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Raza NOTES: M-14 (12A: Powerplant) Page 1 of 5

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Air Entrance
1. The compressor pressure ratio is the outlet pressure divided by the inlet pressure.
2. Air passing through the engine is dependent upon 3 factors: (i) RPM, (ii) Fwd speed of the a/c
(iii) Density of the ambient (surrounding) air.
3. Turbofan’s inlet is bolted to the front (A flange) of the engine.
4. Inlet guide vanes straighten the air flow, they also have anti-icing air flowing through them.
5. Turboprops & turboshafts use an inlet screen to filter out ice or debris from entering the engine.
A deflector vane & a heated inlet lip r used to prevent ice/large chunks from entering the engine.
6. Airflow thru the engine must always stay below Mach 1, supersonic air flow would destroy it.

Accessory Section
7. Primary fn of accessory sectn is to provide space for op. & control accessories e.g. electric
generators & hydraulic pumps. Secondary is to fn as oil reservoir and/or oil sump & housing the
accessory drive gears & reduction gears. Accessory gear box is on the bottom of the engine.
8. Most turboprops & turboshafts hv accessory cases mounted to the back section of the engine.
9. Basic elements of the accessory section are: (i) The accessory case (has machined mounting pads
for the engine-driven accessories), (ii) The gear train (housed within the accessory case).
10. Gear train is driven by the engine HP compressor thru an accessory drive shaft (tower shaft) gear
coupling, which splines with a gear box gear and the HP compressor. Accessory drives r
supported by ball bearings.

Compressor Section
11. Compressor’s primary fn is to supply air in sufficient qty & P for combustion. Secondary fn is to
supply bleed air. Air is often bled from the final or highest P stage, at this pt., P & air T are max.
To cool this high-pressure air it is sent thru an air conditioning unit. Bleed air used in cabin,
deicing & anti-icing, pneumatic starting of engine, auxiliary drive unit (ADU).
12. Compressor types: (i) Centrifugal-flow compressor accelerates air outwardly by centrifugal
action. (ii) Axial-flow compressor compresses air in original direction, avoiding energy loss
caused by turns. A stage in a compressor is considered to be a rise in pressure.
13. Centrifugal-flow compressor: consists of an impeller (rotor), a diffuser (stator), & a compressor
manifold. Hv a high P rise per stage, around 8:1. Generally limited to 2 stages due to efficiency
concerns. The 2 main fn elements are the impeller & the diffuser. The diffuser (a separate unit
bolted inside the manifold), the entire assembly (diffuser and manifold) is often referred to as the
diffuser. The impeller, made of forged aluminum alloy, heat treated, machined, & smoothed.
14. It’s fn is to pick up & accelerate the air outwardly to the diffuser. 2 types—single entry or double
entry impeller, diff. b/w the two r size and ducting arrangement. Single large in dia. Plenum
chamber is included for ducting in double-entry compressor engines bcz the air must enter the
engine at 90* to the axis. Auxiliary air-intake doors (blow-in doors) admit air to the engine
compartment during ground operation (when air is req. in excess) & held closed by spring action
open automatically whenever engine compartment P drops below atmospheric P.
15. Diffuser is an annular chamber with a no. of vanes forming a series of divergent passages into
the manifold. It directs the flow of air from the impeller to the manifold at an angle for maxm
energy by the impeller at a v & P for combustion.
16. Compressor manifold diverts the flow of air from the diffuser into the combustn chambers. It has
1 outlet port for each chamber. An outlet elbow/duct/combustn chamber inlet duct, bolted to each
of the outlet ports of manifold, changes the radial airflow to an axial directn. The diffusion process
is completed after the turn. Turning vanes (cascade vanes) r sometimes fitted inside the elbows
to reduce air P losses by presenting a smooth, turning surface.
17. Axial-flow compressor: 2 main elements, a rotor and a stator. The rotor has blades fixed on a
spindle to impel air rearward like propeller. Thru a series of stages along axial path, the air is
compressed at a ratio of approx. 1.25:1 per stage. The stator blades act as diffusers at each stage.
A pair of rotor and stator blades is a P stage, mostly up to 16 stages & more. Stator has rows of
vanes, stationary, project radially, fit closely in compressor case which is divided into 2 halves,
upper & lower. Fn of the stator vanes is to increase the P of the incoming air and deliver it to the
next stage at correct v & P, also the direction of air for maxm efficiency.
18. The first stage rotor blades preceded by an inlet guide vane assembly, fixed or variable, to direct
the airflow at the proper angle & with a swirling motion in the dirn of rotatn to reduce drag. IGV
r curved steel vanes usually welded to steel inner and outer shrouds.

