Chapter 3 : Response and Coordination

FORM 5 BIOLOGY NOTES

CHAPTER 3 : RESPONSE AND COORDINATION

3.1. Response and Coordination

Definition:
 Stimulus - A change in external or internal environment in the body which can be detected by the body’s
system. (plural : stimuli)
 Response - An action of the body, either consciously or unconsciously towards a certain stimulus.
 Receptor - A group of cells in the body specialised to detect the changes in the external or internal
environment in the body.
 Coordination - The control of different parts of organs and systems that makes them working together
effectively and efficiently.

Changes in External and Internal Environment Faced by an Organism:

Sound Blood
pressure

Touch Smell

pH level in Internal Body

External blood environment temperature
environment
Light Taste

Sugar level in
blood
Pressure Temperature

Necessity for Living Organisms to Respond To Stimuli:

In Human In Animal In Plant

Protect themselves from

Help to survive Enable plant to move
changes in external
toward sunlight
environment

Sensitive to presence of
Enables plants to absorb
female animal by the male
Ensure the metabolic water and mineral salt.
for reproduction
activities are carried out
at optimal environment
Help to move to find food
from one place to another

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Pathway in Detecting And Responding To Changes

Pathway Information Due To External Stimuli

Pathway Information Due To Internal Stimuli

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3.2. Role of Human Nervous system

Human being must MONITOR and MAINTAIN constant internal environment as well as monitor and responds to
external environment

Definition:
 NERVOUS SYSTEM is the system that monitors, maintain and responds to environment. (External @ Internal)

Role of nervous system:

1. The nervous system collects information about the changes in internal and external environment.
2. The nervous system transmits information about the changes in internal and external environment via the
neurons to the processing centre.
3. The nervous system process, integrates and interprets the information received.
4. The nervous system coordinates the body activities and brings about appropriate response.

Organisation of nervous system

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Transmission of chemical signals across the synapse

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Types of Coordinated response

There are two types of coordinated response:

1. Voluntary action
2. Involuntary action

Voluntary action
1. Voluntary action is a conscious action and is controlled by the cerebrum of the brain.
2. Voluntary action occurs according to the will of an individual.
1. It involves the process of integration and interpretation of information to produce a response according to
the will.
2. Voluntary action involves the sensory organs, the cerebrum and the effectors (muscles or glands).

Involuntary action
1. Involuntary action is an automatic action that is not controlled by the will of an individual.
2. Involuntary action is controlled by the medulla oblongata.
3. It occurs in the body without any conscious control.
4. Examples of involuntary actions in the body are peristalsis, heartbeat and breathing.
5. The stimuli received by the receptors are internal stimuli.
6. The nerve impulses generated are sent to the medulla oblongata to be integrated and interpreted.
7. The effectors which produce the response are smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands.

The differences between voluntary action and involuntary action.

Aspect compared Voluntary action Involuntary action

Type of action Occurs according to the will of an Does not occur according to the will of an
individual. individual. It is an automatic action.

Integrating centre Cerebrum Medulla oblongata

Stimulus Involves external stimuli Involves internal stimuli

Receptor Sensory organ Specialised internal receptors

Transmission of Impulses transmit from the brain to the Impulses transmit from medulla
impulse skeletal muscles oblongata to smooth muscles, cardiac
muscles and glands.

Effector and The effector (skeletal muscles)
response produces a voluntary action. For
example, kicking a ball.
The effectors (smooth muscles of
internal organs, cardiac muscles of the
heart and glands) produce involuntary
responses such as heartbeat and
peristalsis.

