Water pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and
groundwater). This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or
indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful
compounds.

Water pollution affects the entire biosphere – plants and organisms living in these bodies of
water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and
population, but also to the natural biological communities.

Introduction
Pollution in the Lachine Canal, CanadaWater pollution is a major global problem which
requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international
down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the
leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,[1][2] and that it accounts for the deaths of
more than 14,000 people daily.[2] An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution
related illness every day.[3] About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted.[4]
As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water.[5] In addition to the
acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries also continue
to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent national report on water
quality in the United States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of assessed lake
acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as
polluted.[6] The head of China's national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter
the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin.[7]

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants

and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift
in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena
such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water
quality and the ecological status of water.

Categories

Although interrelated, surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed
as separate resources.[8] Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater.
Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water
pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.

Point sources
Point source pollution – Shipyard – Rio de Janeiro.

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single,
identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include
discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean
Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes.[9] The CWA
definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as
well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.[10]

Non-point sources

Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a
single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of
contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen
compounds from fertilized agricultural lands.[11] Nutrient runoff in storm water from "sheet
flow" over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution.

Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban
runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, because this
runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local
surface waters, it becomes a point source.

Groundwater pollution
Main article: Groundwater pollution

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently,

groundwater pollution, also referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily
classified as surface water pollution.[8] By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are
susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies,
and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing release
of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body)
may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below,
creating a toxic plume. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed
through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater
contamination may focus on soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology,
and the nature of the contaminants.

Causes

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of

chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration.
While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring
(calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining
what is a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of
naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.

Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and
grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may
cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills
of some fish species.[12]

Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in
either human or animal hosts.[13] Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity
(change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an
increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases
in the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication,
subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe
reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

Pathogens

Poster to teach people in South Asia about human activities leading to the pollution of water sources

A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow.

Fecal sludge collected from pit latrines is dumped into a river at the Korogocho slum in Nairobi,
Kenya.

Disease-causing microorganisms are referred to as pathogens. Although the vast majority of

bacteria are either harmless or beneficial, a few pathogenic bacteria can cause disease.
Coliform bacteria, which are not an actual cause of disease, are commonly used as a bacterial
indicator of water pollution. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters that
have caused human health problems include:
  Burkholderia pseudomallei
 Cryptosporidium parvum
 Giardia lamblia
 Salmonella
 Norovirus and other viruses
 Parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type [14][15]

High levels of pathogens may result from on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit latrines)
or inadequately treated sewage discharges.[16] This can be caused by a sewage plant designed
with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed
countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems
(pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have
combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms.[17]Muddy river
polluted by sediment.Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock
operations.Organic, inorganic and macroscopic contaminantsContaminants may include
organic and inorganic substances.A garbage collection boom in an urban-area stream in
Auckland, New Zealand.Organic water pollutants include:

 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as
chloroform
 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and
grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical
compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil)
and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from storm water
runoff[18]
 Volatile organic compounds, such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.
 Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids, may fall to the
bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.
o Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)
o Trichloroethylene
 Perchlorate
  Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products
 Drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites

Inorganic water pollutants include:

Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)

 Ammonia from food processing waste

 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
 Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates—which are found in storm
water runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use[18]
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff)[18][19] and acid mine
drainage
 Secretion of creosote preservative into the aquatic ecosystem
 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or
land clearing sites.Macroscopic pollution – large visible items polluting the water – may be
termed "floatables" in an urban storm water context, or marine debris when found on the
open seas, and can include such items as:

 Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the
ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by
rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters
 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets
 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships.

Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by
human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the
physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a
coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decrease
oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce species
biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.[20][21][22] Urban runoff may also
elevate temperature in surface waters.Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of
very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

See also: Marine pollution

Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the
world the influence can be traced one hundred miles from the mouth by studies using
hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM
Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in
aquatic systems. Indicator filter-feeding species such as copepods have also been used to
study pollutant fates in the New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not
directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 km (62 mi) south, since several days are
required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the
coast due to the coriolis force. Further south are areas of oxygen depletion caused by
chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell
death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because toxins climb
the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each
successive step up the food chain causes a cumulative concentration of pollutants such as
heavy metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as
bio-magnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bio-accumulation.