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19. At the discharge end, the stator vanes (straightening or the outlet vane) straighten the airflow to
eliminate turbulence. The casings support stator vanes, provide wall to axial flow of air & a
means for extracting compressor air. The vanes r made of steel, corrosion & erosion R.
20. The rotor blades are made of SS with the latter stages being made of Ti. Rotors fitted into disks
by either bulb-type or fir-tree methods. Blade tips r reduced in thickness by cutouts, referred to
as blade profiles to prevent damage to the blade or housing & vary in length from entry to
discharge.
21. Rotors hv either drum type or disk type contructn. Drum type hv rings flanged combined &
entirely held by bolts. These form low v compressor for less centrifugal stresses. Disk types r a
series of Al disks shrunk over a steel shaft with rotors dovetailed into disk rims or machine the
shaft & steel from a single forging & bolt steel stub shaft in front/rear for bearings & splines.
22. The combinatn of the compressor stages & turbine stages on a common shaft in an engine referred
to as an engine spool which is supported by bearings seated in bearing housing. 2 config. of axial
compressor the single rotor/spool & the dual rotor/spool (solid & split spool). Solid-spool (one
spool) compressor hv variable IGV (VIGV) & few rows of stator vanes. VIGV r in front of the
rotor blades & VSV r behind the rotor blades. A fuel nozzle extends into each combustn liner. In
split spool compressor type engine, a low-P spool (hv large fan, a few stages of compression) &
a high-P spool (gas generator & core of the engine, supplies air to the combustion section).
23. Centrifugal compressor’s advantage- Axial compressor’s advantage
• High P rise per stage, • High peak efficiencies;
• Efficiency over wide rotational speed range, • Small frontal area for given airflow;
• Simplicity of manufacture and low cost, • St. flow, allowing high ram efficiency;
• Low wt, and • Increased P rise by increasing no. of
• Low starting power requirements. stages with negligible losses.
Centrifugal compressor’s disadvantage Axial compressor’s disadvantage
• Its large frontal area for a given airflow and • Good efficiencies over only narrow
• Losses in turns between stages. rotational speed range,
• Difficult to manufacture & high cost,
• Relatively high wt., &
• High starting pwr req. (partially
overcome by split compressors).
Diffuser
24. Diffuser is a divergent sectn of the engine after the compressor & before the combustion sectn. It
reduces high-v compressor air to increased P at a slower v for the flame of combust n to burn
continuously. C-D-C.
Combustion Section
25. The combustion process releases energy majorly used to drive compressor by the turbine, abt
2/3rd to drive the gas generator & remaining for other turbine stages to drive propeller/fan/shaft.
Pure turbojet hv all thrust from exiting air (high v jet) while otr engine hv most thrust by tubine
stage driving the fan/propeller/shaft/rotor blade.
26. The location of the combustn sectn is b/w the compressor & the turbine arranged coaxially.
27. Basic elements of compressor r (i) casing, (ii) inner liner, (iii)fuel injectn system, (iv) initial ignitn,
(v) fuel drainage system. & 3 types of compressor (i) Can, (ii) Can-annular, (iii) Annular.
28. Can-type is used on turboshaft & APUs. It consists of an outer case/housing, which is a perforated
SS (highly heat resistant) & combustion chamber liner or inner liner. Interconnector (flame
propagatn) tube connects several cans; each can is a separate burner. But the spark igniter plugs
in 2 lower chambers start flames which passes thru this tube to adjacent chambers till all burn.
Drainage prevents gum deposits in the fuel manifold, nozzles, & combustion chambers caused
by the residue left when the fuel evaporates & danger of afterfire exists that, at the next starting
attempt, the excess fuel will ignite & exhaust gas T will exceed safe operating limits.
29. Liners in combustors hv perforatns. The air entering combustn chambers r primary & secondary.
Primary is combustn air directed inside at the front end to mix with the fuel & burn. Secondary is
cooling air passes b/w the outer casing & the liner & joins primary thru large holes at rear for
cooling it from 3500*F to 1500*F. Louvers r provided along the axial length of liner to direct
cooling air layer which controls flame pattern at centre & prevent liner walls from burning.

