CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTIONS

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 Introduction

Here is Short-circuit Protection to derive the additional power supply from the main
circuit. The main circuit is protected from any damage due to short-circuit in additional
power supply circuit by cutting off the derived supply voltage.

The derived supply voltage restores automatically when shorting is removed. An LED
is used to indicate whether short-circuit exists or not.

In the main power supply circuit, 230V AC stepped down by transformer X1 (230 AC
primary to 0-9V, 300mA secondary), rectified by a full wave rectifier comprising didoes
D1 through D4, filter by capacitor C1 and regulated by IC LM 7805 to give regulated
5V(O/P1).

Transistor SK100 and BC547 are used to derive the secondary output of around
5V(O/P2) from the main 5V(O/P1) supply.

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 CHAPTER-2

BLOCK DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION

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2.1:-Block diagram

Figure:1 (Block Diagram)

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 2.2:-Block Diagram Description

This circuit, like all voltage regulators must follow the same general block diagram.
Here, we have got an input high voltage AC going into a transformer which usually step
down high voltage AC from main to low voltage AC required for our application. The
following bridge rectifier and a smoothing capacitor to convert AC voltage into
unregulated DC voltage but this voltage will change according to varying load and input
stability this unregulated DC voltage is fad into a voltage regulator which will keep a
constant output voltage and suppresses unregulated voltage ripples. Now this voltage
can be fed into our load.

Now all we need to know is the value of Vr which can be selected according to our
need. It is absolutely necessary for the to be followed by a voltage regulated IC. The
most important part of this circuit is the 7805 variable voltage regulator. The IC 7805 is
a monolithic integrated circuit with adjustable 3 terminal positive-voltage regulator
designed to supply more than 1.5 A of load current with an output voltage adjustable
over a 1.2 V 37 V range. It also comes with internal current limiting, thermal shutdown,
and safe area compensation.

For more details you may refer it ‘s data sheet here. As u can see it has three pins,

 INPUT:- This is where we give the unregulated input.

 OUTPUT:- This is where we give the regulated output.
 ADJUST:- The variable resistor connect to this pin, controls the output
voltage.

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 CHAPTER-3

CIRICUIT DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION

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3.1:-CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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 3.2:-CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

In the main power sup- ply circuit, 230V AC is stepped down by a

trans former X1 (230V AC primary to 0-9V, 300mA secondary), rectified by
a full - wave rectifier comprising di- odes D1 through D4, filtered by
capacitor C1 and regulated by IC 7805 to give regulated 5V (O/P1).

Transistors SK100 and BC547 are used to derive the secondary out-
put of around 5V (O/P2) from the main 5V supply (O/P1). Working of the
circuit is simple. When the 5V DC output from regulator IC 7805 is
available, transistor BC547 conducts through resistors R1 and R3 and LED1.
As a result, transistor SK100 conducts and short-circuit protected 5V DC
output appears across O/P2 terminals. The green LED (LED2) glows to
indicate the same, while the red LED (LED1) remains off due to the
presence of the same voltage at both of its ends.

When O/P2 terminals short, BC547 cuts off due to grounding of its
base. As a result, SK100 is also cut-off. Thus during short-circuit, the green
LED (LED2) turns off and the red LED (LED1) glows. Capacitors C2 and
C3 across the main 5V output (O/P1) absorb the voltage fluctuations
occurring due to short-circuit in O/P2, ensuring disturbance-free O/P1. The
design of the circuit is based on the relationship given below:

RB = (HFE × VS) / (1.3 X IL)

where,

RB = Base resistances of transistors of SK100 and BC547

HFE = 200 for SK100 and 350 for BC547

Switching Voltage VS = 5V

1.3 = Safety factor

IL = Collector-emitter current of transistors

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 Assemble the circuit on a general-purpose PCB and enclose in a
suitable cabinet. Connect O/P1 and O/P2 terminals on the front panel of the
cabinet. Also connect the mains power cord to feed 230V AC to the
transformer. Connect LED1 and LED2 for visual indication.

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 CHAPTER-4
WORKING MODEL

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Page
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CHAPTER-5
WORKING

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 WORKING

Working of the circuit is simple. When the 5V DC output from regulator IC LM7805
is available, transistor conducts through resister and LED. As a result, transistor conducts
and short-circuit protected 5V DC output appears across terminals.

The green LED glow to indicate the same, while the red LED remains off due to the
presence of the same voltage at both of its ends.