A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey

Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The North Pacific Gyre, for
example, has collected the so-called "Great Pacific Garbage Patch", which is now estimated
to be one hundred times the size of Texas. Plastic debris can absorb toxic chemicals from
ocean pollution, potentially poisoning any creature that eats it.[23] Many of these long-lasting
pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction of
digestive pathways, which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.

Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemical change, especially over long periods of
time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated
hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics
manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry. Both of these
chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions,
leading to new hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because
groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as
clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption),
dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity; however, in some
cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through
open fractures and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In
fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas
of karst topography.

There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a
derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the
penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic
plants.

Measurement
Environmental scientists preparing water autosamplers.

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical,
chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by specialized
analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as
temperature. Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized,
validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate
testing events.[24]

Sampling

Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods,
depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many
contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain
events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant
levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump
increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.

Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface
water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for
biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected for
bioassays to determine toxicity.

Further information: Water quality § Sampling and measurement

Physical testing

Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e.g., total
suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity.

Chemical testing
See also: water chemistry analysis and environmental chemistry

Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many
published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently
used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),[25]:102 chemical oxygen
demand (COD),[25]:104 nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including
copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons
(TPH), and pesticides.

Biological testing
Main article: Bioindicator

Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the
health of an aquatic ecosystem. They are any biological species or group of species whose
function, population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental
integrity is present.[26] One example of a group of bio-indicators are the copepods and other
small water crustaceans that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be
monitored for changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a
problem within their ecosystem.

For microbial testing of drinking water, see Bacteriological water analysis.

Control of pollution

Decisions on the type and degree of treatment and control of wastes, and the disposal and use
of adequately treated wastewater, must be based on a consideration all the technical factors of
each drainage basin, in order to prevent any further contamination or harm to the
environment.[27]

Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity.

In urban areas of developed countries, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized

sewage treatment plants. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or
better) can remove 90 percent or more of the pollutant load in sewage. Some plants have
additional systems to remove nutrients and pathogens.

Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more
engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:

 utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management capacity

throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[28]
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[17]
 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very
expensive option).

A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual
septic tank, which pre-treats the wastewater on site and infiltrates it into the soil.

Industrial wastewater treatment

Main article: Industrial wastewater treatment

Dissolved air flotation system for treating industrial wastewater.

Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal
facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional
pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic
compounds) or other non-conventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized
treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the
toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system.
Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-
site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their
manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution
prevention.

Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation,

convection, and radiation
 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or
heat transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial
heating purposes.[29]

Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa.

Agricultural wastewater treatment

Main article: Agricultural wastewater treatment

Non point source controls

Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the
United States.[12] Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil
on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation,
planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers.[30][31]:pp. 4-95–4-96

Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial

fertilizer, animal manure, or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or
sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and
atmospheric deposition.[31]:p. 2–9 Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management
plans to reduce excess application of nutrients[30][31]:pp. 4-37–4-38 and reduce the potential for
nutrient pollution.
To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce
reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality.[32]

Feedlot in the United States

Point source wastewater treatment

Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are called
concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots in the US and are being subject to
increasing government regulation.[33][34] Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in
anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed
wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries
are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a
bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.

What is Water Pollution?

Water they say is life, and indeed they were right. With about 70% of the earth’s cover being
water, it undeniably becomes one of our greatest resources. As young students, we learned
about the various ways to conserve water; coming to think of it, water is used in almost every
important human chores and processes. It is an important element in both domestic as well as
industrial purposes. However a closer inspection of our water resources today, give us a rude
shock.

Infested with waste ranging from floating plastic bags to chemical waste, our water bodies
have turned into a pool of poison. The contamination of water bodies in simplest words
means water pollution. Thereby the abuse of lakes, ponds, oceans, rivers, reservoirs etc is
water pollution. Pollution of water occurs when substances that will modify the water in
negative fashion are discharged in it. This discharge of pollutants can be direct as well as
indirect.

