Seals, Traps,

and the
Petroleum System

Edited by
R.C. Surdam
Institute for Energy Research
University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming

AAPG Memoir 67

Published by
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A. 74101
Copyright © 1997
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
All Rights Reserved
Published 1997
Printed and bound in the United States of America

ISBN:0-89181-347-0

Seals, traps, and the petroleum system/edited by R.C. Surdam.

p. cm. -- (AAPG memoir: 67)
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-89181-347-0 (alk. paper)
1. Traps (Petroleum geology ) I. Surdam, Ronald C. II. Series.
TN870.57.S43 1997 97-20684
553.2’8--dc21 CIP

AAPG grants permission for a single photocopy of an item from this publication for personal use. Authorization
for additional copies of items from this publication for personal or internal use is granted by AAPG provided that
the base fee of $3.00 per copy is paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers,
Massachusetts 01923. Fees are subject to change. Any form of electronic or digital scanning or other digital trans-
formation of portions of this publication into computer-readable and/or transmittable form for personal or cor-
porate use requires special permission from, and is subject to fee charges by, the AAPG.

Association Editor: Kevin T. Biddle

Science Director: Richard Steinmetz
Publications Manager: Kenneth M. Wolgemuth
Special Projects Editor: Anne H. Thomas
Production: Custom Editorial Productions, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio

THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS (AAPG) DOES NOT ENDORSE

OR RECOMMEND ANY PRODUCT OR SERVICES THAT MAY BE CITED, USED OR DISCUSSED
IN AAPG PUBLICATIONS OR IN PRESENTATIONS AT EVENTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE AAPG.

This books and other AAPG publications are available from:

The AAPG Bookstore Geological Society Publishing House

P.O. Box 979 Unit 7, Brassmill
Tulsa, OK 74101-0979 Enterprise Centre
Telephone: (918) 584-2555; Brassmill Lane
or (800) 364-AAPG (USA—book orders only) Bath BA1 3JN
Fax: (918) 584-2652 United Kingdom
or (800) 898-2274 (USA—book orders only) Tel 0225-445046
Fax 0225-442836

Australian Mineral Foundation Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists

AMF Bookshop #505, 206 7th Avenue S.W.
63 Conyngham Street Calgary, Alberta T2P 0W7
Glenside, South Australia 5065 Canada
Australia Tel (403) 264-5610
Tel (08) 379-0444
Fax (08) 379-4634

ii
 ◆

About the Editor

◆

Ronald C. Surdam serves as director of the Institute for Energy Research

(IER), a multidisciplinary research organization founded in November 1993 at
the University of Wyoming to address problems relating to the exploitation of
natural gas resources, clastic diagenesis, thermal modeling, source rock matura-
tion, petrophysics, and pressure compartmentalization. He received an A.B. in
geology in 1961 and a Ph.D. in geology in 1967 from the University of California
at Los Angeles. Dr. Surdam joined the geology faculty at the University of
Wyoming in 1966, and has served as professor of geology since 1973. He was
selected as an AAPG Distinguished Lecturer (1985–86), the Don R. and Patricia
Boyd Distinguished Lecturer in Petroleum Exploration (1990), and the AAPG
Roy M. Huffington Distinguished Lecturer (1995–96). Dr. Surdam has served on
the National Science Foundation Geology/Geochemistry Advisory Panel
(1980–83), the U.S. Continental Scientific Drilling and Review Group (1990), the
American Chemical Society Advisory Panel (1988–93), and was elected Fellow in
the Geological Society of America (1989). He has presented 171 invited lectures,
taught numerous short courses and seminars for a variety of corporations and
scientific societies, and is the author or coauthor of 170 publications. Dr. Surdam
previously served as Associate Editor of the Bulletin of the Geological Society of
America (1989), and edited AAPG Memoir 37.
Dr. Surdam’s current and recent research interests include the San Joaquin
and Coastal basins of California, the Gulf Coast, the Western Canada Basin, the
Rocky Mountain Laramide basins, the Potiguar and Renconcavo basins of Brazil,
the San Jorge Basin of Argentina, the Sinu Basin of Colombia, the Maracaibo
Basin of Venezuela, the Mahakam Delta of Indonesia, and the Gippsland Basin
of Australia. In all of these areas, he is generally interested in the petroleum sys-
tem, with special interest in source-reservoir rock relations; fluid-flow character-
istics, including sealing mechanisms; clastic diagenesis; and determination of the
spatial attributes of hydrocarbon accumulations.

iii
 ◆

Acknowledgments
◆

Many thanks and congratulations to the following authors and technical reviewers who worked diligently to
make this volume possible:

AUTHORS
David M. Allard Henry P. Heasler John T. Leftwich Hugh W. Reid
C.D. Atkinson Susan J. Hippler T. Leslie Leith John H. Sales
George W. Bolger Huseyin Is Debi T. Maucione John Sneider
Peter J. Boult Zun Sheng Jiao Randi S. Martinsen Robert M. Sneider
Terry Engelder John G. Kaldi John W. Neasham Ronald C. Surdam
A.E. Fallick Mark R. Krolow James C. Niemann Paul N. Theologou
J. Foden James Krushin Ron A. Noble Kadir Uygur
M. Arif Yükler

REVIEWERS
William R. Almon William P. Iverson John W. Neasham Stephen A. Sonnenberg
David K. Baskin John G. Kaldi Peter D’Onfro Robert M. Sneider
Mark P. Fischer Randi S. Martinsen Olivier Poix Ronald J. Steele
Willim Higgs John McKay John H. Sales Brian Towler
Peter Huntoon Norman R. Morrow Leta K. Smith Charles L. Vavra
John Warme

I would like thank the Gas Research Institute (GRI) of Chicago for generously supporting various research pro-
grams at the Institute of Energy Research (IER); it is fair to say that the bulk of the work presented in Section III of
the memoir would not have been undertaken without GRI support. In fact, the innovative ideas of Dave Powley
(GRI; formerly of Amoco) provided the impetus to study and apprehend concepts relating to pressure seals and
compartments; subsequently, GRI has provided many resources and encouragement to accomplish this task.
In addition, I would like to acknowledge Alice Rush, David Copeland, and Laura Vass of the IER at the
University of Wyoming for their contributions to the volume. Allory Deiss (IER) created and improved graphics
for several authors in the memoir, and has been an invaluable part of this effort. I would also like to thank my
co-editor Kathy Kirkaldie (IER), who kept the effort progressing by accomplishing large and small tasks with
enthusiasm and optimism and always with a great deal of encouragement.

iv
 ◆
Foreword
◆
P etroleum explorationists, in the ever increasingly
difficult search for hydrocarbons, presently place
significant emphasis on integrated studies of
source, conduit, seal and reservoir lithologies, and
traps (Magoon and Dow, 1994, and others in AAPG
Memoir 60). R.J. Murris (1984), in the introduction to
AAPG Memoir 35, offers a real and graphic display of
the importance of such integrated approaches to oil
and gas exploration. In his figure 1, based on an actual
case of 165 prospects, Murris (1984) nicely illustrates
that ranking prospects by trap size alone increases
forecasting efficiency of hydrocarbon accumulations
by 28% over a random drilling order. For quite some
time it has been apparent that the majority of success-
ful wells are sited on structural closures, but it has
been equally apparent that the majority of unsuccess-
ful wells also are sited on structural closure. Murris
(1984) demonstrates that by including geochemical
charge and retention parameters (e.g., source potential,
maturation history, and expulsion efficiency), a fore-
casting efficiency as high as 63% can be obtained.
Murris (1984) argues that it is possible—by integrating
source rock studies with structural aspects during the
evaluation of a prospect—to reduce exploration uncer-
tainty significantly.
Magoon and Dow (1994) promoted a holistic
approach to the evaluation of a “petroleum system”
by formalizing the integration of data on essential
elements and processes characterizing a petroleum
accumulation. Ultimately, they hoped that this
approach would reduce the risk of exploring for
hydrocarbon plays and prospects. They considered
source rocks, reservoir rocks, seal rocks, and over-
burden rocks as the essential elements of a petrole-
um system, and trapped formation and the genera-
tion, migration, and accumulation of petroleum, the
vital processes affecting it.
After much discussion on petroleum systems with
many exploration geologists, it has become clear to
me that the least understood element in a petroleum
system typically is the seal, and the least understood
process in a petroleum system is the trapping of
hydrocarbons. To be sure, if explorationists are to
reach the 68% forecasting efficiency described by
Murris (1984), we must substantially improve our
understanding of seals and trapping mechanisms.
v
After all, in many places in the world, our knowledge
of structural settings and source rock attributes have
been enhanced greatly, yet in these areas forecasting
efficiencies do not begin to approach 68%.
This AAPG memoir is a serious attempt to reduce
uncertainty with respect to hydrocarbon traps and
seals. Armed with the knowledge available in this vol-
ume and the experiences willingly shared by its
authors, explorationists will be able to get beyond the
essential knowledge threshold and begin to take the
steps necessary to acquire a better conceptual under-
standing of hydrocarbon traps and seals and produce
the diagnostic tools we so desperately need to expedite
their development. In my opinion, in most frontier
prospective areas, 70% forecasting efficiencies will
only become a reality when techniques and technolo-
gies are developed to detect, delineate, and quantify
the capacity of sealing lithologies, and the critical char-
acteristics of trapping mechanisms are documented.
This memoir is divided into the following sections:
(I) Seal Characteristics: Processes Controlling Sealing
Capacity; (II) Traps: Hydrocarbon Seals in a Regional
Context; and (III) Pressure Seals and Fluid
Compartments. R.M. Sneider, J.S. Sneider, G. Bolger,
and J.W. Neasham start Section I with a description
of a new technique to measure sealing capacity using
cuttings (i.e., hydrocarbon column heights). Prior to
this work, analytical techniques were restricted to
core samples; because the coring of fine-grained
lithologies occurs mainly by accident, quantitative
data on seals remained scarce. With the advent of the
techniques outlined in this paper, essential seal data
should become much more readily available. A paper
by R. Noble, J. Kaldi, and C.D. Atkinson discusses the
role of hydrocarbons in fine-grained lithologies and
relates it to seal performance. J. Krushin’s paper
examines the use of pore-throat distribution to seal
performance. In contrast, J. Niemann and M.R.
Krolow discuss a method to determine if faults exhib-
it sealing or leaking characteristics.
Section II of this memoir addresses seals in a
regional context; in other words, the trapping of
hydrocarbons. J. Sales starts the discussion with a
summary of his lifetime effort to understand the
relationship between seal strength and trap closure.
This paper is followed by J. Kaldi and C.D. Atkinson
vi Surdam
with a neat case history that demonstrates the value
of evaluating sealing potential. Next the memoir
includes papers by S.J. Hippler, and T.L. Leith and
A. Fallick that discuss the role of fractures, diagene-
sis, and organics in seals associated with North Sea
oil fields. D. Allard discusses fault seal interpreta-
tion techniques that may improve our understand-
ing of basin-specific seal integrity. P. Boult, P.
Theologou, and J. Foden continue the discussion of
hydrocarbon traps with a chapter on seal leakage
and capillary properties in the Eromanga Basin of
central Australia. This section of the memoir con-
cludes with a discussion of carbonate hydrocarbon
reservoirs and seals in southeast Turkey by K.
Uygur, H. Is, and M. Yükler.
Section III of the memoir deals with pressure seals
and pressure compartments, or anomalously pres-
sured hydrocarbon accumulations. R.C. Surdam, Z.
Jiao, and H. Heasler start the discussion by describing
anomalously pressured gas accumulations in Rocky
Mountain Laramide basins. They suggest that gas-sat-
urated pressure compartments are a new class of
hydrocarbon accumulation. Next, R. Martinsen deter-
mines the difference between a stratigraphic trap and
a fluid-pressure compartment. Stratigraphic elements
and pressure seals are discussed by Z. Jiao and R.C.
Surdam, whereas T. Engelder and J. Leftwich present
a case history of the role of faults in the establishment
of pressure seals and compartments. D. Maucione
and R.C. Surdam next discuss the remote detection of
regional pressure seals using seismic reflection data.
vi
In the last paper in this section, R.C. Surdam intro-
duces a new exploration paradigm used in the search
for anomalously pressured gas/condensate accumu-
lations, or so-called "pressure compartments." The
memoir concludes with an appendix by H. Reid, in
which analyses of drillstem test data are used to more
accurately assess the leakage potential and reservoir
quality of tight formations, even potential seals.
In summary, I believe that every explorationist can
learn something from the articles contained in this
volume. I hope all who read it will more fully appre-
ciate the role of seals and traps in determining the
spatial distribution of hydrocarbon accumulations.
This AAPG memoir is the outgrowth of a very timely
Hedberg Conference sponsored by the AAPG—a con-
ference that clearly demonstrated communication is
the key to integrated scientific endeavors.
Good luck and success in your search for the ever-
elusive hydrocarbon.
Ronald C. Surdam
REFERENCES
Magoon, L.B., and W.G. Dow, 1994, The petroleum
system, in L.B. Magoon and W.G. Dow, eds., The
petroleum system from source to trap: AAPG
Memoir 60, p. 3–24.
Murris, R.J., 1984, Introduction, in G. Demaison and
R.J. Murris, eds., Petroleum geochemistry and
basin evolution: AAPG Memoir 35, p. x-xii.
 ◆