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Reflex Action
1. Reflex action is an involuntary action that occurs automatically and spontaneously without conscious control
towards a stimulus.
2. Reflex action is controlled by the spinal cord and does not involve the cerebrum.
3. It acts as a protection against injuries and dangerous situations, as well as an adaptation to any changes in the
environment.
4. Examples of reflex action are :
a) Knee jerk
b) Withdrawal of the hand from a hot object
c) Blinking of the eyes
d) Changes in the size of pupil in the eye
e) Balancing the body to prevent from slipping

Reflex Arc
1. Reflex arc is the pathway that a nerve impulse travels from the receptor to the effectors in a reflex action.
2. A reflex arc consists of the receptor, afferent neuron, and interneuron in the spinal cord, efferent neuron and
effectors.
3. The process of a reflex arc :
1. The receptor detects a stimulus and triggers the afferent neuron to send out nerve impulses
2. The nerve impulses are carried by the afferent neuron to the spinal cord
3. From the spinal cord, the nerve impulses travel along the efferent neuron to the effectors without
passing through the brain.
4. The effector receives the information and produces an automatic response towards the stimulus.

Knee jerk

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Withdrawal of the hand from a sharp object

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Involuntary action which involves smooth muscles, cardiac muscles or gland

1. The autonomic nervous system

 Control involuntary action involving the glands, the cardiac muscles of the heart and the smooth
muscles of the internal organs such as the intestines.
 Connects the medulla oblongata and hypothalamus with the internal organs and regulates the internal
body processes that require no conscious effort.
 Since the information for involuntary actions does not involve the cerebral cortex of the cerebrum, no
perception is generated. Therefore, we are not aware of the responses.
2. This means the autonomic nervous system permits vital functions such as the heartbeats and blood circulation
to continue even during states of unconsciousness such as sleeping or fainting when voluntary actions have
ceased.
3. The autonomic nervous system can be divided into
 The sympathetic division
1. Prepares the body for stressful situations or an emergency, in which the responses are
associated with ‘fight or flight’.
2. Increases the pulse rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate.
3. Slows down the digestive system so that more blood is available to carry oxygen to the vital
organs such as the brain, heart and muscles.
 The parasympathetic division
1. Prepares the body during ordinary situations or brings on the responses associated with a
relaxed state.
2. Decreases the pulse rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate.
3. Stimulates the digestive system to continue breaking down food.

Diseases Related to the Nervous System

1. Alzheimer’s disease
 A neurodegenerative disease characterised by progressive cognitive deterioration, such as loss of
intellectual ability and memory.
 The diseases are associated with the shrinkage of the brain tissue and the changes in the neurotransmitter
system such as lack of acetylcholine in the brain.

2. Parkinson’s disease
 A disease of the nervous system that affects the part of the brain which controls the actions of the muscles.
 The muscles become weak and stiff, causing tremors and jerkiness in movement.
 This is due to the reduced level of a neurotransmitter called dopamine in the brain. In some cases, it is
caused by the hardening of cerebral arteries.
 This disease cannot be inherited.
 Symptoms of Parkinson’s disease are :
o Slow movement due to stiffness and tremor
o Jerkiness
o Weak muscles
o Muscles stiffness and cramps
o Impaired balance and coordination.

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3.3. Role of Hormones in Humans

1. Endocrine system is a system controls the body’s activities by releasing chemicals called hormones.
2. Hormones are specific chemical messenger molecules in the bloodstream that can regulate the activities of organs
and tissues. It synthesized by a group of specialized endocrine glands.

The differences between the endocrine system and the nervous system

The nervous system The endocrine system

Controls voluntary and involuntary actions Controls involuntary actions

Conveys electrical signals (nerve impulses) Conveys chemical signals (hormones)

Messages are conducted via neuron Messages are conveyed via the bloodstream

Messages are conveyed rapidly Messages are conveyed slowly

Messages are carried between specific locations Messages are carried from the source to various
destinations

The responses or effects are temporary The responses or effects are long-lasting

Role of Endocrine system

1. Endocrine system is made up of ductless glands that produce and secrete hormones.
2. The endocrine system regulates various physiological processes which are not directly regulated by the nervous
system such as :
a. Growth
b. Reproduction
c. Metabolism
d. Menstrual cycle
e. Development of secondary sexual characteristics
3. Endocrine system and the nervous system work together to regulate the balance of the internal environment
through the process called homeostasis.
4. Endocrine system complements the nervous system in carrying out various body process.