Water pollution is an appalling problem, powerful enough to lead the world on a path of
destruction. Water is an easy solvent, enabling most pollutants to dissolve in it easily and
contaminate it. The most basic effect of water pollution is directly suffered by the organisms
and vegetation that survive in water, including amphibians. On a human level, several people
die each day due to consumption of polluted and infected water.

As per the Economist report (dated 2008) each day over 1000 children die of diarrheal
sickness in India and the numbers have only increased alarming in the last five years. Water
is polluted by both natural as well as man-made activities. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
Tsunamis etc are known to alter water and contaminate it, also affecting ecosystems that
survive under water.

Sources of Water Pollution

There are various classifications of water pollution. The two chief sources of water pollution
can be seen as Point and Non Point.

Point refer to the pollutants that belong to a single source. An example of this would be
emissions from factories into the water.

Non Point on the other hand means pollutants emitted from multiple sources.
Contaminated water after rains that has traveled through several regions may also be
considered as a Non point source of pollution.

Causes of Water Pollution

Let us now study the causes of water pollution.

1. Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contains toxic
chemicals and pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and our
environment. They contain pollutants such as lead, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, nitrates and
many other harmful chemicals. Many industries do not have proper waste management
system and drain the waste in the fresh water which goes into rivers, canals and later in to
sea. The toxic chemicals have the capability to change the color of water, increase the
amount of minerals, also known as Eutrophication, change the temperature of water and pose
serious hazard to water organisms.

2. Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each
household is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water
carries harmful bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. Pathogens are
known as a common water pollutant; The sewers of cities house several pathogens and
thereby diseases. Microorganisms in water are known to be causes of some very deadly
diseases and become the breeding grounds for other creatures that act like carriers. These
carriers inflict these diseases via various forms of contact onto an individual. A very common
example of this process would be Malaria.
3. Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other
minerals from underground. These elements when extracted in the raw form contains harmful
chemicals and can increase the amount of toxic elements when mixed up with water which
may result in health problems. Mining activities emit several metal waste and sulphides from
the rocks and is harmful for the water.

4. Marine dumping: The garbage produce by each household in the form of paper,
aluminum, rubber, glass, plastic, food if collected and deposited into the sea in some
countries. These items take from 2 weeks to 200 years to decompose. When such items enters
the sea, they not only cause water pollution but also harm animals in the sea.

5. Accidental Oil leakage: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters into
the sea and does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine
wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters. For e.g.: a ship carrying large quantity of oil may
spill oil if met with an accident and can cause varying damage to species in the ocean
depending on the quantity of oil spill, size of ocean, toxicity of pollutant.

6. Burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like coal and oil when burnt produce substantial
amount of ash in the atmosphere. The particles which contain toxic chemicals when mixed
with water vapor result in acid rain. Also, carbon dioxide is released from burning of fossil
fuels which result in global warming.

7. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by
farmers to protect crops from insects and bacterias. They are useful for the plants growth.
However, when these chemicals are mixed up with water produce harmful for plants and
animals. Also, when it rains, the chemicals mixes up with rainwater and flow down into
rivers and canals which pose serious damages for aquatic animals.

Leakage from sewer lines: A small leakage from the sewer lines can contaminate the
underground water and make it unfit for the people to drink. Also, when not repaired on time,
the leaking water can come on to the surface and become a breeding ground for insects and
mosquitoes.
9. Global warming: An increase in earth’s temperature due to greenhouse effect results in
global warming. It increases the water temperature and result in death of aquatic animals and
marine species which later results in water pollution.

10. Radioactive waste: Nuclear energy is produced using nuclear fission or fusion. The
element that is used in production of nuclear energy is Uranium which is highly toxic
chemical. The nuclear waste that is produced by radioactive material needs to be disposed off
to prevent any nuclear accident. Nuclear waste can have serious environmental hazards if not
disposed off properly. Few major accidents have already taken place in Russia and Japan.

11. Urban development: As population has grown, so has the demand for housing, food and
cloth. As more cities and towns are developed, they have resulted in increase use of fertilizers
to produce more food, soil erosion due to deforestation, increase in construction activities,
inadequate sewer collection and treatment, landfills as more garbage is produced, increase in
chemicals from industries to produce more materials.