Table of Contents
◆

Foreword R.C. Surdam

Section I Seal Characteristics: Processes Controlling Sealing Capacity

1 Comparison of Seal Capacity Determinations: Core vs. Cuttings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
R.M. Sneider, J.S. Sneider, G.W. Bolger, and J.W. Neasham

2 Oil Saturation in Shales: Applications in Seal Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

R.A. Noble, J.G. Kaldi, and C.D. Atkinson

3 Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

J.T. Krushin

4 Delineation of a Pressure Fault Seal from Shale Resistivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

J.C. Niemann and M.R. Krolow

Section II Traps: Hydrocarbon Seals in a Regional Context

5 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution
of Oil and Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
J.K. Sales

6 Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the Talang Akar Formation,

Offshore Northwest Java, Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
J.G. Kaldi and C.D.Atkinson

7 Microstructures and Diagenesis in North Sea Fault Zones: Implications

for Fault-Seal Potential and Fault Migration rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
S.J. Hippler

8 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field,

Norwegian North Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
T.L. Leith and A.E. Fallick

9 Fault Leak Controlled Trap Fill: Rift Basin Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135

D.M. Allard

10 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications

for Exploration and Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
P.J. Boult, P.N. Theologou, and J. Foden

11 Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in

Bölükya-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields, SE Turkey: A Petrographic
and Petrophysical Comparison of Overthrust and Foreland Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
K. Uygur, H. Is, and M.A.Yükler

vii
viii Table of Contents

Section III Pressure Seals and Fluid Compartments

12 Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks
of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming: A New Class of
Hydrocarbon Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
R.C. Surdam, Z.S. Jiao, and H.P. Heasler

13 Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of

Fluid-Pressure Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
R.S. Martinsen

14 Characteristics of Anomalously Pressured Cretaceous Shales in the

Laramide Basins of Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Z.S. Jiao and R.C. Surdam

15 A Pore-Pressure Limit in Overpressured South Texas Oil and Gas Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
T. Engelder and J.T. Leftwich

16 Seismic Response Characteristics of a Regional-Scale Pressure

Compartment Boundary, Alberta Basin, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
D.T. Maucione and R.C. Surdam

17 A New Paradigm for Gas Exploration in Anomalously Pressured

“Tight Gas Sands” in Rocky Mountain Laramide Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
R.C. Surdam

Appendix Evaluating Seal Facies Permeability and Fluid Content from

Drill-Stem Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
H.W. Reid

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
 AAPG
Wishes to thank the following
for their generous contributions
to

Seals, Traps, and the Petroleum System

Amoco Production Company

Mobil Exploration and Producing Technical Center

PetroTech Associates

John K. Sales

Contributions are applied against the production

costs of publication, thus directly reducing the book’s
purchase price and making the volume
available to a greater audience.

ix
 Sneider, R.M., J.S. Sneider, G.W. Bolger, and J.W.
Neasham, 1997, Comparison of seal capacity
determinations: conventional cores vs. cuttings, in
R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum
system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 1–12.

Chapter 1
◆

Comparison of Seal Capacity Determinations:

Conventional Cores vs. Cuttings
Robert M. Sneider
John S. Sneider
Robert M. Sneider Exploration, Inc.
Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

George W. Bolger
John W. Neasham1
PetroTech Associates
Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Comparison of hydrocarbon column heights (HCHs) calculated from seals
recovered in conventional cores with HCHs calculated by using cuttings
from the same interval indicates that mercury/air capillary pressure mea-
surements of cuttings can be extremely useful to estimate seal capacity. An
empirical adjustment factor (EAF), expressed in psi, needs to be added to the
capillary pressure value determined on cuttings to approximate that mea-
sured with mercury/air capillary pressure of conventional cores.
For top and lateral seals that are the result of lithologic changes (as
opposed to fault seals), good to excellent agreement is found between the
hydrocarbons actually trapped in fields and the HCH calculated from mer-
cury/air capillary pressure curves of vertical plugs cut perpendicular to the
sealing surface. The plugs are sealed with epoxy so that mercury can enter
only from the top and base of the plug. The mercury/air capillary pressure
curves are generated using a system that can inject mercury at pressures up
to 60,000 psi [8703 kPa] (equivalent to a hydrocarbon column of >10,000 ft
for 35° API gravity oil and normal saline water).
Depending upon seal type, high-pressure mercury/air injection curves
(HPMIC) of cuttings can be used to approximate those of samples from con-
ventional cores. Injection pressures for cuttings are usually lower than those
from equivalent cores for a particular percent pore volume occupied by mer-
cury. Empirical adjustment factors (EAFs), expressed in psi, for different seal
types are derived from comparisons of HPMIC on epoxy-sealed vertical
conventional core plugs with cuttings or “simulated cuttings” of the same
seal interval. The EAF values are added to the capillary pressure measure-
ment of cuttings to obtain the approximate value of mercury/air capillary

1Now with Poro Technology, Houston, Texas

1
2 Sneider et al.
pressure of a vertical plug. The EAF vary from ~1900 psi (mercury/air) for
type “A” seals to ~25 psi for type “D” seals, using 7.5% mercury pore vol-
ume saturation as the reference saturation.
Careful sample preparation and accurate closure corrections are critical to
obtaining accurate HPMIC measurements and corresponding EAF values for
HCH calculations.
INTRODUCTION
This paper addresses the question: “How useful are
cuttings of seals to estimate the hydrocarbon column
heights?” This is an important question because cut-
tings of seal lithologies are very common, but cores of
seals are rare.
During the past 25 yr, we have been coring seals and
collecting cuttings while coring or crushing seal cores
to produce “simulated cuttings.” Figure 1 is an exam-
ple of a cored seal–reservoir interface. A comparison of
high-pressure mercury/air injection capillary pressure
curves (HPMICs) of both the cores and associated cut-
tings or simulated cuttings shows that it is possible to
estimate the capillary pressure equivalent to a vertical
seal lithology from HPMICs of cuttings by adding an
empirically derived adjustment factor (EAF) in psi.
This paper reviews some principles of hydrocarbon
entrapment, discusses sample preparation, and pre-
sents examples of empirical relationships between
HPMICs of core samples and associated cuttings.
HYDROCARBON ENTRAPMENT
Schowalter’s 1979 paper on seals reviews the princi-
ples of hydrocarbon entrapment/accumulation. A
brief review of the key principles is presented to
explain the entrapment/accumulation processes and
how mercury/air measurements relate to hydrocar-
bon/water capillary pressure and, in turn, to hydrocar-
bon column height (HCH) trapped against seals.
Figure 2 is a schematic of a stratigraphically
trapped reservoir with its adjacent seals. Hydrocar-
bons entering the reservoir are driven by the buoyancy
force or pressure (Pb), which is the difference in den-
sity of the hydrocarbons and formation water × the
hydrocarbon column height (h) × 0.433, the gradient
of fresh water. Hydrocarbons entering the reservoir
must enter the pores and displace the pore water. The
equation of this resistive force (Pc, a rock’s capillary
pressure) is shown in Figure 2. Hydrocarbons will
continue to fill the reservoir and be trapped against the
seals until the buoyancy pressure due to the hydrocar-
bon–water system in the reservoir exceeds the capil-
lary entry pressure (Pe) of the weakest seal rock. In
water-wet or mostly water-wet systems, hydrocarbons
will continue to leak into the seals until a balance or
equilibrium is reached between the seal entry pressure
and the pressure within the reservoir system.
We have estimated the HCHs in more than 200
reservoirs where low-permeability lithologies (not
faults) are the seals. We observe that the estimated
HCHs of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs correspond
to the mercury/air capillary pressure between ~5%
and 10% nonwetting phase saturation. We have used
Pc at 7.5% nonwetting phase saturation to indicate the
saturation at which the seal actually leaks hydrocar-
bons through its pore network. This saturation is
called “breakthrough” or “leakage” saturation.
Figure 3 shows capillary pressure vs. nonwetting
phase curves for the mercury/air system for seals “A”
and “D.” Using the assumed densities of oil, gas, and
water given and interfacial tensions (in dynes/cm) of
30, 70, and 480 for oil/water, gas/water, and mer-
cury/air systems, mercury capillary pressures are con-
verted to oil/water and gas/water systems. If the seal
capillary pressure (Pc) for leakage is taken at 7.5% non-
wetting phase saturation, the “A” seal will hold ~1200
ft of oil or 520 ft of gas before leakage through the seals
occurs. The “D” seal will hold ~120 ft of oil or ~50 ft of
gas before leakage through the seal. The equations to
convert mercury/air capillary pressure to oil/water
and gas/water capillary pressure and to HCH are out-
lined in Appendix 1.
It is important to remember that when mercury
injection capillary pressure (MICP) data are converted
to reservoir conditions, the values of oil/gas/water
densities and interfacial tensions must be corrected for
reservoir temperature and pressure.
SEAL TYPES
Sneider et al. (1991) studied several hundred seal litholo-
gies and presented an arbitrary classification of seals based
on the hydrocarbon column held. The seal types and
hydrocarbon columns held are shown in Table 1.
The study used mercury/air capillary pressure
curves, which were converted to an oil/water capillary
system assuming 35° API gravity oil and normal saline
water. The oil/water capillary system was converted
into the hydrocarbon column height (HCH) held
before leakage through the seal. Leakage is assumed to
be where Pc equals 7.5% nonwetting phase saturation
based on a comparison of HCH observed in the field
and the column height calculated from the
mercury/air capillary pressure curve when the satura-
tion is 7.5%. In Figure 3, the mercury/air capillary
pressure at P c = 7.5% nonwetting phase saturation
 Seal Capacity from Cores vs. Cuttings 3

