultrasound imaging and
actuators
• Electro-optic materials for data storage
applications
• Thermistors
• Switches known as transchargers or
transpolarizers
• Oscillators and filters
• Light deflectors, modulators and displays