12. Leakage from the landfills: Landfills are nothing but huge pile of garbage that produces
awful smell and can be seen across the city. When it rains, the landfills may leak and the
leaking landfills can pollute the underground water with large variety of contaminants.

13. Animal waste: The waste produce produce by animals is washed away into the rivers
when it rains. It gets mixed up with other harmful chemicals and causes various water borne
diseases like cholera, diarrhea, jaundice, dysentery and typhoid.

14. Underground storage leakage: Transportation of coal and other petroleum products
through underground pipes is well known. Accidentals leakage may happen anytime and may
cause damage to environment and result in soil erosion.

Water pollutants also include both organic and inorganic factors. Organic factors include
volatile organic compounds, fuels, waste from trees, plants etc. Inorganic factors include
ammonia, chemical waste from factories, discarded cosmetics etc. The water that travels via
fields is usually contaminated with all forms of waste inclusive of fertilizers that it swept
along the way. This infected water makes its way to our water bodies and sometimes to the
seas endangering the flora, fauna and humans that use it along its path.
The current scenario has led to a consciousness about water preservation and efforts are being
made on several levels to redeem our water resources. Industries and factory set-up’s are
restricted from contaminating the water bodies and are advised to treat their contaminated
waste through filtration methods. People are investing in rain water harvesting projects to
collect rainwater and preserve it in wells below ground level.

Water Pollution is common, and is an area of high alert. Water needs to be preserved and
respected today, for us to live a tomorrow.

Hydrocarbon exploration (or oil and gas exploration) is the search by petroleum
geologists and geophysicists for hydrocarbon deposits beneath the Earth's surface, such as oil
and natural gas. Oil and gas exploration are grouped under the science of petroleum geology.

Exploration methods

Visible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas seeps, pockmarks (underwater craters
caused by escaping gas) provide basic evidence of hydrocarbon generation (be it shallow or
deep in the Earth). However, most exploration depends on highly sophisticated technology to
detect and determine the extent of these deposits using exploration geophysics. Areas thought
to contain hydrocarbons are initially subjected to a gravity survey, magnetic survey, passive
seismic or regional seismic reflection surveys to detect large-scale features of the sub-surface
geology. Features of interest (known as leads) are subjected to more detailed seismic surveys
which work on the principle of the time it takes for reflected sound waves to travel through
matter (rock) of varying densities and using the process of depth conversion to create a
profile of the substructure. Finally, when a prospect has been identified and evaluated and
passes the oil company's selection criteria, an exploration well is drilled in an attempt to
conclusively determine the presence or absence of oil or gas.

Oil exploration is an expensive, high-risk operation. Offshore and remote area exploration is
generally only undertaken by very large corporations or national governments. Typical
shallow shelf oil wells (e.g. North Sea) cost US$10 – 30 million, while deep water wells can
cost up to US$100 million plus. Hundreds of smaller companies search for onshore
hydrocarbon deposits worldwide, with some wells costing as little as US$100,000.

Elements of a petroleum prospect

Mud log in process, a common way to study the rock types when drilling oil wells.

A prospect is a potential trap which geologists believe may contain hydrocarbons. A

significant amount of geological, structural and seismic investigation must first be completed
to redefine the potential hydrocarbon drill location from a lead to a prospect. Four geological
factors have to be present for a prospect to work and if any of them fail neither oil nor gas
will be present.

 A source rock - When organic-rich rock such as oil shale or coal is subjected to high pressure
and temperature over an extended period of time, hydrocarbons form.
 Migration - The hydrocarbons are expelled from source rock by three density-related
mechanisms: the newly matured hydrocarbons are less dense than their precursors, which
causes over-pressure; the hydrocarbons are lighter, and so migrate upwards due to
buoyancy, and the fluids expand as further burial causes increased heating. Most
hydrocarbons migrate to the surface as oil seeps, but some will get trapped.
 Reservoir - The hydrocarbons are contained in a reservoir rock. This is commonly a porous
sandstone or limestone. The oil collects in the pores within the rock although open fractures
within non-porous rocks (e.g. fractured granite) may also store hydrocarbons. The reservoir
must also be permeable so that the hydrocarbons will flow to surface during production.
 Trap - The hydrocarbons are buoyant and have to be trapped within a structural (e.g.
Anticline, fault block) or stratigraphic trap. The hydrocarbon trap has to be covered by an
impermeable rock known as a seal or cap-rock in order to prevent hydrocarbons escaping to
the surface