RESERVOIR–SEAL COUPLET Figure 1. Core of an

anhydrite top seal on a
LITHOLOGY SEAL TYPE Pc @ 7.5% Hg dolomite reservoir, San
(OIL) Saturation (psi) Andres Formation, New
Mexico.
ANHYDRITE A >50,000

“CHICKEN WIRE”
B 809 – 2395
ANHYDRITE

TIGHT DOLOMITE
PARTIALLY
D–E 65 – 130
REPLACED BY
ANHYDRITE

RESERVOIR
DOLOMITE 10 – 80
ROCK

converts to an oil/water capillary pressure for “A” and
“D” seals of 113 psi and 11.4 psi, respectively, which in
turn converts to a HCH held of ~1200 and 120 ft,
respectively, for the “A” and “D” seals. In other words,
the “A” seal will hold a HCH of ~1200 ft if the oil is 35°
API and the pore water is normal saline water. If more
oil enters the reservoir, hydrocarbons will leak through
the seal. The hydrocarbon column held by a seal is a
function of its capillary pressure curve (i.e., pore throat
size distribution) and the density of the hydrocarbons
and pore water. For other oil, gas, and water densities,
the hydrocarbon column held can be determined by
the equations in Appendix 1.
SAMPLE PREPARATION AND
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
MEASUREMENTS
Conventional core samples are cut perpendicular to
bedding or perpendicular to the potential sealing sur-
face (Figure 4). Core samples and cuttings are
extracted to remove all hydrocarbons and are dried at
approximately 60°C for at least 24 hr; the dry weight of
the samples is then measured. The sides of the conven-
tional core plug are coated with epoxy so that mercury
can enter only at the top and bottom of the plug.

Figure 2. Schematic of a
stratigraphic trap showing
TOP SEAL LATERAL the forces (pressures) control-
Pe
SEAL ling hydrocarbon entrap-
ment. Pb = buoyancy
Pe pressure in psi or the driving
Pe force; Pc = capillary pressure
in psi or the resistive force; Pc
at 7.5% nonwetting satura-
tion is assumed to be the seal
leakage saturation; h =
hydrocarbon column height
BOTTOM in feet; σ = interfacial tension
Pb = h ( w - hc) 0.433, psi SEAL between water and hydrocar-
2 cos bon in dynes; θ = contact or
Pc = dynes/cm2
r wetting angle, in degrees; r =
Pe = seal capillary entry pressure (psi) radius of the capillary tube
(or pore throat) in cm.
4 Sneider et al.

APPROXIMATE Figure 3. Mercury/air

MERCURY-AIR OIL-WATER GAS-WATER
Pc = 7.5% Sat. capillary pressure curves
Pc (psi) h (ft) Pc (psi) h (ft)
3000 of “A” and “D” seals.
o/w = 30 dynes/cm g/w = 70 dynes/cm
A Breakthrough pressure or
D leakage of hydrocarbons
HYDROCARBON through the seal is assumed
113 1,189 232 521 COLUMN HELD
1000 A SEAL to be at 7.5% nonwetting
phase saturation. The
500 approximate oil/water
and gas/water capillary
300 pressures and hydrocarbon
column height for oil and
11.4 120 23.5 53
HYDROCARBON
COLUMN HELD
gas are shown.
D SEAL
100

50 OIL GAS

30

A CLAY-RICH SHALE
D SANDY SILTSTONE

10
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
NONWETTING PHASE SATURATION (%)

The core plug or cuttings are sealed in a glass pen-
etrometer (Figure 5a) that is placed into a “low-
pressure” port of a porosimeter. A vacuum of 10–20µ is
drawn on the rock sample, and the penetrometer is filled
with mercury at a “filling pressure” of 1.5 psia. This is
called the “low-pressure” mercury injection stage.
In the low-pressure stage, the injection pressure is
increased incrementally over a series of pressure
steps up to 25.0 psia. Equilibrium condition is estab-
lished at each pressure point (step) when mercury
intrusion ceases, as indicated by the lack of any pres-
sure drop at the end of a 20-sec waiting period. At the
end of the low-pressure injection stage, the holder
with the sample is removed from the porosimeter,
weighed, and then loaded into the high-pressure cell.
The injection pressure is returned to both the same
pressure point and respective amount of mercury
intrusion that existed at the last low-pressure point.
The pressure is then increased incrementally to
60,000 psia. Equilibrium at each high-pressure step is
determined as in the low-pressure stage; however, a
60-sec waiting period is used. Computer hardware/
software controls, monitors, and records test results.
Data are corrected for any artifacts by applying cali-
bration data obtained by running blanks.
More than 100 pressure steps or measurements are
made during both the low- and high-pressure stages.
At the conclusion of each MICP sample analysis, the
test results are printed out for examination and evalu-
ation. A pressure vs. volume of mercury plot is shown
in Figure 5b. These data are placed on a disk for pro-
cessing and final data reduction.
VERTICAL SIDES OF VERTICAL
PLUG CUT PLUG COATED AND
SEALED WITH EPOXY

Table 1. Seal Types and Hydrocarbon Columns.

Seal-Flow Barrier 35° API Oil Column Held

Type (m) (ft) 1 INCH
A* ≥1500 ≥5000
A ≥300– <1500 ≥1000– <5000
B ≥150– <300 ≥500– <1000
C ≥30– <150 ≥100– <500 3/4 INCH

D ≥15– <30 ≥50– <100

E <15 <50
F Waste Zone Rocks1
Figure 4. Schematic diagram shows orientation of
1Poor-quality, low-permeability rocks that contain appreciable vertical seal plug that is coated with epoxy. Mercury
hydrocarbons. enters the sample only at the top and bottom.

AUTOPORE
(PRESSURE VS. VOLUME MEASURED)
1.0
)
0.8
(
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
100 50
a b
PRESSURE
GENERATOR
Figure 5. (a) Penetrometer with sample surrounded with mercury in the porosimeter pressure chamber. (b) Plot
of cumulative pressure vs. mercury intrusion volume. (After Micromeritics, 1995.)
A key aspect for each HPMIC test is the determina-
tion of “closure pressure.” Closure pressure is that
pressure at which mercury first enters the sample pore
space (i.e., initial pore entry pressure) as opposed to
mercury closing or conforming around the sample to
fill sample surface irregularities that are not part of the
sample pore volume. The more irregular the sample
surface(s) (i.e., cuttings), the higher the closure. The
closure or apparent mercury intrusion must be deter-
mined from examination of the plots of pressure vs.
mercury volume injected. The closure must be sub-
tracted prior to the calculation of capillary pressure vs.
percent of pore space (pore volume) occupied. These
calculations were made for all the HPMIC curves mea-
sured in our studies.
Figure 6 is a portion of two capillary pressure curves
that have been corrected for closure. One curve is of an
epoxy-sealed vertical plug, and the other is of simu-
lated cuttings prepared from the rock surrounding
where the plug was cut. The capillary entry pressure
(Pe) is 26 psi for the simulated cuttings and 91 psi for
the plug. The pressure vs. mercury saturation values
for the simulated cuttings and epoxy-coated vertical
Seal Capacity from Cores vs. Cuttings 5
POROSIMETER
10 5 1 0.5 0.10.05 0.01
DIAMETER ( m)
plug approach one another as the pressure increases.
The difference in capillary pressure (in psia) at Pc =
7.5% mercury (nonwetting phase) saturation is defined
as the empirical adjustment factor (EAF). In this exam-
ple, 179 psi – 170 psi = 9 psi; 9 psi would be added to
the capillary pressure value of the cuttings to approxi-
mate the capillary pressure of the epoxy-sealed vertical
plug. The EAF is 9 psi.
Figure 7 illustrates the mercury saturation in a ver-
tical plug in which mercury can enter only at the ends
(Figure 7A). At the entry capillary pressure of Pe = 0%
mercury (Figure 7B), the nonwetting phase begins to
enter or surround the pore system at the end of the
plug. As pressure increases, mercury enters the
pores. At a mercury saturation of about 7.5%, we
visualize that one or more continuous filaments or
pathways of mercury connect from one end of the
plug to the other (Figure 7C). We believe that this is
at or near the breakthrough saturation (when the
nonwetting phase leaks through the seal). It is possi-
ble that the breakthrough saturation may vary for
different seals, but 7.5% mercury saturation is consis-
tent with our empirical observations.
6 Sneider et al.

200

Pe10% = 191 psi

Pe10% = 187 psi
180
Pe core = 179 psi
7.5% EAF
Pe cuttings = 170 psi
7.5%
160
Empirical Pe5% =
Adjustment Factor (EAF) = 9 psi
161 psi

140

Pe5% = 130 psi

(psi)

120

100

Pe = 91 psi
0%

80
SIMULATED CUTTING

SEALED VERTICAL PLUG

60

40

Pe0% = 26 psi
20
= 7.9%, ka = 0.02 md

0
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
MERCURY SATURATION (% PORE VOLUME)

Figure 6. A portion of high-pressure capillary pressure curves of a sealed

vertical plug and simulated cuttings of the rock from which the plug was cut.
Note the capillary pressures at Pe = 0% (initial mercury entry) and at 5%, 7.5%,
and 10% nonwetting phase saturation. Ka = air permeability.