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Thyroid gland
Thyroxine Increases the metabolic rates of most body cells
Increases body temperature
Regulates growth and development
Thymus gland
Thymosin Stimulates the formation of T-cells which help defend the body from pathogens.
Adrenal cortex
Aldosterone Increases the reabsorption of mineral salts in the kidneys
Adrenaline and Increases the levels of sugar and fatty acids in the blood
noradrenaline Increases heart activity, and the rate and depth of breathing
Increases the metabolic rate and constrict some blood vessels

Pancreas gland
Insulin Decreases blood glucose levels and promotes the conversion of glucose to glycogen
Glucagon Increases blood glucose levels and promotes the conversion of glycogen to glucose
Ovary
Oestrogen Stimulates the development of the female secondary sexual characteristics and maturation
of the ova.
Promotes the repair of the uterine lining
Progesterone Stimulates the development of the uterine lining and the formation f the placenta
Inhibits ovulation
Testis
Androgen Stimulates the development of male secondary sexual characteristics and spermatogenesis
(testosterone)

Secretion of hormones regulated by another hormone

1. The release of thyroxine is regulated by the thyroid-stimulating hormone ( TSH ).

2. A high level of thyroxine inhibits the release of TSH and stops the release of additional thyroxine.
3. A low level of thyroxine stimulates the secretion of TSH which then stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete
thyroxine.

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Secretion of hormones regulated by levels of certain substances

1. Certain hormones are regulated by the level of specific substances in the blood.
2. After a meal, the blood glucose level rises and will promote the release of insulin into the blood stream by the
pancreas.
3. Insulin will cause cells to take up glucose and also cause liver and skeletal muscle cells to form the glycogen.
4. If the glucose level in the blood falls, further insulin production is inhbited.
5. Glucagons are released to break down the glycogen into glucose. Then the glucose is released into the blood to
maintain glucose level.
6. Glucagon production is inhibited when the level of glucose rises.
7. Insulin is an example of hormone and glucose is an example of specific substances.

Secretion of hormones regulated by nervous system

1. When faced with stimuli that are threatening, dangerous or exciting, our body goes through a series of changes
that prepares us to either fight or to flee.
2. The fight-or-flight strategy is a safety measure that prepares the body to respond to the situation.
3. The fight or flight response involves a coordinated effort of both the nervous and the endocrine systems.

A. The nervous system in the fight or flight response

1. When a threatening stimulus is received, the hypothalamus activates the nervous system (the sympathetic
nervous system) to send impulses to the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline (and noradrenaline) into the
bloodstream.
2. Adrenaline is called the "fight or flight" hormone or the "stress hormone" because it prepares the body for
action.
3. Adrenaline causes:
i. more glycogen to be converted into glucose in the liver
ii. increased metabolic rate
iii. deeper and rapid breathing
iv. a faster heartbeat and a raised blood pressure
v. blood to be diverted from the surface areas of the body and the gut to the muscles

B. The endocrine system in the fight or flight response

1. At the same time, the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete the adrenocorticotrophic
hormone (ACTH) to activate the adrenal-cortical system.

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2. ACTH moves through the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex, where it activates the secretion of corticoid
hormones (approximately 30 different hormones) which will prepare the body to deal with the stress.( raises
blood glucose level by stimulating the conversion of lipids and protein to glucose )
3. The corticoid hormones are slow-acting and have lasting effects.

 In fight and flight situation, The heart contracts more vigorously to pump a larger amount of oxygen and
glucose to the brain and skeletal muscles.
o The brain needs to be highly alert to mobilise the various parts of the body into immediate action.
o The skeletal muscles become more energised and enable a person to fight off an attacker or flee
immediately from danger.
 When a person is in a stressful situation, the nervous and endocrine system both work together to bring about
immediate responses to cope with the imminent threat.
 Once these mechanisms successfully counteract the danger, the bodily changes that occurred return to normal.