Exploration risk

Hydrocarbon exploration is a high risk investment and risk assessment is paramount for
successful project portfolio management. Exploration risk is a difficult concept and is usually
defined by assigning confidence to the presence of the imperative geological factors, as
discussed above. This confidence is based on data and/or models and is usually mapped on
Common Risk Segment Maps (CRS Maps). High confidence in the presence of imperative
geological factors is usually coloured green and low confidence coloured red.[1] Therefore,
these maps are also called Traffic Light Maps, while the full procedure is often referred to as
Play Fairway Analysis.[2] The aim of such procedures is to force the geologist to objectively
assess all different geological factors. Furthermore, it results in simple maps that can be
understood by non-geologists and managers to base exploration decisions on.

Terms used in petroleum evaluation

 Bright spot - On a seismic section, coda that have high amplitudes due to a formation
containing hydrocarbons.
 Chance of success - An estimate of the chance of all the elements (see above) within a
prospect working, described as a probability.
 Dry hole - A boring that does not contain commercial hydrocarbons. See also Dry
hole clause
  Flat spot - Possibly an oil-water, gas-water or gas-oil contact on a seismic section; flat
due to gravity.
 Hydrocarbon in place - amount of hydrocarbon likely to be contained in the prospect.
This is calculated using the volumetric equation - GRV x N/G x Porosity x Sh / FVF
o GRV - Gross rock volume - amount of rock in the trap above the hydrocarbon
water contact
o Net sand - part of GRV that has the lithological capacity for being a
productive zone; i.e. less shale contaminations[3].
o Net reserve - part of net sand that has the minimum reservoir qualities; i.e.
minimum porosity and permeability values[3].
o N/G - net/gross ratio - proportion of the GRV formed by the reservoir rock (
range is 0 to 1)
o Porosity - percentage of the net reservoir rock occupied by pores (typically 5-
35%)
o Sh - hydrocarbon saturation - some of the pore space is filled with water - this
must be discounted
o FVF - formation volume factor - oil shrinks and gas expands when brought to
the surface. The FVF converts volumes at reservoir conditions (high pressure
and high temperature) to storage and sale conditions
 Lead - Potential accumulation is currently poorly defined and requires more data
acquisition and/or evaluation in order to be classified as a prospect.[4]
 Play - An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type
occur. For example, the shale gas plays in North America include the Barnett, Eagle
Ford, Fayetteville, Haynesville, Marcellus, and Woodford, among many others.[5]
 Prospect - a lead which has been more fully evaluated.
 Recoverable hydrocarbons - amount of hydrocarbon likely to be recovered during
production. This is typically 10-50% in an oil field and 50-80% in a gas field.

Licensing

Petroleum resources are typically owned by the government of the host country. In the USA
most onshore (land) oil and gas rights (OGM) are owned by private individuals, in which
case oil companies must negotiate terms for a lease of these rights with the individual who
owns the OGM. Sometimes this is not the same person who owns the land surface. In most
nations the government issues licences to explore, develop and produce its oil and gas
resources, which are typically administered by the oil ministry. There are several different
types of licence. Oil companies often operate in joint ventures to spread the risk; one of the
companies in the partnership is designated the operator who actually supervises the work.

 Tax and Royalty - Companies would pay a royalty on any oil produced, together with
a profits tax (which can have expenditure offset against it). In some cases there are
 also various bonuses and ground rents (license fees) payable to the government - for
example a signature bonus payable at the start of the licence. Licences are awarded in
competitive bid rounds on the basis of either the size of the work programme (number
of wells, seismic etc.) or size of the signature bonus.
 Production Sharing contract (PSA) - A PSA is more complex than a Tax/Royalty
system - The companies bid on the percentage of the production that the host
government receives (this may be variable with the oil price), There is often also
participation by the Government owned National Oil Company (NOC).