TYPICAL HIGH-PRESSURE pore space occupied by the nonwetting phase mer-

MERCURY/AIR CAPILLARY
INJECTION CURVES
Figure 8 shows high-pressure mercury/air injec-
tion capillary pressure curves (HPMIC) for four typi-
cal seals. In each graph, the curve with black squares
is a vertical plug epoxy sealed on its sides, and the
other curve (open squares) is of simulated cuttings
from the same piece of rock from which the core plug
was cut. At lower values of capillary pressure and
cury, the cuttings curves are below the plug curves.
The cuttings have all sides of the sample fragments
exposed, and mercury will first enter the larger pore
throat sizes and the partial pores exposed on the sur-
face of the sample. Although not illustrated in this
paper, nonsealed horizontal plugs of seals have cap-
illary pressure curves very similar to simulated cut-
tings. The HPMIC curves show the entry pressure
and the capillary pressure at 5% and 10% nonwetting
phase saturation, expressed as pore space occupied
by mercury. A 7.5% nonwetting phase saturation
 Seal Capacity from Cores vs. Cuttings 7

MERCURY INJECTION AT TOP MERCURY INJECTION AT TOP

X Y X Y

SEALED SAMPLE
WITH EPOXY COATING
ON SIDES

MERCURY INJECTION
A MERCURY INJECTION AT BOTTOM B AT BOTTOM
Pc @ 0% Hg Saturation

MERCURY INJECTION

X Y

C Pc @ 7.5% Hg Saturation

Figure 7. Schematic diagram illustrating the distribution of mercury at Pe = 0% and Pc = 7.5% mer-
cury saturation. Mercury is black. Note the continuous filaments of mercury through the sample.
(A) The mercury injection sample. (B) Pc at ±0% mercury (Hg) saturation. Mercury fills and conforms
with the outer grain surfaces. (C) Pc at 7.5% mercury (Hg) saturation. Mercury fills many pores, and
numerous mercury-filled pathways are continuous from the top to the bottom of the plug. Pc at 7.5%
mercury saturation is assumed to be the breakthrough or leakage pressure of the sample. (After
Micromeritics, 1995.)
8 Sneider et al.

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (Pore Volume) Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (Pore Volume)
100000 100000

10000 Plug 10000

Plug

1000 Cuttings 1000

Cuttings

100 Por. = 3.9% 100 Por. = 9.4%

Perm. = 0.005 md. Perm. = 0.031 md.

10 Pc@ Plug Cuttings 10 Pc@ Plug Cuttings

Entry 130 100 Entry 400 160

5% 1600 700 5% 1000 450
10% 3600 2500 10% 1300 800

1 1
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Pore Space Occupied (%) Pore Space Occupied (%)

"A" SEAL "B" SEAL

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (Pore Volume) Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (Pore Volume)
100000 100000

10000 10000

Cuttings

1000 1000
Plug
Plug

100 Por. = 13.1% Cuttings 100 Por. = 19.0%

Perm. = 0.43 md. Perm. = 0.43 md.

10 Pc@ Plug Cuttings 10 Pc@ Plug Cuttings

Entry 60 25 Entry 30 22
5% 265 122 5% 105 85
10% 300 225 10% 135 125

1 1
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Pore Space Occupied (%) Pore Space Occupied (%)

"C" SEAL "D" SEAL

Figure 8. Examples of high-pressure mercury/air injection curves for seal types “A”, “B”, “C”, and “D”. Curves
for the vertical plug are designated with black squares; the cuttings curves (open squares) are of simulated cut-
tings from rock adjacent to the vertical plug.
 A B

"A" SEAL "B" SEAL

C D

"C" SEAL 10 µ "D" SEAL

1000 X

Figure 9. SEM photomicrograph of seal types “A,” “B,” “C,” and “D” illustrated in Figure 8.
Note the 10µ scale. “A” Seal—Predominant clay fabric with limited grain support. Clay par-
ticles are compacted and have only a slight recrystallized diagenetic appearance.
Intercrystalline pore volume is low. “B” Seal—Rock fabric shows some grain support and
has common intergranular detrital clay. Clay particles are generally compacted and exhibit
limited diagenetic character. Minor intercrystalline pore space, largely concentrated in inter-
granular areas where clay is less compacted. “C” Seal—Rock fabric shows grain support.
Intergranular clay particles have a more random orientation, which corresponds to an
increase in intercrystalline pore volume. Clay morphology shows more pronounced diage-
netic character. “D” Seal—Grain-supported fabric with development of quartz overgrowth
cement. Clay minerals consist of diagenetic grain-coating/pore-filling chlorite and kaolinite
with common intercrystalline pore space. Partial preservation of intergranular pores, with
apertures restricted by diagenetic phases.
10 Sneider et al.

Table 2. Empirical Adjustment Factors (EAFs) to Estimate Air/Mercury (Air/Hg) Capillary Pressures of
Vertical, Epoxy-Coated Plugs from Air/Mercury Capillary Pressure of Cuttings.

EAF Values Added to Cuttings Air/Hg Capillary

Pressure (psia) at 7.5% Mercury Saturation
Number
Seal Type of Samples Average Min. Max.
A* 6 2315 1402 3120
A 72 1810 923 4009
B 79 455 423 1040
C 48 140 22 363
D 27 30 27 91

correlates best with the hydrocarbon column heights
(HCH) found in reservoirs.
The air permeabilities of the seals measured under
stress are low to very low. Scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) photomicrographs (Figure 9) show the
poor interconnection of pores in the “A” and “B” seals.
For the “C” and “D” seals, pore size and interconnec-
tion increase.
EMPIRICAL ADJUSTMENT FACTORS
The empirical adjustment factor (EAF) is the differ-
ence expressed in pressure (psi) between the capillary
pressure at a specific mercury saturation measured on a
vertical plug of a seal cut perpendicular to the sealing
surface (i.e., usually a vertical plug cut perpendicular to
a bedding surface) and that measured on simulated

1554 Figure 10. Mercury/air and

"D" oil/water capillary pressure
N = 905 SEALS 1564
140 14 curves of reservoir and seal
rocks from the Tar Springs
1574 Formation, Benton Field,
Illinois. The field column
120 12 1584 height is about 90 ft, which
corresponds to the oil
1594 column held by the weakest
7.5% “D” seal. Leakage is
100 10 1604 assumed to be at 7.5% oil
(psi)

(psi)

saturation. IAA =
1614 >1000–5200 md, well-sorted,
lower medium-grained
80 8 1624 sandstone; IA = 200–1000
IC, ID-II md, very well sorted, upper
1634 very fine grained sand-
stone; IA-B = 50–200 md,
60 6 IB 1644 well-sorted, lower and
upper very fine grained
1654 sandstone; IB = 10–50 md,
IA-B moderate to well sorted,
40 4 1664 lower very fine grained
sandstone and siltstone;
IA 1674 and IC, ID-II = 0.1–10 md,
moderately sorted siltstone.
20 2 IAA 1684 OOWC = original oil/water
contact.
1694
FIELD OOWC 1700
0 0 1704
100 80 60 40 20 0
MERCURY AND OIL SATURATION (% PORE VOLUME)

cuttings of the same seal rock type. The saturation val-
ues chosen for EAF usually are determined at 5%, 7.5%,
or 10% nonwetting phase saturation. In this paper, 7.5%
nonwetting phase (mercury) saturation is used.
From hundreds of pairs of HPMIC curves like those
in Figure 8, EAFs are derived by averaging pressure val-
ues between the plug and cuttings values determined at
7.5% nonwetting phase saturation. The EAFs, in psi, are
the average values that need to be added to an HPMIC
curve of cuttings to approximate the capillary pressure
that would be measured on the vertical plug in which
the sides are coated and sealed with epoxy. We have
standardized on deriving the EAFs at 7.5% mercury sat-
uration. This is based on empirical data that show an
equivalence between column heights held in reservoirs
and the estimated seal capacity derived from HPMIC
data of the capping seals.
The most up-to-date data sets on EAFs are shown in
Table 2. These data are based on more than 230 seals.
As we continually add additional pairs of vertical
plugs and cuttings or simulated cuttings, the EAFs
might be modified, but we expect that future values
will not be significantly changed.
Figure 10 shows mercury/air capillary pressure
curves based on 905 samples of reservoirs and seals
from the Lower Carboniferous sandstone in the Benton
Field in Illinois. The trap is a simple, four-way closed
anticline. The 24 seals measured are “D” type. The mer-
cury/air capillary pressure curves of the reservoir and
seals are converted to the oil/water system, and then the
height of hydrocarbon column held by the weakest “D”
seal is calculated. The field HCH of ~90 ft agrees closely
with the hydrocarbon column predicted for the seal
capacity using the capillary pressure value at 7.5% non-
wetting phase saturation.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Vertical plugs cut perpendicular to sealing sur-
faces and epoxy-coated on the sides are the most
reliable sample type to obtain high-pressure mer-
cury/air capillary pressure curves on seals.
2. High-pressure mercury injection curves (HPMIC)
of cuttings from seals at low mercury saturation
values give capillary pressure curves whose pres-
sure values for seal capacity (i.e., hydrocarbon col-
umn heights held) are lower than those of the
vertical plugs.
3. Empirical adjustment factors (EAFs) added to the
capillary pressure curves of the cuttings can be
used to approximate the capillary pressure of
vertical plugs.
4. The EAF values are picked at a nonwetting phase
saturation of 7.5%. The capillary pressure at 7.5%
saturation corresponds best with the heights of
hydrocarbon columns measured in many fields.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Dr. C.L. Vavra of ARCO
E & P Technology, Plano, Texas, and an unknown
Seal Capacity from Cores vs. Cuttings 11
reviewer for their editorial comments. We owe special
thanks to Florence Rollins for drafting assistance and
to Ramona Sneider for preparing the manuscript.
APPENDIX 1
Equations to Convert Mercury/Air Capillary
Pressure to Oil/Water and Gas/Water Capillary
Pressure and HCH
The hydrocarbon column held is a function of the
buoyancy pressure, generated by the difference
between the hydrocarbon and water density, necessary
to overcome the capillary pressure of the seal rock at a
given nonwetting phase saturation (e.g., 0%, 5%, 7.5%).
The following equation illustrates this relationship:
Pc = h( ρ w – ρ h )0.433
h/w (psi)
Pc (1)
h (ft) = h/w
( ρ w – ρ h )0.433
The following values are commonly used for the
above calculation: water density (ρw) = 1.110 g/cc; oil
density (ρh) = 0.8498 g/cc (35° API); and gas density
(ρh) = 0.050 g/cc.
The calculation of seal capacity and hydrocarbon
column held for a given rock type is based on the
air/mercury (a/Hg) capillary pressure data and its
conversion to an equivalent hydrocarbon/water
(h/w) capillary pressure system using the following
equations:
2σ h/w cos θ h/w
Pc
r σ h/w cos θ h/w
h/w
= =
Pc 2σ a/Hg cos θ a/Hg σ a/Hg cos θ a/Hg
a/Hg
r
and (2)
 σ h/w cos θ h/w 
Pc = Pc σ 
h/w a/Hg
 a/Hg cos θ a/Hg 
where a/Hg = air/mercury/solid/system, h/w =
hydrocarbon/water/solid/system, o/w = oil/water/
solid system, and g/w = gas/water/solid system.
The following values are commonly used air/mer-
cury contact angle (θ ) = 140°; oil/water contact angle
(θ ) = 0°; gas/water contact angle (θ ) = 0°; air/mer-
cury interfacial tension ( σ ) = 480 dynes/cm;
oil/water interfacial tension (σ) = 30 dynes/cm; and
gas/water surface tension (σ) = 70 dynes/cm. These
values are for surface or near-surface conditions.
When using equations 1 and 2 for reservoir condi-
tions, the values of fluid densities and interfacial ten-
sions must be corrected for reservoir temperature
and pressure.
12 Sneider et al.