Hormonal imbalances and related diseases

Endocrine gland Hormone Function Effects of hormonal imbalance

Thyroid Thyroxine  Speeds up cell  Thyroxine deficiency causes :

 metabolic rate a) Cretinism in children (severe mental
• contains  Stimulates normal retardation )
iodine physical growth and b) myxedema in adults (sluggishness of
• important in mental development metabolism, swelling of subcutaneous
growth tissue, disrupted mental and sexual
activities)

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Adrenal cortex Cortisol Raises blood glucose level
(produces by stimulating the
corticoid conversion of lipids and
hormones) protein to glucose.
Are produced in response
to stress.
Adrenal cortex Aldosterone Regulate blood osmotic
(produces pressure by reabsorbing
corticoid Na+ and excreting K+ in the
hormones) kidneys to retain water.
Adrenal medulla Adrenaline Prepares the body for
stressful situations by:
 raising respiration and
heartbeat rates
 increasing blood flow
to muscles and brain
 contracting epidermal
arteries and diverting
blood to major muscle
groups (face turns
pale)
 Stimulates the
conversion of glycogen
to glucose.
Posterior Antidiuretic Stimulates the kidney to
pituitary gland hormone (ADH) reabsorb water and
produce less urine.
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 Excessive thyroxine causes:
a) a high metabolic rate
b) an increased rate of heartbeat
c) hyperactivity and
d) goitre in the neck and the eyeballs
protrude.
Cortisol deficiency causes Addison disease
 weight loss,
 weak muscles,
 fatigue,
 low blood pressure
 darkening of the skin
Excessive cortisol causes Cushing's Syndrome
 gains weight,
 weak muscles,
 fatigue,
 poor skin healing
 Osteoporosis
Aldosterone deficiency decreases Na+ and
increases K+ ,more water is excreted and
blood pressure drops
Excessive aldosterone increases Na+, decreases
K+ , body retains excess water and blood
pressure increases
Excessive adrenaline:
 raises blood pressure
 raises the blood glucose level
 causes glucose to be present in the urine
 An inability of the posterior pituitary to
secrete ADH can result in a disorder known
as diabetes insipidus.
 As a result , the person excretes a large
amount of urine.
 People with diabetes insipidus are thirsty
all the time. They often want to drink
liquids frequently.
 Because so much water is lost in the urine,
the person may die of dehydration if
deprived of water for even a day.
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Secretion
1. Secretion is the process where unwanted substances like urea, uric acid, ammonia, drugs, alcohol, excess salts
and water in the blood are actively transported from the capillaries surrounding the nephron into the kidney
tubule (especially at the distal convoluted tubule).
2. This process helps to remove the toxic and unwanted substances from the bloodstream.
3. Secretion process also helps to regulate the pH level of the blood. For example, when the blood is too acidic,
the hydrogen ions, H+, are secreted into the filtrate whereas if the blood is too alkaline, the hydrogen
carbonate ions, HCO- are secreted into the filtrate.
4. Secretion plays an important role in adjusting the urine composition as it passes through the kidney tubule.

Osmoregulation
1. Osmoregulation is the process of regulating the blood osmotic pressure by regulating the water content and
the concentration of salts in the body.
2. Osmoregulation is an example of homeostasis which is brought about by the negative feedback system.
3. The negative feedback system is a corrective mechanism to restore the deviated osmotic pressure in the blood
to its normal level.
4. The kidneys carry out osmoregulation by coordinating the rate of reabsorption of water and salts (especially
sodium and chloride ions) during the formation of urine.
5. The amount of water and salts in the blood will determine the osmotic pressure of the blood.
6. Reabsorption of water is controlled by the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is released by the posterior
pituitary gland.
7. Reabsorption of salts is controlled by the aldosterone hormone which is produced by the adrenal cortex gland.