When terminals short, cuts off due to grounding of its base. Thus during short-
circuit, the green LED turns off and the red LED glow.

Capacitors across the main 5V output absorb the voltage fluctuations occurring
due to short-circuit in, ensuring disturbance-free.

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 CHAPTER-6

DESIGN AND APPLICATION OF

COMPONENTS

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4.1:-RESISTOR
Example:-

Figure:-2.1

Symbol:-

Figure:-2.2

Function:-
Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in
series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current through the LED.

Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat
when soldering.

Resistor values – the resistor color code

Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omegaΩ.

1Ω is quite small so resistor values are often given in kΩ and MΩ

Resistor value are normally shown using colored bands.

Each color represents a number as shown in the table.

Most resistor have 4 bands;

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  The first band gives the first digit.
 The second band gives the seconds digit.
 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
 the forth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may
be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given bellow.
This resistor has red(2), violet(7), yellow(4 zero) and gold bands.

So[ its value is 270000Ω=270kΩ.

On circuit diagrams the Ω is usually omitted and the value is written 270k.

A special color code is used for the forth band tolerance silver ±10%, gold ±5%,
red ±2%, brown±1%

If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.

Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuit because precise resistor values
are rarely required.

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 4.2:-DIODE
Example:-

Figure3.1

Symbol:-

Figure3.2

Function:-
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the
circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the
electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

Forward voltage drop

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person
pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a
conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal
diodes witch are med from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost
constant whatever the current passing through the diodes so they have a very steep
characteristic (current-voltage graph).

Reverse voltage drop

When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct. But all real diodes a
very tiny current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will
be very much smaller then the current following in the forward direction however, all

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diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the
diode will fail and pass a large current in the revers direction, this is called break down.

Ordinary diodes can be split in to two types: signal diodes which pass small currents of
100mA or less and rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are
LEDs and Zener diodes.

Testing of diodes:-
You can use a multi-meter or a simple tester(batter, resistor and LED) to check
that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test a
rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large current
passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!

Signal diodes (Small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuit, so
they are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA.

General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and
have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V.

Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V
and this makes them suitable to use in radio circuit as detector which extract the audio
signal from the weak radio signal.

For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important,
silicon diodes are better because they are less easily damages by heat when soldering,
they have a lower resistance when conducting, and they have very low leakage currents
when a revers voltage is applied.

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 Zener diodes:-

Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to
‘breakdown’ in a reliable and non-destructive way so that they can be used in revers to
maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals. The diagram shows how they are
connected with a resistor in series to limit the current.

Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code and
breakdown voltage which are printed on them. Zener diodes codes begin BZX… or
BZY…Their breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a decimal point, so 4V7
means 4.7V for example.

Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power.

The minimum voltage available is 2,4V

Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common

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Protection diode for relays:-

Signal diodes are also used with relays to protect transistors and integrated
circuits from the brief high voltage produced when the relay coil is switched off.

Figure shows an example of how a protection diode is connected across the relay
coil - note that the diode is connected 'backwards' so that it will normally not
conduct. Conduction only occurs when the relay coil is switched off, since at this
moment current tries to continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly diverted
through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a
damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing.

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4.3:-CAPACITORS
Example:-

Figure:-4.1

Symbol:-

Figure:-4.2

Function:-
Capacitor store electric charge. They are used with resistor in timing circuit
because it takes for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC
supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They (constant) signal.

Capacitance:-
This is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store charge. A large capacitance
means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F.
However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n and p .

µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF=1F

n means 10-9 (thousand millionth),so 1000nF=1µF

p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000Pf=1nF

capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor
with different labeling system!

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There are many types of capacitor but they can be split in to two groups, polarized and
un-polarize. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

Polarized capacitor (large value,1µF+)

Capacitor color code :-

The Capacitor Color Code system was used for many years on unpolarised
polyester and mica molded capacitors. This system of color coding is now obsolete but
there are still many “old” capacitors around. Nowadays, Small Capacitors such as film or
disk types conform to the BS1852 Standard and its new replacement, BS EN 60062, were
the colors have been replaced by a letter or number coded system.

Generally the code consists of 2 or 3 numbers and an optional tolerance letter

code to identify the tolerance. Where a two number code is used the value of the
capacitor only is given in picofarads, for example, 47 = 47 pF and 100 = 100pF etc. A
three letter code consists of the two value digits and a multiplier much like the resistor
color codes in the resistors section.