Incorporating the values into equation 2 yields the These equations are used to calculate the HCH by
following conversions: substituting the appropriate air/mercury capillary
pressures at 0%, 5%, 7.5%, or 10% mercury saturation.
Pc o/w = 0.082 Pc a/Hg
Pc g/w = 0.190 Pc a/Hg (3)
REFERENCES CITED

By incorporating the values for water, oil, and gas
density into equations 1 and 3, the hydrocarbon col-
umn heights (h) for oil and gas yields:
For oil : h(ft) = 0.728 Pc a/Hg
For gas : h(ft) = 0.414 Pc a/Hg (4)
Micromeritics, 1995, Operators manual AutoPore III:
Norcross, Georgia, 258 p.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, no. 5, p. 723–760.
Sneider, R.M., K.K. Stolper, and J.S. Sneider, 1991,
Petrophysical properties of seals (abs.): AAPG Bul-
letin, v. 75, no. 3, p. 673–674.
 Noble, R.A., J.G. Kaldi, and C.D. Atkinson, 1997, Oil
saturation in shales: applications in seal evalua-
tion, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the
petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 13–29.

Chapter 2
◆

Oil Saturation in Shales:

Applications in Seal Evaluation
R.A. Noble
J.G. Kaldi
Atlantic Richfield Indonesia Inc.
Jakarta, Indonesia

C.D. Atkinson
ARCO British Ltd.
Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT
A procedure has been developed to quantify oil saturation in the pore sys-
tem of shales. The technique uses geochemical and rock property measure-
ments of core samples (solvent extract yield, porosity, densities, and kerogen
sorption capacities). The method takes into account the fact that many shales
contain indigenous organic matter (kerogen) and that free hydrocarbons
extracted from the shale may originate either from the sorbed fraction of the
kerogen/mineral matrix or from residual hydrocarbons within the intergran-
ular pore system. A study of the Eagleford Formation from east Texas shows
that mineral surfaces of the shale most likely remain water wet and that
residual oil saturation (So) of the intergranular pore system attains the high-
est values during the intense zone of oil generation (calculated So = 15 to
70%). The saturation values are examined as a function of burial depth and
organic richness to establish typical trends for shales undergoing normal
maturation. Relationships between pore saturations and Rock-Eval S1/TOC
(total organic carbon) ratio are established so that the concepts can be
applied in cases where only Rock-Eval data are available. Samples with
S1/TOC ratios >120 mgHC/gC may contain some nonindigenous hydrocar-
bons, and those with values >200 mgHC/gC almost certainly do. These val-
ues were used to evaluate the residual oil contents and seal performance of
various fine-grained rock facies. A case study from the Talang Akar
Formation, Indonesia, shows that seal rocks with high entry pressures (from
mercury injection capillary pressure [MICP] analysis) have low hydrocarbon
contents in the range expected for in-situ generation. However, shales with
the lowest entry pressures have very high hydrocarbon (HC) contents, indi-
cating impregnation of the pore system with oil from an underlying accumu-
lation. In such samples, the seal rock has most probably attained equilibrium
with the maximum oil column height it was capable of supporting. The

13
14 Noble et al.
method complements existing mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP)
measurements of seal capacity, and provides a rapid means for detecting seal
failure or poor-quality reservoir “waste zones.”
INTRODUCTION
Laboratory procedures for measuring oil satura-
tion in coarse-grained reservoir rocks are well estab-
lished and have been used for many years in the
petroleum industry. The most commonly used proce-
dure involves either Dean-Stark extraction of resid-
ual pore fluids or high-temperature vacuum retorting
(e.g., Koepf, 1978). Neither of these methods is suit-
able for the analysis of shales and other fine-grained
sedimentary rocks. Dean-Stark extraction of intact
core plugs requires a high-permeability rock matrix
for solvent access to the pore system, which is typi-
cally not the case for shales. Vacuum-retorting meth-
ods are unsuitable for shales that contain organic
matter (kerogen) because this material breaks down
to yield hydrocarbons and other products under ther-
mal stress. Release of bound water from clay miner-
als may also complicate the assessment of pore fluid
saturation.
Despite these analytical difficulties, there are com-
pelling reasons for acquiring oil saturation data in
nonreservoir rocks. Shales and other fine-grained
rocks are the most abundant constituents of sedimen-
tary basins, often comprising 70–75% of all sediments
(Gorsline, 1984). Many fine-grained rocks serve as
source rocks for hydrocarbon accumulations, and oth-
ers may act as seals and barriers to hydrocarbon flow.
Understanding saturation profiles in source rocks can
assist in the interpretation of petroleum expulsion
efficiency and timing, which continue to be major
uncertainties in hydrocarbon charge assessment.
Quantifying saturation levels in sealing lithologies
can aid in the evaluation of trapping mechanisms and
reserves assessment and can assist in the postmortem
analysis of dry holes.
In this study, residual oil saturation (So) in shales is
addressed. The study is divided into two parts. The
first examines residual So in the Eagleford Formation
of east Texas. These organic-rich shales serve as
source rocks for oil and provide an opportunity to
examine oil saturation levels in fine-grained rocks
undergoing normal maturation. Relationships
between the core-derived saturations and the Rock-
Eval S1 peak are evaluated. In the second part, a case
study from Indonesia is presented. Potential seals
with very different capillary entry pressures are ana-
lyzed, and the amount of free hydrocarbons is mea-
sured in each. The information derived from this
assessment is used in the evaluation of seal perfor-
mance, which has important applications in explo-
ration and development programs.
EXPERIMENTAL
Samples
The two sets of samples investigated in this study
are from the Eagleford Formation of east Texas and the
Talang Akar Formation of offshore northwest Java
(ONWJ), Indonesia.
Core samples of Upper Cretaceous Eagleford shale
from seven wells in east Texas and surrounding areas
were studied in detail for the purpose of determining
oil saturation values. The marine Eagleford Forma-
tion (Woodbine Group) is an important source rock
in the region of the Sabine Uplift in east Texas and
Louisiana (Halbouty and Halbouty, 1982; Westcott
and Hood, 1994). The lithologic character of the
Eagleford samples is quite variable, ranging from
siltstones to limestones to true shales. The cored
intervals of most interest consisted of dark gray to
black shales, which were typically well laminated
and showed no evidence of bioturbation. However,
other facies including siltstones, limestones, and one
sample from a sandy reservoir interval (Saum #1,
9733 ft) were also analyzed. Clay minerals largely
consisted of kaolinite, chlorite, and, to a lesser
degree, illite (from unpublished XRD data). Visible
porosity was not apparent from thin-section pho-
tomicrographs of shales.
Conventional and sidewall cores from wells in the
Ardjuna Basin of ONWJ were used to study geochem-
ical properties of potential seal facies. The Talang Akar
Formation consists of a deltaic to marginal marine
sequence of Oligocene age. Samples analyzed in this
study included delta plain shales, channel abandon-
ment siltstones, delta front shales, prodelta shales, and
shelf carbonates. Further details of sample type, loca-
tion, and rock properties are given in the accompany-
ing paper by Kaldi and Atkinson (1997).
Geochemical Analyses
A total of 31 Eagleford and 10 Talang Akar samples
were analyzed for geochemical properties. Total
organic carbon (TOC) and Rock-Eval data were
acquired for all samples using standard analytical
methods. In addition, Soxhlet extraction and liquid
chromatography data were collected for the Eagleford
samples. Special consideration was given to acquiring
very accurate and reproducible results for the
extractable organic matter (EOM) using Soxhlet
reflux. The major source of error in this procedure is
associated with obtaining a weight-stabilized fraction
for gravimetric analysis. The amount of material lost