Oil and gas reserves

Oil and gas reserves are defined as volumes that will be commercially recovered in the future.
Reserves are separated into three categories: proved, probable, and possible. To be included
in any reserves category, all commercial aspects must have been addressed, which includes
government consent. Technical issues alone separate proved from unproved categories. All
reserve estimates involve some degree of uncertainty.

 Proved reserves are the highest valued category. Proved reserves have a "reasonable
certainty" of being recovered, which means a high degree of confidence that the
volumes will be recovered. Some industry specialists refer to this as P90, i.e., having
a 90% certainty of being produced. The SEC provides a more detailed definition:

Hydrocarbon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ball-and-stick model of the methane molecule, CH4. Methane is part of a homologous series known
as the alkanes, which contain single bonds only.

In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen

and carbon,[1] and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom
has been removed are functional groups, called hydrocarbyls.[2] Aromatic hydrocarbons
(arenes), alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of
hydrocarbons.

The majority of hydrocarbons found on Earth naturally occur in crude oil, where decomposed
organic matter provides an abundance of carbon and hydrogen which, when bonded, can
catenate to form seemingly limitless chains.[3][4]
Types of hydrocarbons

The classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

are as follows:

1. Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are composed
entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen. The formula for acyclic saturated
hydrocarbons (i.e., alkanes) is CnH2n+2.[5] The most general form of saturated hydrocarbons is
CnH2n+2(1-r), where r is the number of rings. Those with exactly one ring are the cycloalkanes.
Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as either linear or
branched species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property (like chlorination
reaction to form chloroform). Hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different
structural formulae are called structural isomers.[6] As given in the example of 3-
methylhexane and its higher homologues, branched hydrocarbons can be chiral.[7] Chiral
saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and
tocopherol.[8]
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.
Those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula
CnH2n (assuming non-cyclic structures).[9] Those containing triple bonds are called alkynes,
with general formula CnH2n−2.[10]
3. Aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one
aromatic ring.

Hydrocarbons can be gases (e.g. methane and propane), liquids (e.g. hexane and benzene),
waxes or low melting solids (e.g. paraffin wax and naphthalene) or polymers (e.g.
polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene).

General properties

Because of differences in molecular structure, the empirical formula remains different

between hydrocarbons; in linear or "straight-run" alkanes, alkenes and alkynes, the amount of
bonded hydrogen lessens in alkenes and alkynes due to the "self-bonding" or catenation of
carbon preventing entire saturation of the hydrocarbon by the formation of double or triple
bonds.

This inherent ability of hydrocarbons to bond to themselves is known as catenation, and

allows hydrocarbons to form more complex molecules, such as cyclohexane, and in rarer
cases, arenes such as benzene. This ability comes from the fact that the bond character
between carbon atoms is entirely non-polar, in that the distribution of electrons between the
two elements is somewhat even due to the same electronegativity values of the elements
(~0.30), and does not result in the formation of an electrophile.

Generally, with catenation comes the loss of the total amount of bonded hydrocarbons and an
increase in the amount of energy required for bond cleavage due to strain exerted upon the
molecule; in molecules such as cyclohexane, this is referred to as ring strain, and occurs due
to the "destabilized" spatial electron configuration of the atom.In simple chemistry, as per
valence bond theory, the carbon atom must follow the "4-hydrogen rule", which states that
the maximum number of atoms available to bond with carbon is equal to the number of
electrons that are attracted into the outer shell of carbon. In terms of shells, carbon consists of
an incomplete outer shell, which comprises 4 electrons, and thus has 4 electrons available for
covalent or dative bonding.

Hydrocarbons are hydrophobic like lipids.Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar
system. Lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturn's largest moon,
confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission.[11] Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae
forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds.[12]Simple hydrocarbons and
their variations

Number
of Alkane Alkene Alkyne (triple
Cycloalkane Alkadiene
carbon (single bond) (double bond) bond)
atoms

1 Methane - - - -

Ethene
2 Ethane Ethyne (acetylene) – –
(ethylene)

Propene Propyne Propadiene

3 Propane Cyclopropane
(propylene) (methylacetylene) (allene)

Usage
Oil refineries are one way hydrocarbons are processed for use. Crude oil is processed in
several stages to form desired hydrocarbons, used as fuel and in other products.