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30. In annular type combustn chamber, the spark igniter plugs r same as can type i.e. 2 igniters but
must long enough to protrude into combustn chamber. Burners interconnected by tubes. Each
chamber hv 6 apertures in fwd face thus 6 nozzles too of duplex type which req. flow divider (P
valve). Flow is preswirl for high flame speed & low air v, turbulence in combustn is desirable.
31. Can-annular combustn chambers hv fuel drain valves in 2 or more bottom chambers. Sp. baffling
is used to swirl the combustn airflow for turbulence. Basic components r (i) housings, (ii)liner.
Mostly used type. It also uses louvers & holes to prevent the flame from contacting the side of
the combustion chamber.
Turbine Section
32. The turbine transforms a portion of the KE (velocity) of the exhaust gases into mech. energy to
drive the gas generator compressor and accessories. It to absorb app. 60 to 70 % of the total P
energy from the exhaust gases. Other turbine stages r used to drive a low-P compressor (fan),
propeller, and shaft. It is located aft, or downstream, or behind of the combustn chamber outlet.
33. 2 basic elements: turbine IGV & turbine blades. The stator element (inlet nozzle vanes/inlet guide
vanes/nozzle diaphragm), located directly aft of the combustn chambers & immediately fwd of
the turbine wheel, hv the highest or hottest T in the engine. The turbine inlet T is controlled cz it
can damage the inlet vanes. These nozzles/vanes prepare mass airflow to drive turbine rotor by
converting the heat & P energy of air to velocity energy, also, it deflects gas to a specific angle
in general directn of turnine rotatn. It’s assembly contains an inner shroud & an outer shroud on
the either sides of vanes contructed to allow thermal expansion, to avoid distort n or warping of
metal by 2 methods, (i) Loosing the assembly, vanes fit into slots in shroud, (ii) Saw cuts into
any shroud, vanes fit into shrouds by welding/riveting.
34. Rotor element consist of shaft & a wheel (a dynamically balanced unit having blades attached to
a rotating disk). Disk attached to the main pwr-transmitting shaft. Assembly rotates on very high
v thus centrifugal load acts on the wheel. Disc + Blade = Wheel is bolted or welded to the shaft.
Blades transmit to shaft the energy they extract from the gases. The disk rim T r high & well
above the T of the remote inner portion of the disk causing thermal stresses. To relieve the
stresses, (i) bleed cooling onto the face of disk is done or (ii) a series of grooves or notches r
broached in the rim of the disk to provide space for thermal expansion. Shaft is of alloy steel
capable of absorbing high torque loads. A spline cut on the fwd of the shaft fits into a coupling
device b/w the compressor and turbine shafts or the splined end of the turbine shaft may fit into
a splined recess in the compressor rotor hub in centrifugal compressor engines. Turbine blades r
attached by fir-tree design where blades r retained by peening/welding/lock tabs/riveting. Heat
barrier coating e.g. ceramic coating & air flow cooling keep turbine blades & inlet nozle cooler.
35. Additional turbine stages r added enough pwr to drive components; a turbine stage is a row of
stationary vanes followed by a row of rotating blades. For turboprop, as many as 5 stages. There
is always a turbine nozzle preceding each wheel. Single-stage rotor turbine, all engine-driven
parts r driven by single wheel, is used in low weight and compact engine e.g. pure turbojet. In
multiple spool engines, each spool has its own set of turbine stages to turn the compressor. In
low P spool fan shaft a few stages of compressor & the turbine to drive it, high P spool hv a high
P compressor shaft & a high P turbine.
36. Turbine casing – turbine wheel, nozzle vane assembly, stator elements, also, hv flanges at front
& rear for bolting to combustn & exhaust respectively.
Exhaust Section
37. Exhaust sectn is located behind the turbine sectn & ends with high v exhaust gases ejectn.
38. It’s components: (i) Exhaust cone, (ii) Tailpipe (if req.), & (iii) Exhaust nozzle.
39. The exhaust cone decreases the v & increase the P of solid flow converted exhaust gases from
the turbine at diverging annular passage b/w the outer duct & the inner cone increasin rearward.
40. The exhaust cone assembly: (i) Outer shell or duct, (ii) Inner cone, (iii) 3-4 radial hollow struts
/fins, (iv) Necessary tie rods to aid the struts in supporting the inner cone from the outer duct.
This assembly is terminating comp. of engine & exhaust nozzle is an airframe comp.
41. Duct (of SS & include thermocouple & insertn holes) delivers exhaust gases to exhaust nozzles.
If not tie rods then radial hollow struts support inner cone. Struts also straighten the swirling
exhaust gases that were at approx. 45*. Inner cone fits against the rear face of turbine disk.
Tailpipe is semiflexible in which bellows arrangement is incorporated. 2 Methods to protect the
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fuselage str from heat (i) insulation blankets (hv layer of Al foil separated by fiberglass, used to
reduce heat loss from exhaust system) & (ii) shrouds.
42. 2 exhaust nozzle types; (i) converging for subsonic & (ii) converging-diverging for supersonic.
These may be fixed/variable area. Fixed is simpler. Variable is used when augmenters or
afterburner is used.
Gas Turbine Engine Bearing & Seals
43. Bearings support the main engine rotor. No. of bearing depend on L & wt. of engine rotor. Minm
no. of bearing req. to support a shaft is 1 deep groove ball bearing (thrust & radial) & 1 st. roller
bearing (radial load only). Antifrictn & hydraulic r preferred. Ball bearings r used on the compr-
essor or turbine shaft. Roller bearing need a large working space.
44. Bearing housing contain oil seals to prevent leakage while lubricat n is done thru spray nozzles.
Oil seals r of labyrinth or thread (helical) type. Labyrinth is pressurized while helical hv reverse
threading. Another, carbon seal r spring loaded. It create a sealed bearing cavity//void.
45. Ball or roller bearing hv self-aligning feature, seated in spherical ring to allow shaft a certain amt
of radial movement. Bearing is locked in positn by a steel snap ring. Machined sfc r lands.
Turboprop Engines
46. Turboprop is combinatn of a GTE, reduction gear box, & a propeller. It has a compressor,
combustion chamber(s), turbine, & an exhaust nozzle (gas generator), all of which operate in the
same manner as any other gas engine. But, its turbine needs extra stages to extract energy from
exhaust gases to drive the propeller.
47. There r multirotor turbine with coaxial shafts for driving of compressor & propeller with as many
as five turbine stages used for driving the two rotor elements, propeller, & accessories.
48. 2 basic types of turboprop engine r: fixed turbine and free turbine. The fixed turbine has a mech.
connection from the gas generator to the reduction gear box & propeller. The free turbine has
only an air link from gas generator to the power turbines, no mechanical link.
49. Turboprop assemblies: (i) Pwr sectn assembly (compressor, combustion chamber, turbine, &
exhaust sections), (ii) reduction gear or gearbox assembly, (iii) torquemeter assembly (transmits
torque from the engine to the gearbox of the reduction section), (iv) accessory drive housing
assembly (on the bottom of the compressor air inlet housing, includes the necessary gear trains)
Turboshaft Engines
50. A GTE that delivers power thru a shaft to op. something other than a propeller. The o/p shaft
coupled directly to the engine turbine, or driven by own turbine (free turbine) in exhaust stream.
51. O/p is measured in horsepower instead of thrust bcz the pwr o/p is a turning shaft.
Turbofan Engines
52. In principle same as a turboprop, except, propeller is replaced by a duct enclosed axial-flow fan
as a part of the first-stage compressor blades or as a separate set of fan blades, fwd of the
compressor. General principle is to convert the fuel energy into pressure. It’s adv is additnal thrust
w/o increasing fuel flow. Thus, additnal stages r added in the turbine sectn to provide the power
to drive the fan. In mixed-exhaust nozzle, larger in area, fan develops most of the thrust. Fan
produces 80 % of the total thrust.
53. 2 different exhaust nozzle designs, (i) Separate fan nozzle, (ii) Mixed nozzle (core & fan exhaust
together). It is the most widely used GTE for air transport a/c. It is a compromise b/w good op.
efficiency & high thrust capability of turboprop &high v, high H capability of turbojet.
Turbine Engine Operating Principle
54. GTE use Newton’s law of momentum i.e. for every action there is an equal & opposite reactn.
Turbofan generates thrust by giving a relatively slower acceleratn to a large qty of air turbojet by
imparting greater acceleration to a smaller quantity of air.
55. The mass of air is accelerated within the engine by the use of a continuous-flow cycle.
Compressor increases P & T, P remains const & T, volume increased in combustn, air expands &
P decrease thru turbine & discharged at high v by exhaust nozzle. This high v gas from the engine
is considered continuous.