during the solvent “blow-down” stage varies with the
composition of the EOM and the duration/tempera-
ture used for light-end evaporation. (A discussion of
these variables is presented under “Extractable
Organic Matter.”)
Rock Property Measurements
Core plugs (1 in. [2.5 cm] diameter) were taken at
sampling points as close as possible to the geochemical
samples. The plugs were analyzed for helium porosity
(Boyle’s Law), grain density, and mercury injection
capillary pressure (MICP) (0–60,000 psi). The helium
porosity values were compared with the mercury
injection data and were found, more often than not, to
be larger, due to greater helium access to smaller
pores. The helium values were used in all calculations
involving porosity.
The results of geochemical and rock property mea-
surements are presented in Tables 1–3.
DETERMINATION OF OIL SATURATION
IN SHALES
Extractable Organic Matter
Methods developed to measure oil saturation in
coarse-grained reservoir rocks are typically not suit-
able for determining oil saturation in shales.
For instance, the widely used Dean-Stark solvent-
extraction procedure for intact core samples (e.g.,
Koepf, 1978) is not suitable for low-permeability
shales. Similarly, vacuum-retorting methods are inap-
propriate for shales with indigenous organic matter
(kerogen) because the kerogen breaks down under
thermal exposure to yield oil-like hydrocarbons.
It was therefore necessary to use a more appropri-
ate procedure to quantify the residual oil saturation
(S o ) in shale samples. Geochemical techniques are
available to extract the total quantity of residual oil
from the shale. This material is commonly referred to
as bitumen or extractable organic matter (EOM), and is
obtained by crushing the rock to a fine powder, fol-
lowed by continuous solvent extraction under reflux-
ing conditions (Soxhlet technique). The solvent is
removed by distillation, which also removes light
hydrocarbons from the sample. The precise laboratory
conditions used for solvent removal (i.e., temperature
and time) have a significant influence on the carbon
number range of residual hydrocarbons, and these
conditions may vary from one laboratory to another.
Hence, EOM yields are frequently reported either as
C10+, C12+, or C15+, depending on the methods used.
For our purposes, a standardized solvent removal
procedure was established from a series of experi-
ments involving crude oils of different gravities (26°,
35°, 44°, and 58° API). In each case, a known weight of
oil (200–750 mg) was mixed with dichloromethane (20
mL), and the samples were evaporated using a Roto-
vap, followed by nitrogen blow-down at 40°C. The
weight of residual material relative to the starting
weight of oil is plotted against evaporation time on
Oil Saturation in Shales 15
Figure 1. An optimum time for evaporation was deter-
mined to be 80 min (nitrogen stream at 40°C), which
represents a compromise between practicality and a
totally weight-stabilized product. After 80 min. of
evaporation, the measured weight of material was
estimated to be within 5% of the true weight-stabilized
fraction, which was sufficiently accurate for the pur-
poses of this study. This workup procedure was
adopted for all Eagleford shale extracts (Table 2).
The EOM value determined in this way corre-
sponds to the C12+ weight fraction of the residual oil
(based on gas chromatography analysis). Hence, cor-
rections must be made for loss of light ends (C12– frac-
tion) to give the total oil extract or corrected EOM. The
amount of light ends in a sample is primarily a func-
tion of its thermal maturity. Organic matter type may
exert a secondary influence, although this is relatively
unimportant in geographically extensive marine
shales such as the Eagleford samples used in this
study. Correlations have been established between the
level of thermal maturity and the density of crude oils
(e.g., Engel et al., 1988; Sofer, 1988). Crude oil density
(or API gravity), in turn, is dependent on the amount
of light ends in the sample, as shown in Figure 2. By
determining the relative amounts of C 12– and C12+ in
crude oils of different gravities, it is possible to correct
the EOM yields at various levels of thermal maturity
for light-end loss (Table 2). Note that the C12– fraction
actually corresponds to a carbon number range of
~C 5 –C 12 , because the evaporation experiments
described above used stock tank oils that had already
been separated from their solution gas (C1–C4). The
corrected EOM values shown in Table 2 correspond to
the yield of extractable liquid hydrocarbons (C5+) at
surface conditions.
Occurrence of Residual Oil in Organic-Rich Shales
There are three principal locations in which oil may
reside in a shale: (1) within the intergranular pore sys-
tem; (2) adsorbed and/or absorbed in the kerogen
matrix (kerogen sorption); (3) in the case of oil-wet or
mixed wettability pore systems, adsorbed on mineral
grain surfaces (mineral sorption). The extraction
method does not discriminate between these different
sites of oil retention. When referring to “oil satura-
tion,” the quantity we are interested in is the amount
of oil remaining in the pore system, so the question
then is how to partition the total EOM into its various
genetic fractions. This is achieved by first accounting
for the amount of oil that is retained by sorption, and
then subtracting this amount from the total oil extract.
In the following discussion, the term “sorption” will
be used, since it is generally not possible to distinguish
between adsorption and absorption processes in
kerogenous rocks.
There has been much interest in recent years in
studying the hydrocarbon sorption capacity of solid
organic matrices. Much of this work has been driven
by the gas industry in the context of coal-bed methane
and fractured shale gas projects (Levine, 1993; Yee et
al., 1993). Langmuir-type sorption isotherms have
 16

Table 1. TOC, Rock-Eval, and Solvent Extract Data for Eagleford Samples.

DEPTH TOC* S1 S2 S3 HI OI Tmax EOM Saturates Aromatics NSO Asphaltenes

WELL (ft) (wt %) (mgHC/gRk) (mgHC/gRk) (mgCO2/gRk) (mgHC/gC) (mgCO2/gC) PI (°C) (mgHC/gRk) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %)

HILLTOP RESORT #2 6743 3.03 1.40 11.78 0.42 389 14 0.11 436 3.55 37.1 19.4 29.3 9.7
HILLTOP RESORT #2 6750.5 3.32 1.63 14.25 0.57 429 17 0.10 438 4.23 54.6 18.1 22.1 0.2
HILLTOP RESORT #2 6782 3.77 2.12 15.81 0.69 419 18 0.12 434 3.08 49.7 20.2 20.5 5.0
Noble et al.

HILLTOP RESORT #2 6809 3.75 2.25 14.64 0.65 390 17 0.13 437 4.42 50.0 17.8 22.0 5.6

FEE 183 #1 8944 0.29 nd** nd nd nd nd nd nd 0.23 57.9 26.3 7.9 5.3
FEE 183 #1 8961.1 3.1 1.00 8.69 0.45 280 15 0.10 444 3.10 41.3 26.1 18.5 9.8
FEE 183 #1 8967.5 0.3 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
FEE 183 #1 8979 0.2 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd 0.28 41.7 20.8 29.2 4.2

SAUM #1 9760 2.49 2.27 4.19 0.41 168 17 0.35 449 4.41 74.7 12.1 8.4 0.0
SAUM #1 9762 2.62 2.22 4.39 0.47 168 18 0.34 452 4.42 68.3 15.1 7.9 1.9
SAUM #1 9766 1.33 0.73 1.17 0.50 88 38 0.38 449 1.77 67.1 12.8 9.6 6.1
SAUM #1 9773 1.3 4.62 1.40 0.83 108 64 0.77 460 6.94 78.2 9.3 6.0 1.6
SAUM #1 9790 0.67 0.19 0.39 0.56 58 84 0.33 462 0.22 62.8 11.9 16.8 4.0

KIRBY #1 10885 0.43 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd 0.63 66.1 12.5 14.3 2.7

KIRBY #1 10898 0.3 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd 0.07 29.2 62.5 2.1 2.1
KIRBY #1 10907.5 0.09 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd 0.02 45.8 41.7 4.2 4.2
KIRBY #1 10933 0.29 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd 0.38 54.5 28.0 8.0 5.0

SOUTHLAND #2 12375.5 0.37 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd 0.12 46.5 32.6 14.0

2.3
SOUTHLAND #2 12390.5 0.51 0.03 0.16 0.12 31 24 0.16 488 0.10 42.9 19.0 19.0
16.7
SOUTHLAND #2 12434 0.57 0.03 0.14 0.12 25 21 0.18 487 0.05 24.4 14.6 24.4
34.1
SOUTHLAND #2 12439.4 0.51 0.02 0.15 1.32 29 259 0.12 473 0.11 19.4 32.3 11.3
33.9

TODD #1 12967 1.79 2.07 7.79 0.55 435 31 0.21 438 3.36 50.8 19.1 19.7 5.7
TODD #1 12991 2.7 2.12 16.74 0.60 620 22 0.11 437 3.67 46.3 24.4 18.2 6.5
TODD #1 12996 1.43 2.65 5.19 0.63 363 44 0.34 439 3.94 43.8 24.9 22.0 4.8
TODD #1 13004.2 1.22 0.52 4.37 0.62 358 51 0.11 436 0.22 50.3 21.9 21.9 1.1
TODD #1 13013 2.61 0.31 13.15 0.52 504 20 0.02 434 1.34 35.8 31.3 27.4 0.5

MUSSER DAVIS # 1 15911 1.14 0.56 0.33 0.42 29 37 0.63 448 0.98 81.1 8.2 6.0 0.0
MUSSER DAVIS # 1 16591 0.87 0.11 0.26 0.33 30 38 0.30 507 0.43 81.9 5.5 7.9 0.0
MUSSER DAVIS # 1 16592 1.61 0.09 0.31 0.25 19 16 0.22 509 0.38 42.3 20.4 15.5 18.3
MUSSER DAVIS # 1 16605.5 0.87 0.03 0.08 0.20 9 23 0.27 513 0.23 65.0 12.7 11.5 6.4
MUSSER DAVIS # 1 16630 1.01 0.09 0.21 0.19 21 19 0.30 516 0.33 57.1 22.6 7.1 9.5

*TOC = Total organic carbon (gC/gRock); HI = Hydrogen index (S2/TOC); OI = Oxygen index (S3/TOC); HC = Hydrocarbon content (S1/TOC); PI = Production index (S1/S1+S2).
**nd = no data
Table 2. Calculated Oil Saturation Values for Eagleford Samples.*

DEPTH TOC C12- Corr. EOM Sorption Cap. Absorbed HC He Porosity Hg Porosity Rock density Saturation
WELL (ft) (wt %) (Fraction) (mgHC/gRk) (mgHC/gC) (mgHC/gRk) (%) (%) (g/ml) (%So)
HILLTOP RESORT #2 6743 3.03 0.15 4.18 60.0 1.8 4.5 5.0 2.58 16.1
HILLTOP RESORT #2 6750.5 3.32 0.15 4.98 60.0 2.0 6.7 5.1 2.63 13.8
HILLTOP RESORT #2 6782 3.77 0.15 3.62 60.0 2.3 4.6 4.5 2.70 9.4
HILLTOP RESORT #2 6809 3.75 0.15 5.20 60.0 2.3 7.5 5.5 2.65 12.2

FEE 183 #1 8944 0.29 0.35 0.35 60.0 0.2 3.6 0.6 2.73 1.6
FEE 183 #1 8961.1 3.10 0.35 4.77 60.0 1.9 2.9 1.7 2.72 32.7
FEE 183 #1 8967.5 0.30 0.35 nd 60.0 0.2 2.7 0.9 2.67 nd
FEE 183 #1 8979 0.20 0.35 0.43 60.0 0.1 3.6 2.8 2.68 2.7

SAUM #1 9760 2.49 0.65 6.78 60.0 1.5 5.5 3.8 2.65 30.1
SAUM #1 9762 2.62 0.65 6.80 60.0 1.6 3.9 4.1 2.61 41.5
SAUM #1 9766 1.33 0.65 2.72 60.0 0.8 4.6 3.2 2.89 14.1
SAUM #1 9773 1.30 0.65 10.68 60.0 0.8 15.2 12.9 3.28 25.1
SAUM #1 9790 0.67 0.65 0.34 60.0 0.4 4.7 6.0 2.66 0.0

KIRBY #1 10885 0.43 0.50 1.26 60.0 0.3 6.0 20.0 2.85 5.6
KIRBY #1 10898 0.30 0.50 0.14 60.0 0.2 nd 0.3 nd 0.0
KIRBY #1 10907.5 0.09 0.50 0.04 60.0 0.1 4.1 0.4 2.81 0.0
KIRBY #1 10933 0.29 0.50 0.76 60.0 0.2 1.7 2.74 10.8