Hydrocarbons are a primary energy source for current civilizations. The predominant use of
hydrocarbons is as a combustible fuel source. In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form
of asphalt (bitumen).

Mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in preference to the chlorofluorocarbons as a

propellant for aerosol sprays, due to chlorofluorocarbons' impact on the ozone layer.

Methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6) are gaseous at ambient temperatures and cannot be readily
liquefied by pressure alone. Propane (C3H8) is however easily liquefied, and exists in
'propane bottles' mostly as a liquid. Butane (C4H10) is so easily liquefied that it provides a
safe, volatile fuel for small pocket lighters. Pentane (C5H12) is a clear liquid at room
temperature, commonly used in chemistry and industry as a powerful nearly odorless solvent
of waxes and high molecular weight organic compounds, including greases. Hexane (C6H14)
is also a widely used non-polar, non-aromatic solvent, as well as a significant fraction of
common gasoline. The C6 through C10 alkanes, alkenes and isomeric cycloalkanes are the top
components of gasoline, naphtha, jet fuel and specialized industrial solvent mixtures. With
the progressive addition of carbon units, the simple non-ring structured hydrocarbons have
higher viscosities, lubricating indices, boiling points, solidification temperatures, and deeper
color. At the opposite extreme from methane lie the heavy tars that remain as the lowest
fraction in a crude oil refining retort. They are collected and widely utilized as roofing
compounds, pavement composition, wood preservatives (the creosote series) and as
extremely high viscosity shear-resisting liquids.

Hydrocarbon use is also prevalent in nature. Some eusocial arthropods, such as the Brazilian
stingless bee Schwarziana quadripunctata, use unique hydrocarbon "scents" in order to
determine kin from non-kin. The chemical hydrocarbon composition varies between age, sex,
nest location, and hierarchal position.[13]

Poisoning

Hydrocarbon poisoning such as that of benzene and petroleum usually occurs accidentally by
inhalation or ingestion of these cytotoxic chemical compounds. Intravenous or subcutaneous
injection of petroleum compounds with intent of suicide or abuse is an extraordinary event
that can result in local damage or systemic toxicity such as tissue necrosis, abscess formation,
respiratory system failure and partial damage to the kidneys, the brain and the nervous
system. Moaddab and Eskandarlou report a case of chest wall necrosis and empyema
resulting from attempting suicide by injection of petroleum into the pleural cavity.[14]

Reactions

There are three main types of reactions:

 Substitution reaction
 Addition reaction
 Combustion

Substitution reactions

Substitution reactions only occur in saturated hydrocarbons (single carbon–carbon bonds). In

this reaction, an alkane reacts with a chlorine molecule. One of the chlorine atoms displaces a
hydrogen atom. This forms hydrochloric acid as well as the hydrocarbon with one chlorine
atom.

CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl

CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl

all the way to CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride)

 C2H6 + Cl2 → C2H5Cl + HCl

C2H4Cl2 + Cl2 → C2H4Cl3 + HCl

all the way to C2Cl6 (hexachloroethane)

Addition reactions

Addition reactions involve alkenes and alkynes. In this reaction a halogen molecule breaks
the double or triple bond in the hydrocarbon and forms a bond.Hydrocarbons are currently
the main source of the world's electric energy and heat sources (such as home heating)
because of the energy produced when burnt.[15] Often this energy is used directly as heat such
as in home heaters, which use either petroleum or natural gas. The hydrocarbon is burnt and
the heat is used to heat water, which is then circulated. A similar principle is used to create
electric energy in power plants.

Common properties of hydrocarbons are the facts that they produce steam, carbon dioxide
and heat during combustion and that oxygen is required for combustion to take place. The
simplest hydrocarbon, methane, burns as follows:

CH4 + 2 O2 → 2 H2O + CO2 + energy

In inadequate supply of air, carbon monoxide gas and water vapour are formed:

2 CH4 + 3 O2 → 2 CO + 4 H2O

Another example of this reaction is propane:

C3H8 + 5 O2 → 4 H2O + 3 CO2 + energy

CnH2n+2 + 3n + 1/2 O2 → (n + 1) H2O + n CO2 + energy

Burning of hydrocarbons is an example of an exothermic chemical reaction.