The Mechanism of Osmoregulation

(A) When the blood osmotic pressure is high

1. The high osmotic pressure is detected by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
2. The posterior pituitary gland is stimulated to release the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
3. The blood osmotic pressure is raised when water is lost excessively through sweating or after a salty meal
where a large amount of salt is consumed.
4. The adrenal gland is less stimulated and thus less aldosterone hormone is released.
5. Antidiuretic hormone increases the permeability of the walls of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting
duct towards water.
6. Hence, more water and less salt are reabsorbed from the tubules into the blood capillaries.
7. This lowers the blood osmotic pressure to its optimum level. As a result, a small amount of concentrated urine
is produced.
( B ) When the blood osmotic pressure is low
1. The blood osmotic pressure is lowered when an excessive amount of water is consumed.
2. The low osmotic pressure in the blood is detected by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
3. The adrenal gland is stimulated to release the aldosterone hormone.
4. The pituitary gland is less stimulated and the release of ADH is greatly reduced.
5. The aldosterone hormone causes the walls of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct to become
more permeable to salts and less permeable to water.
6. Hence, more salt and less water are reabsorbed from the tubules into the blood capillaries.
7. This increases the blood osmotic pressure to its optimum level.
8. As a result, a large amount of diluted urine is produced.
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4. Insulin converts the excess glucose in the blood to glycogen which is stored as granules in the cytoplasm of the
liver cells and the muscle cells. The conversion of glucose to glycogen lowers the blood glucose concentration
to its optimum level.

5. In liver cells, the excess glucose in the blood will be converted to lipids. Meanwhile, the cells will also use up the
glucose in respiration.
6. Glucagon converts the stored glycogen in the liver (and muscles) to glucose. The glucose then diffuse out of the
liver cells into the blood. Glucagon also increases the conversion of glucose from amino acids and fatty acids in
the liver cells. This increases the blood glucose concentration to its optimum level.

Regulation of blood glucose concentration

The regulation of body temperature ( Thermoregulation )

1. The human body temperature is regulated homeostatically so that it is always maintained at a constant
temperature of about 37°C despite the changes in the environmental temperature.
2. This temperature is the optimum temperature for the reactions of enzymes in the body.
3. If the body temperature is above 40°C, enzymes will be denatured. If the body temperature is too low, the
enzyme reactions are slowed down.
4. The skin plays an important role in thermoregulation. This is because the skin can regulate the heat gain and
heat loss from the body to maintain a constant body temperature.
5. Receptors which detect the changes in temperature are called thermoreceptors.
6. In the skin, the thermoreceptors detect the changes in the environmental temperature while thermoreceptors
in the hypothalamus detect the changes in the temperature of the blood flowing near this region.

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7. Thermoreceptors detect the stimulus and are stimulated. Then, nerve impulses are transmitted along the
afferent nerve to the hypothalamus.
8. The hypothalamus acts as the thermoregulatory centre (coordination centre) which transmits nerve impulses
to various effectors such as
 the sweat glands,
 hair erector muscles,
 skeletal muscles and
 endocrine glands.
These effectors produce corrective responses by negative feedback mechanism to return the body
temperature to the normal level.
9. Thermoregulatory effector response is accomplished 完成 through the changes in metabolic heat production
and physical heat loss regulation.

The action of the effectors in regulating the body temperature

By physical method ( involving skin to regulate heat loss )

Action of effectors In a warm environment In a cold environment

1. Action of sweat The sweat glands are stimulated to The sweat glands are not stimulated and
glands produce sweat. thus no sweat is produced. Heat loss is
 Excess body heat is lost through reduced.
sweating. This gives a cooling effect
to the body.

2. Action of blood Vasodilation process Vasoconstriction process

capillaries in skin  Vasodilation occurs. Blood capillaries
dilate and increase their diameter.
Thus, more blood flows near the body
surface.
 Excess heat in the body is lost through
conduction and radiation to the
environment
 Vasoconstriction occurs. Blood
capillaries constrict and decrease their
diameter. Thus, less blood flows near
the body surface.
 Most blood is diverted further from
the body surface. Hence, heat loss
through conduction and radiation is
reduced.

3. Action of hair Relaxation of hair erector muscles
erector muscles  Hair erector muscles relax, causing
the hair to lie flat.
 Only a thin layer of air is trapped
between the hairs. Heat loss through
conduction and radiation is increased.
Contraction of hair erector muscles
 Hair erector muscles are stimulated to
contract, causing the hairs to be
pulled and erect.
 A thick layer of air is trapped between
the hairs. The thick trapped air is a
poor conductor of heat. Thus, less
heat is lost through conduction and
radiation.

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Negative feedback mechanisms in human thermoregulation

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