SOUTHLAND #2 12375.5 0.37 0.50 0.24 60.0 0.2 8.0 4.7 2.76 0.1
SOUTHLAND #2 12390.5 0.51 0.50 0.20 60.0 0.3 9.3 4.7 2.87 0.0
SOUTHLAND #2 12434 0.57 0.50 0.10 60.0 0.3 4.5 5.0 2.70 0.0
SOUTHLAND #2 12439.4 0.51 0.50 0.22 60.0 0.3 0.7 0.2 2.70 0.0

TODD #1 12967 1.79 0.50 6.72 60.0 1.1 2.5 0.6 2.63 69.0
TODD #1 12991 2.70 0.50 7.34 60.0 1.6 nd nd nd nd
TODD #1 12996 1.43 0.50 7.88 60.0 0.9 nd nd nd nd
TODD #1 13004.2 1.22 0.50 0.44 60.0 0.7 nd nd nd nd
TODD #1 13013 2.61 0.50 2.68 60.0 1.6 5.2 4.1 2.71 6.8

MUSSER DAVIS # 1 15911 1.14 0.80 4.90 60.0 0.7 nd nd nd nd

MUSSER DAVIS # 1 16591 0.87 0.80 2.15 60.0 0.5 9.6 9.9 2.69 5.4
MUSSER DAVIS # 1 16592 1.61 0.80 1.90 60.0 1.0 7.8 7.5 2.70 3.8
MUSSER DAVIS # 1 16605.5 0.87 0.80 1.15 60.0 0.5 8.5 9.0 2.73 2.4
MUSSER DAVIS # 1 16630 1.01 0.80 1.65 60.0 0.6 10.4 9.3 2.73 3.2
Oil Saturation in Shales

*Corr. EOM = EOM/(1–C12–fraction); C12–fraction from Figure 2; oil density = 0.85 g/ml; saturation calculated using equation 2 (see text).
17
18 Noble et al.

been determined for various gaseous components in

coals to estimate storage capacity and gas reserves.
Tmax
(°C)

432
430
436
436
433
436
433
434
422
432
The liquid hydrocarbon retention capacity of coals is
much more complex due to the elaborate microstruc-
ture and internal bonding heterogeneity of the coal
0.36
0.40
0.23
0.24
0.23
0.34
0.38
0.17
0.33
0.36

*TOC = Total organic carbon (gC/gRock); HI = Hydrogen index (S2/TOC); OI = Oxygen index (S3/TOC); HC = Hydrocarbon content (S1/TOC); PI = Production index (S1/S1+S2).
(wt %) (mgHC/gRk) (mgHC/gRk) (mgHC/gRk) (mgHC/gC) (mgCO2/gC) (mgHC/gC) PI

matrix. In fact, the extraction procedure and solvent

system used for this purpose have a large influence on
the ultimate yield of liquid hydrocarbons. Brown
HC

(1993) suggested using molar sorption capacities

228
241
45
37
45
82
107
25
41
45
determined from methane isotherms to calculate the
oil sorption capacity of coals. For oils with average
molecular weights of 210–280 g/mol, an oil-prone coal
(50% vitrinite, 50% other macerals, predominantly
liptinite) would retain about 50 to 70 mgHC/gC by sorp-
16
33
61
216
56
18
36
88
212
55
OI

tion processes (~3–5% by weight of coal). Experi-

mentally determined EOM yields for coal samples
depend on the solvent system and extraction method,
and can range from 10 to 100 mgHC/gC for coals of
405
363
151
117
151
160
178
124
82
80

subbituminous rank (Radke et al., 1980; Boudou, 1984;

HI

Durand et al., 1989; Larsen et al., 1991; Littke and

Leythaeuser, 1993).
The capacity of other types of kerogen to retain oil
has also been examined by using chemical and geo-
chemical methods. Sandvik et al. (1992) reported sorp-
0.56
0.55
0.50
1.92
0.99
0.40
1.95
0.77
0.36
0.11
S3

tion levels generally in the range of 3 to 18% by weight

of solid organic mass, with averages ~6–9% for dis-
persed kerogen. Note that these values have been cor-
rected for light-end loss. Different chemical affinities
for absorption were also reported, with polar com-
pounds sorbing more readily than aromatics, which in
14.1
6.14
1.24
1.04
2.67
3.59
9.71
1.09
0.14
0.16
S2

turn are sorbed preferentially to isoparaffins and nor-

mal paraffins (saturates). Detailed quantitative infor-
mation is presently not available in the public domain
to demonstrate the different sorption behavior of
Table 3. TOC and Rock-Eval Data for Talang Akar “Seal” Samples.*

source rock kerogens as a function of kerogen type

7.93
4.07
0.37
0.33
0.79
1.84
5.83
0.22
0.07
0.09

and maturity. However, from coal studies, it is appar-

S1

ent that vitrinitic and inertinitic coals have a greater

capacity for sorption than liptinite-rich coals, and that
sorption capacity increases with coal rank (Levine,
1993). Our present estimates are that oil-prone kero-
TOC

3.48
1.69
0.82
0.89
1.77
2.25
5.45
0.88
0.17
0.20

gens (types I and II) in the oil window will retain on

average ~50–60 mgHC/gC, whereas gas-prone kero-
gens (type III) have the capacity to retain ~90–100
Channel aband. siltst.
Channel aband. siltst.

mgHC/gC. These values will require further refine-

Talang Akar Facies

ment as our understanding of kerogen retention prop-

Shelfal carbonate
Shelfal carbonate
Delta plain shale
Delta plain shale

Delta front shale

Delta front shale

erties evolves.
Prodelta shale
Prodelta shale

The adsorption of organic compounds on mineral

surfaces is well known and is particularly important
for clays (Anderson, 1986). The clays show different
affinities for sorption of organic substrates, depend-
ing on the polarity and functionality of the latter.
Crude oil components, such as asphaltenes and NSO
compounds (polars), are sorbed most readily and are
considered to be the primary agents for altering the
Measured
Depth (ft)

wettability of petroleum reservoirs (Collins and Mel-

7897.0
7898.0
7264.9
7270.3
6970.8
8058.3
7892.2
6980.6
6983.6
8031.0

rose, 1983; Cuiec, 1984). In the case of kerogenous

shales, the wettability is still a matter of conjecture. It
seems reasonable that the kerogen laminae within the
shale are oil wet, since kerogen is a mixture of organic
BZZA-7
BZZA-7

BZZA-7

KLN-1

polymers with significant affinity for oil. However,

BZ-2
BZ-2
BZ-2

BZ-2
BZ-2
Well

BS-1

there is very little field or laboratory evidence that

clearly shows whether the mineral grains change
 Oil Saturation in Shales 19

Evaporation Time (min) Figure 1. Plot of weight loss

vs. evaporation time for
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
crude oils of different API
0 gravity.

10
API = 26
20
Weight Loss (%)

30
API = 35
40
API = 44
50

60
API = 58
70

wettability during the maturation process. On the
other hand, data have been presented for the Kim-
meridge shale, U.K., which was interpreted as clear
evidence of a water-wet intergranular pore system
throughout the zone of intense oil generation
(Mackenzie et al., 1987). In a water-wet pore system,
the amount of petroleum sorbed onto mineral surfaces
is minimal and can be ignored in the calculations of So.
However, if the minerals are involved in oil retention,
the amount of hydrocarbons sorbed per unit weight of
rock must be taken into account. We present some
quantitative estimates to address this issue.
Laboratory adsorption studies using pure minerals
show that clays have the capacity to retain significant
amounts of “heavy-end” petroleum compounds (i.e.,
resins and asphaltenes). Under anhydrous conditions,
minerals such as kaolinite, chlorite, montmorillonite,
and illite typically adsorb 20–30 mg/g (Clementz,
1976; Collins and Melrose, 1983). The presence of
water interferes, to some extent, with the amount
adsorbed, but clearly does not prevent the adsorption
of polar organic molecules. Collins and Melrose (1983)
found that pre-adsorption of 6 wt. % water resulted in
12 mg/g organic adsorption on kaolinite. Once
adsorbed, the asphaltenes form a stable complex with
the clays. Only extraction with powerful organic sol-
vents (such as the Soxhlet technique used in this work)
can remove the asphaltenes from mineral surfaces,
and even then incomplete recovery is reported
(Clementz, 1976).
The EOM data for the Eagleford shales were stud-
ied in the context of evaluating the role of mineral
adsorption. An assumption is made that the mineral
surfaces become either completely or fractionally oil
wet if sufficient resins and asphaltenes are adsorbed.
Using the experimental data of Collins and Melrose
(1983), this threshold amount is estimated to be about
10 mg/g clay in an aqueous environment. Consider
the Saum #1 samples, which are presently in the oil
window and afford some of the highest EOM yields

100 Figure 2. Plot of API

90 gravity and corresponding
80 maturity level vs. weight
of C12– in crude oils. The
Weight Percent C12-

70
relationship of oil and
60 gravity and maturity was
50 estimated from data
40 presented by Engel et al.
(1988) and Sofer (1988).
30

20
10

0
API Gravity: 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Maturity Level: Low Moderate Peak Late

20 Noble et al.

(Table 1). Our unpublished XRD data show average Oil Saturation (%)
clay contents of about 20%. The dominant clay miner-
als are chlorite and kaolinite, both of which have simi- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
lar surface adsorption properties. Using the estimated
adsorption threshold of 10 mg polar organics per gram
of clay and 20% clay/rock, then 2 mg/g rock is poten- TOC below 1 %
tially required to create an oil-wet clay surface. Other 4000 TOC above 1 %
minerals in the rock, such as calcite and quartz, have
lower adsorption capacities but will still retain some
material, perhaps another 1 mg/g. Out of a total of 3 6000
mg polars per gram of rock, solvent extraction would
recover, as a conservative estimate, at least two-thirds
of the material, or 2 mg/g. This implies that Soxhlet
8000
extraction of a shale with oil-wet mineral surfaces

Depth (ft)
should afford an extract that contains a minimum of
~2 mg resins and asphaltenes per gram of rock. In con-
trast, measured resin and asphaltene yields in the 10000
Saum #1 well range from 0.05 to 0.5 mg/g, which is far
below the amount needed to satisfy the mineral sorp-
tion capacity. Hence, based on this information, it 12000
appears that the mineral surfaces of these samples
remain largely water wet in the depth range corre-
sponding to the zone of intense oil generation. 14000

Calculation of Oil Saturation

The variables needed to calculate oil saturation are
porosity, fraction of EOM residing in the pore system,
and rock and oil densities. The total oil extract (cor-
rected EOM) is potentially comprised of three genetic
components: total oil extract = residual oil in pores +
oil sorption by kerogen + oil sorption extract by miner-
als. In shales with mineral surfaces that are predomi-
nantly water wet, the mineral sorption term can be
disregarded, so the EOM is partitioned into two frac-
tions using the simplified equation
16000
18000
Figure 3. Oil saturation vs. depth relationship for
Eagleford samples. The error bars for So correspond
to calculated ranges using +25% error in porosity
and +33% error in kerogen sorption capacity (Ksc)
(i.e., 40–80 mg/g). For display clarity, not all error
bars are shown.