Hydrocarbons can also be burned with elemental fluorine, resulting in carbon tetrafluoride
and hydrogen fluoride products.

Petroleum
Main article: Petroleum

Natural oil spring in Korňa, Slovakia.Extracted hydrocarbons in a liquid form are referred to as
petroleum (literally "rock oil") or mineral oil, whereas hydrocarbons in a gaseous form are referred
to as natural gas. Petroleum and natural gas are found in the Earth's subsurface with the tools of
petroleum geology and are a significant source of fuel and raw materials for the production of
organic chemicals.

The extraction of liquid hydrocarbon fuel from sedimentary basins is integral to modern
energy development. Hydrocarbons are mined from oil sands and oil shale, and potentially
extracted from sedimentary methane hydrates. These reserves require distillation and
upgrading to produce synthetic crude and petroleum.

Oil reserves in sedimentary rocks are the source of hydrocarbons for the energy, transport and
petrochemical industries.

Economically important hydrocarbons include fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural
gas, and its derivatives such as plastics, paraffin, waxes, solvents and oils. Hydrocarbons –
along with NOx and sunlight – contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone and
greenhouse gases.

Bioremediation

Bacteria in the gabbroic layer of the ocean's crust can degrade hydrocarbons; but the extreme
environment makes research difficult.[16] Other bacteria such as Lutibacterium anuloederans
can also degrade hydrocarbons.[17] Mycoremediation or breaking down of hydrocarbon by
mycellium and mushroom is possible.[18]

Safety

Many hydrocarbons are highly flammable, therefore, care should be taken to prevent injury.
Benzene and many aromatic compounds are possible carcinogens, and proper safety
equipment must be worn to prevent these harmful compounds from entering the body. If
hydrocarbons undergo combustion in tight areas, toxic carbon monoxide can form.
Hydrocarbons should be kept away from fluorine compounds due to the high probability of
forming toxic hydrofluoric acid.

Environmental impact

Hydrocarbons are introduced into the environment through their extensive use as fuels and
chemicals as well as through leaks or accidental spills during exploration, production,
refining, or transport. Anthropogenic hydrocarbon contamination of soil is a serious global
issue due to contaminant persistence and the negative impact on human health.[

10. Wardha River

One of the biggest rivers of Vidarbha region, Wardha River holds the last position in the list.
The river has been polluted much in the Maharashtra region.

9. Hindon River
A tributary of Yamuna River, Hindon River is a highly polluted river in Uttar Pradesh region.
According to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Hindon along with Yamuna are the
two most polluted rivers of Uttar Pradesh.

8. Musi River

A tributary of Krishna River, Musi River flows in the Deccan Plateau and is highly polluted
and its water is the most dangerous among the other rivers.

7. Mahi River

Due to excessive pollution and salinity; the Mahi River is on the verge of extinction in
Gujarat.

6. Gomti River

One of the major sources of water for Lucknow city; the Gomti river has been deteriorated by
the industrial effluents in the past few years.

5. Oshiwara River

The Oshiwara River in Mumbai holds the fifth position in the list of the most polluted rivers
in India. According to the reports, 85% of the Maharashtra’s rivers are polluted.

4. Damodar River

With so many coal industries sprouting on Damodar river’s mineral rich banks; the river is
highly polluted in West Bengal and Jharkhand.

3. Sabarmati River

As per the CPCB report, Sabarmati River in Gujarat is the third most polluted river. Faecal
coliform (F.Coli) bacteria were found to be the highest in this river.

2. Yamuna River

Yamuna also comes in the top 10 list of World’s most polluted rivers! Delhi is the major
reason behind Yamuna’s woeful condition; as Delhi itself dumps 58% waste in Yamuna!

1. Ganga River

Often referred to as ‘Holy Ganga’; this river is no longer holy when it comes to pollution.
Ganga not only tops the list of most polluted river in India; but also tops the same in the
World. Ganga has reached much farther than the WHO’s permissible limits in pollution
levels.
It’s a sad state for most of the rivers in India. Human waste and industrial pollutants are
making the river water useless for bathing and agricultural needs; let alone for drinking. It
will be an impossible task if we want to clean these rivers.