Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Analog signal
Pulse Position
Modulation
2
Advantages of Digital Over Analog For Communications
Reading: Lathi & Ding; Section 6.2.1 on pages 321 and 322.
Next Topic – Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is used to digitally represent
sampled analog signals. It is the standard form of digital
audio in computers, CDs, digital telephony and other
digital audio applications. The amplitude of the analog
signal is sampled at uniform intervals and each sample is
quantized to its nearest value within a predetermined
range of digital levels.
Four-bit coding
(16 discrete levels)
Analog to Digital Conversion Process (ADC)
Three Step Process
amplitude
amplitude
amplitude
0100101101011001
time time time 1110101010101000
0100011000100011
0101001111010101
1110110111010001
Sample Quantize Encode
Analog Digital
Signal Captured Quantized Signal
Sampled Data Sampled
Sampling Values Quantizing Data Encoding
selects the chooses the assigns binary
data points amplitude numbers to
Discrete time values: few amplitudes
Nowfrom
haveanalog
discrete Values in both time those
& amplitude
we use to values used
Analog signal is continuous in time & amplitude
signal amplitude
create the to encode
values Now have the digital
digital
data which is the final result
data
=
16 levels – 4 bits
Natural Binary Pulse Code (Example)
To communicate sampled
values, we send a sequence of
bits that represents the
quantized value.
For 16 quantization levels, 4 bits
are required.
PCM can use a binary
representation of value.
The PSTN uses PCM
Divide the range (-mp, mp) into L uniformly spaced intervals. The number
intervals is L and the separation between quantized levels is
2mp
L
th
The k sample point of m(t) is designated as m(kTS) and is assigned a value
equal to the midpoint between two adjacent levels. Define:
7
Second Step – Quantization
pp. 322-324II
8
Error Generated by Quantization
8
Second Step – Quantization
III
2mp
The quantized levels are separated
by L
The maximum error for any sample point’s quantized value is at most ½.
It is shown in Lathi and Ding that the “time average” mean square
error from quantization is
q
2
mp2
3L
2
2
12
S0 m2(t)
9
Second Step – Quantization
IV
We want a measure of the quality of received signal (that is, the
ratio of the strength of the received signal S0 relative to the
strength of the error Nq due to quantization).
S m 2 (t) 2
2 m (t)
0 3L
This is given by the ratio m2p m2
p
q
N 3L2
Conclusion:
To keep the quantization error small relative to the message signal level,
use smaller quantization steps .
10
The Dilemma of Strong Signals versus Weak Signals
11
Use Compression and Expansion → Companding
Compression Restoration
(m) m(t)
m(t) m(t)
http://www.slideshare.net/91pratham/unit-ipcmvsh 12
Companding Laws
Output (y/ymax)
Input (m/mp) Input (m/mp)
A m for 0 m m 1
y1 A y 1 loge 1 m m
loge A mp log (1 ) m fo 0m 1
p r
A
Am 1 m e p p
y 1 loge m for 1
1 log A p A m
e p
Lathi & Ding
Section 6.2.3
pp. 325-328
13
Flattening of the S/N Ratio Using the -Law
S
N0 Lathi & Ding
q Figure 6.18
p. 328
(8
bits)
BT = nB Hz
15
Example 6.2 (Lathi & Ding, page 329)
Solution:
The Nyquist rate is RN = 2 x 3000 Hz = 6000 Hz (samples/second), but the
actual
rate is 33⅓ % higher, so that is 6000 Hz + (⅓ x 6000) = 8000 Hz.
16
L 200
For binary coding, L, must be a power of two; therefore, knowing that L =
27 = 128 and 28 = 256, we must choose n = 8 to guarantee better than a
0.5% error.
17
Example 6.2 Continued (Lathi & Ding, page 329)
Solution (continued):
Having chosen n = 8 to guarantee 0.5% error, to find the bandwidth
required we note that
¶
A maximum of 2B independent elements of information per second can
be transmitted, error-free, over a noiseless channel of bandwidth B Hz.
17
Exponential Increase of the Output SNR (S/N ratio)
We start with the SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) equation from slide 10 above:
S m 2 (t) 2
0
3 m2 L
Nq p
m
2
Taking the logarithm gives p
S m (t)
S
10
log 10 3 2 2n log 10 2 6n dB
0 log0 10
10
2
18
Exponential Increase of the Output SNR (S/N ratio)
Nq dB Nq mp
19
SNR Example
L n SNR
19
Bell System’s T1 Carrier System
(1962)
The T-carrier is a member of the group of carrier systems developed by
AT&T Bell Laboratories for digital transmission of multiplexed telephone
calls using Pulse Code Modulation and Time Division Multiplexing.
21
Comparison of T-Carrier (North America) and E-Carrier (Europe)
22
Worked PCM Example
slide 19) Now we can find the SNR (signal-to-quantized noise ratio)
(See side 18)
av
24
Worked Example for PCM (continued)
3, 981 2m 4
4 0.001005 and 0.0317 volt
p 2 ; 2 3981
2
25
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
PCM is not really efficient because it generates so many bits taking up a lot
of bandwidth. Can we improve on this? YES.
25
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (continued)
At the receiver knowing d[k] and the previous value of m[k-1] allows
us to construct the value of m[k].
Suppose m[k] is the estimate of the kth sample, then the difference d[k]
is given by
d[k] = m[k] – m[k]
28
Digression on Signal Prediction
So we get an approximation of the (k+1)th sample, m[k+1], from the two
prior samples.
29
Signal Prediction (continued)
But we can do better than this. In general,
Note that the input consists of the weighted previous samples m[k-1],
m[k-2],etc. We say that input m[k] gives output m[k].
29
Linear Predictor Implemented With Transversal Filter
Input
m[k] Delay Delay Delay Delay Delay
TS TS TS TS ... TS
Output m[k]
30
DPCM Transmitter
Input Outpu
m[k] d[k] t dq[k]
Quantizer
+
+
Lathi & Ding
Figure 6.28(a) mq[k]
p. 344 +
mq[k]
Predictor
The predictor output m[k] is fed back to the input so the predictor input
mq[k] is given by
mq [k] mq [k] dq [k] m[k] d[k] dq[k] m[k] q[k]
31
DPCM Transmitter
This shows that mq[k] is the quantized version of m[k].
32
DPCM Receiver
Input Outpu
dq[k] t
+ mq[k]
Lathi & Ding
Figure 6.28(a) +
p. 344 mq[k]
Predictor
The receiver’s output (which is the predictor’s input) is also the same,
mq[k] = m[k] + q[k].
Hence, we are able to receive the desired signal m[k] plus the
quantization noise, q[k]. It is important to note that from the difference
signal d[k] is much smaller that the noise associated with m[k].
32
DPCM SNR Improvement
2
The quantization noise is proportional to () – the quantization noise
power is reduced by a factor (d ) and the SNR is therefore increased by
2
/m
(m / )2. p p
d
p p
33
Adaptive Differential PCM
time
35
Next Topic is Delta Modulation
36