For example, the digits 471 = 47*10 = 470pF. Three digit codes are often
accompanied by an additional tolerance letter code as given below.

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Capacitor number code:-

A number code is often used on a small capacitor where printing difficult:

The 1st number is the 1st digit

The 2nd number is the 2nd digit

The 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pf.

Ignore any latters – they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.

For example: 102 means 1000pF=1nF (not 102pF).

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4.4:-TRANSISTORS
Example:-

Figure:-5.1

Symbol:-

Figure:-5.2

Function:-
Transistor amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small
output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current
device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing
voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.

A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or

fully off with no current) and an amplifier (always partly on).

The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.

For further information please see the transistor circuit page.

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Small switching transistor:-
Small Switching Transistors are transistors that are used primarily as switches but
which can also be used as amplifiers. Typical hFE values for small switching transistors
range from 10 to 200, with maximum IC ratings from about 10 to 1000mA. They come in
NPN and PNP forms.

In terms of for design, small switching transistors are used primarily as switches.
Though they may be used as an amplifier, their hFE value only ranges to about 200, which
means they are not capable of the amplification of small signal transistors, which can
have amplification of up to 500. This makes small switching transistors more useful for
switching, though they may be used as basic amplifiers to provide gain. When you need
more gain, small signal transistors would work better as amplifiers.

Transistor SK100:-
SK100 is a general purpose, medium power PNP transistor. The basic
applications of a transistor are switching, amplification and regulation. Its DC current
gain ranges from 100 to a maximum of 300.

The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired

region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification
applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The
input signal at base is amplified and taken at the emitter. BC548 is used in common
emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing
mode. For switching applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is
a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.

The emitter leg of SK100 is indicated by a protruding edge in the transistor case.
The base is nearest to the emitter while collector lies at other extreme of the casing.

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Transistor BC547:-
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of
resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a
larger current at collector & emitter terminals.

BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a

maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.

The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired

region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification
applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The
input signal at base is amplified and taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common
emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing
mode. For switching applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is
a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.

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Testing of transistor:-
An ohmmeter can be used to test a transistor for leakage (an undesirable flow of current) by
measuring the base-emitter, base-collector, and collector- emitter forward and reverse
resistances. For simplicity, consider the transistor under test in each view of figure 2-19 (view A,
view B and view C) as two diodes connected back to back. Therefore, each diode will have a low
forward resistance and a high reverse resistance. By measuring these resistances with an
ohmmeter as shown in the figure, you can determine if the transistor is leaking current through
its junctions. When making these measurements, avoid using the R1 scale on the meter or a
meter with a high internal battery voltage. Either of these conditions can damage a low-power
transistor

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4.5:-TRANSFORMER
Example:-

Figure:6.1

Symbol:-

Figure:-6.2

Function:-
A transformer is a device that transfer electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductor-the transformer’s coils. A varying current
in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer’s core ,
and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic
field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or “voltage” in the secondary winding.
This effect is called mutual induction.

Principle:-
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a
magnetic field.

Secondly, the changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

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Types of transformer:-

Step down transformer:-

What is a step down transformer: is one whose secondary voltage is less than its
primary voltage. It is designed to reduce the voltage from the primary winding to the
secondary winding. This kind of transformer “steps down” the voltage applied to it.

As a step-down unit, the transformer converts high-voltage, low-current power

into low-voltage, high-current power. The larger-gauge wire used in the secondary
winding is necessary due to the increase in current. The primary winding, which doesn’t
have to conduct as much current, may be made of smaller-gauge wire.

Step up transformer:-

On a step-up transformer there are more turns on the secondary coil than the
primary coil. The induced voltage across the secondary coil is greater than the applied
voltage across the primary coil or in other words the voltage has been “stepped-up”.

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4.6:-LED
Example:-

Figure:-7.1

Symbol:-

Figure:-7.2

Function:-
LEDs emit lite when an electric current passes through them.

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelleda or+
for anode and k or – for cathode (yes , it really is k, not c, for cathode!). the cathode is the
short lead and their me be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside
the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification
method).

LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are
very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.

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Testing an LED

Please following the simply steps below to make your own LED tester to check the LED
bulb polarities and also check whether a LED bulb is defective or not.