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56. The formula for thrust is Newton’s 2nd law, F = M x A. Mass refers to the qty of matter, wt. refers
to the pull of gravity on qty of matter. At sea level under std conditions, 1 pound of mass has a
wt. of 1 pound. Force of gravity is 32.2 feet per second squared (ft/sec2). Thrust (F) = MA/G or
F= Ms(V2-V1)/G i.e. mass airflow per second & the diff in the v of the air from the intake to the
exhaust.
57. Thrust of a GTE increased by 2 methods; (i) increasing the mass flow of air (ii) increasing the
gas velocity. Note- If the v of the turbojet remains constant wrt the a/c, the thrust decreases if the
v of the a/c is increased but resultant net thrust is almost constant.
58. The Brayton cycle (thermodynamic cycle of a GTE) or continuous combustn cycle or const. P
cycle. The 4 continuous & const. events r intake, compression, expansion & exhaust. Bernoulli’s
principle is applied to GTE thru convergent & divergent air ducts. The convergent duct increases
v & decreases P, divergent duct decreases v & increases P. The convergent principle for the
exhaust nozzle, the divergent principle for compressor & diffuser.
Gas Turbine Engine Performance
59. Thermal efficiency is the ratio of net work produced by the engine to the chemical energy
supplied in the form of fuel. 3 most imp. r (i) inlet T, (ii) compression ratio, (iii) the component
efficiencies of the compressor and turbine. Also, compressor inlet T & combustion efficiency.
60. A rise in P above existing outside atm. P at the engine inlet, due to the fwd v of a/c is ram P. Ram
effect increases engine thrust.

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Alhamdulillah

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