 Step 1. First of all, you will need a 9Volt battery and two 5 inches long wires and
black tape. (Please only use this 9V battery, never use any battery exceeds 12V
which would potentially damage the LED and also do not use battery under 9V
which is not big enough to light up the LED)

 Step 2. Strip some plastic sheathing off of both ends of the wires and hook the
wires to the battery's positive and negative. (Make sure to hook the Red wire to
the battery positive terminal and the black wire to the battery negative terminal)

 Step 3. Use black tape to cover the +/- terminals up.

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 Step 4. Now you have made your own LED tester. You can tap the Red and Black
wires to the LED bulb to check which side of the LED bulb is positive (polarity)
and also to see whether a LED bulb is defective ( Note: if a LED bulb does not
light up at the first time, please flip the two wires around and try again)

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4.7:-IC LM7805
Example:-

Figure:-8.1

Circuit symbol:-

Figure:-8.2

Function:-
In most of our electronic products or projects we need a power supply for
converting mains AC voltage to a regulated DC voltage. For making a power supply
designing of each and every component.

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of

fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations
and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the
output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is
designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable
values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage
levels.

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Pin function:-
INPUT:- In this pin of the IC positive unregulated voltage is given in regulation.

GROUND:-In this pin where the ground is given, This pin is neutral for equally the input
and output.

OUTPUT:-The output of the regulated 5V volt is taken out at this pin of the IC regulator.
is essential. Hear I’m going to discuss the designing of regulated 5 V power supply.

Pin Description:

Pin Function Name

No
1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input
2 Ground (0V) Ground
3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output

Connection of IC LM7805:-

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 CHAPTER:-7
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
AND
VOLTAGE REGULATER

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5.1:-Full wave bridge rectifier
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave
rectifier circuit above, is that of the full wave bridge rectifier. This type of single phase
rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge”
configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of the bridge circuit is
that it does not required special center tapped transformer, there by reducing its size and
cost the single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network
and the load to the other side as shown below.

Diode bridge rectifier:-

Figure:-9 (Bridge Rectifier)

The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diode conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the
supply, diodes D1 and D2 conducts in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased
and the current flows through the load as shown below.

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5.1.1:-Wave form of bridge rectifier
During both half cycle, current flows through the load resistor in the same
direction. The voltage across the load resistor is always positive. The input and output
voltage waveforms of a full-wave rectifier are shown in figure 5a and figure 5b
respectively. The full-wave rectifier utilizes both half cycles of the input, which makes it
the most popular rectifier configuration.

Figure:-10.1(Input AC voltage wave form)

Figure:-10.2(Output DC voltage wave form)

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 Figure:-10.3(Output voltage wave form of full wave

rectifier with filter capacitor added)

If a capacitor is added in parallel with the load resistor of a rectifier to form a

simple filter circuit, the output of the rectifier will be transformed into a more stable DC
voltage, figure 6. At the first, the capacitor is changed to the peak value of the rectifier
waveform. Beyond the peak, the capacitor is discharge through the load resistor until the
time at which the rectified voltage exceed the capacitor voltage. Then the capacitor is
charge again and the process repeats itself.

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5.2:-Voltage regulator:-
I am built dc regular circuit is the first project, Because at the interesting about
digital circuits, need a constant 5V 1A fixed power supply using IC-7805 is very suitable
for this job. Because it is easy to use, easy to buy, as popular applications, and it is also
cheap.

Voltage regulated circuit

Figure:-11(Voltage regulated circuit)

For working principle, I would permitted to tell simply when the home electric
source ACV, 110 or 230V or 220V depending on your country, through the transformer ,
the voltage remains 9VAC. Then through the diode for a rectifier power supply to the DC
volt, and the filter circuit with capacitor. This is a voltage is about 12V DC. It does not
work through IC-7805, before our hero, for to control as stable 5V with can prevent also
short circuit. Just now I have a small circuit great ready to use it.

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5.3:-ADVANTAGES
 Use in DC low voltage.
 Save equipment’s from Damage.
 Easy to use.
 Very low cost.
 Simple design.
 Construction is easy.

5.4:-DISADVANTAGES

 Delectated circuit
 Cannot use High voltage

5.5:-CONCLUSION:-
In this semester we have learn how make P.P.T & report and also get
information about component uses in project.

We will prepare working model of short circuit protection in DC low

voltage system in 6th semester .

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CHAPTER-8

REFERENCE

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 REFERENCE:-

Website:-
http://www.eleccircuit.com

http://www.wikipedia.org

http://www.efymag.com

Books:-

Electronics component and circuit

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