 S ×φ × ρ 
EOMcorr =  o oil  + ( Ksc × TOC )
 Table 2, the degree to which depends on in-situ pres-
 ρ rock × 103  (1)
where EOMcorr = EOM corrected for light-end loss
(mgHC/gRock); So = oil saturation (fraction); φ = porosity
(fraction); ρoil and ρrock = bulk densities of oil and rock at sur-
face conditions (g/mL); Ksc = kerogen sorption capacity
(mgHC/gC); and TOC = total organic carbon (fraction).
Rearrangement of equation 1 gives the expression
for oil saturation:
ρ rock
So = [ EOM corr – (Ksc × TOC)] ×
1 lar, is likely to be a major contributor to the overall
× (2)
φ ρoil × 10–3
Equation 2 was used to calculate oil saturation in the
Eagleford samples. The results are presented in Table 2,
along with values for variables used in the computa-
tions. Note that surface density of oil is used in the cal-
culation. This value is typically higher than the density
of subsurface petroleum, which includes a component
of solution gas (England et al., 1987). The actual subsur-
face petroleum saturations (oil with solution gas) will
therefore be somewhat higher than those shown in
sure, temperature, and composition. In the absence of
any significant oil loss during core recovery (a reason-
able assumption for shales), the calculated saturations
represent the volume of available pore space occupied
by oil that has shrunk to its equilibrated surface volume
due to exsolution of gas. Shrinkage factors of 1.1–1.5 can
be expected for samples in this study.
There is additional uncertainty associated with each
of the input variables, such as kerogen sorption capac-
ity, measured porosity, and TOC. Porosity, in particu-
variance of calculated saturations. Upper and lower
limits have been estimated for the key variables, which
were used in a Monte Carlo simulation to calculate an
error range for oil saturation. The resulting ranges
(10/90 percentiles) are plotted as error bars in Figure 3.
Many factors can influence the amount of resid-
ual oil saturation in shales. When considering geo-
chemical variables, the most important of these are
the level of maturation and the organic richness. In
Figure 3, the depth axis is used to approximate the
level of maturation. Maturation modeling studies

5.00
TOC below 1 %
4.00 TOC above 1 %
Rock-Eval S1
(mgHC/gRk)
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
Extractable Organic Matter
(mgHC/gRk)
calibrated to measure vitrinite reflectance and subsur-
face temperatures have shown this to be a reasonable
assumption (Westcott and Hood, 1994). Nevertheless,
a few anomalies are apparent. For instance, heat flow
in the vicinity of the Todd #1 well from West Feliciana
Parish, Louisiana, is lower than in the east Texas coun-
ties, resulting in lower maturation of Todd #1 samples
(12,967–13,013 ft) than at equivalent depths in other
wells. Taking these variations in thermal regime into
account, the zone of oil generation for Eagleford kero-
gens generally spans the depth range from ~7500 to
13,000 ft.
Organic richness variability is illustrated in Figure 3
using different symbols for samples with TOC above
and below 1%. Most of the low-TOC samples have oil
saturations below ~5%, and only one sample has a
slightly higher value at ~11% So. These low oil satura-
tions are due to insufficient reactive kerogen for trans-
formation into free oil. The richer samples show more
variability with depth. At depths <7500 ft, the shales
with high TOC (>1%) have low saturations (<20%).
This is interpreted as being due to insufficient thermal
maturity for significant oil generation. Samples within
the oil window (7500–13,000 ft) have saturations rang-
ing from 15 to 70%, with most samples having values
in the 25–40% range. At greater depths, oil saturations
are again low (<10%), presumably due to overmatu-
rity and initiation of oil-to-gas cracking. Total in-situ
hydrocarbon saturations (oil + gas) are expected to
either remain the same or increase with depth as the
fluid becomes increasingly gas rich. However, it was
not possible to demonstrate this experimentally due to
loss of gas from the cores at the surface. The residual
liquid hydrocarbon data shown in Figure 3 are in gen-
eral agreement with intuitive trends; that is, low oil
saturations in the immature zone, building to higher
saturations during active oil generation and expulsion,
and finally decreasing again at elevated maturity due
to thermal destruction of residual oil. The So values for
samples in the oil window (~25–40%) are also in the
Oil Saturation in Shales 21
Figure 4. Relationship
between EOM and
Rock-Eval S1 peak.
Rk = rock.
5.00 6.00 7.00
range typically used to model primary migration from
source rocks via two-phase Darcy flow (England et al.,
1987; Durand, 1988; Okui and Waples, 1992).
Relationship of Oil Saturation
and Rock-Eval Parameters
In order to arrive at oil saturation values by using
the above procedure, a good deal of high-quality core
data are required. However, it may not always be pos-
sible to acquire this amount of data, particularly when
working with small amounts of samples such as side-
wall cores. Rock-Eval pyrolysis is a readily available
screening method that is inexpensive and routinely
applied to small quantities of shaly samples (~100
mg). Correlation of typical Rock-Eval parameters and
oil saturation was therefore investigated for the pur-
pose of establishing a rapid means of quantifying
residual oil saturation in shales.
The Rock-Eval parameter designed to measure the
amount of free hydrocarbons by thermal “distillation”
is the S1 peak (Tissot and Welte, 1984). Figure 4 shows
a cross-plot of S1 vs. EOM for the Eagleford shale sam-
ples. As expected, a good linear correlation is observed
between the amount of distillable (S1) and extractable
(EOM) hydrocarbons. Note that the line of best fit does
not have a slope of 1, since the two parameters quan-
tify different components of the residual oil (Cooles et
al., 1986; Wilhelms et al., 1991). The S1 parameter typi-
cally measures volatile hydrocarbons in the C 5–C 25
carbon number range, whereas the EOM measures
C12+ components, including nonvolatile entities such
as asphaltenes and high-molecular-weight polar
(NSO) compounds (Larter, 1988). In addition, hydro-
carbon sorption is expected to have a differential effect
on the two analytical methods, with the S1 pyrolysis
measurement being affected to a greater extent than
EOM solvent extraction (Tarafa et al., 1983).
As with extractable organic matter (EOM), the S1
yield is not a direct measure of So , since it includes
 22 Noble et al.
100
90
80
70
Oil Saturation
60
So (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
Hydrocarbon Content
S1/TOC (mgHC/gC)
both sorbed hydrocarbons and hydrocarbons residing
within the intergranular pore system. The magnitude
of the S1 peak is primarily a function of organic rich-
ness and thermal maturity. In order to take into
account the effects of organic richness, the S1 peak is
typically normalized to TOC, the resulting parameter
being referred to at ARCO as the “hydrocarbon con-
tent” (the bitumen index; Wilhelms et al., 1991). The
hydrocarbon content, expressed in units of mgHC/gC,
is a particularly attractive parameter for estimating
residual So, since it implicitly accounts for the variable
amounts of sorbed hydrocarbons in rocks with differing
kerogen concentrations.
Figure 5 shows a plot of oil saturation (So), calcu-
lated from equation 2, vs. Rock-Eval hydrocarbon con-
tent (S1/TOC). A general relationship of increasing oil
saturation with S 1/TOC is apparent for all but one
sample. The relationship is interpreted to represent the
normal maturation trend that occurs in these shales
during their passage through the oil and gas windows.
Note the observed So ranges from 0 to ~70%, and the
corresponding hydrocarbon content ranges from 0 to
~120 mgHC/gC. If this trend is extrapolated to 100%
So , within the limits of the data, the resulting hydro-
carbon content may vary from ~130 to 200 mgHC/gC.
This range of values is expected to correspond to the
upper limit that one might expect to find in shales
within the oil window. Expressing this in a different
way, the S1/TOC value that corresponds to 100% So
represents the maximum indigenous hydrocarbon
content that arises from in-situ hydrocarbon genera-
tion and expulsion.
The precise value for the cutoff between indigenous
and nonindigenous hydrocarbons is dependent on a
number of factors and is expected to show some differ-
ences from one source rock formation to another. The
interpretation of the data shown in Figure 5 implies
that samples with hydrocarbon contents above ~160
mgHC/gC (midpoint of range) contain “nonindige-
nous” hydrocarbons; that is, they contain more free
hydrocarbons than one would expect to find in
Figure 5. Plot of oil saturation
vs. hydrocarbon content
TOC below 1 % (S1/TOC).
TOC above 1 %
250 300 350 400
kerogenous shales undergoing natural maturation.
The one outlying data point in Figure 5 is from a sandy
reservoir interval in the Saum #1 well. This well dis-
covered about 12 ft of oil column in poor- to moderate-
quality reservoir rock. The hydrocarbon content of the
reservoir sample is extremely high (~355 mgHC/gC)
and is well above the indigenous hydrocarbon trend.
It provides a clear example of the effects of nonindige-
nous (migrated) oil saturation on the magnitude of the
hydrocarbon content value.
Unusually large S1 peaks have been used for many
years as a means to detect nonindigenous hydrocar-
bons (Clementz, 1979; Peters, 1986). The latter may
result from both natural processes (i.e. impregnation
with migrating oil) or drilling-induced staining (e.g.,
diesel additives). The empirically determined cutoff
for the S1/TOC parameter is typically in the range of
150–180 mgHC/gC (Lundell, 1991). The Eagleford data
presented here show that this cutoff does, in fact, cor-
respond very well with the value expected at 100% So
in these shales.
APPLICATIONS IN SEAL EVALUATION
Seal Potential
The evaluation of seal potential is an important part
of any exploration project. Kaldi and Atkinson (1997)
have discussed three key elements that require consid-
eration in seal evaluation: seal capacity, seal integrity,
and seal geometry. Seal capacity deals with the capil-
lary properties of seal rocks and their capacity to sup-
port a hydrocarbon column in an adjacent reservoir.
Seal integrity and seal geometry are concerned with
rock mechanics (brittle vs. ductile deformation) and the
spatial distribution of seal facies, respectively. All three
elements are of equal importance in seal evaluation; in
terms of using the geochemical concepts discussed in
this report, seal capacity is of primary concern.
When drilling an exploration well, information that
is typically sought is whether the target reservoir is

present and whether there is a hydrocarbon column
worthy of further testing. In many instances, the ques-
tion about the seal is not given adequate attention,
because many people consider it to be implicitly
addressed in the evaluation of the hydrocarbon col-
umn; that is, if a column is present, there must be a
seal. If hydrocarbons are not present, a number of fac-
tors could be responsible (e.g., charge, seal, and/or
trapping geometry).
A great deal of valuable information can, in fact, be
derived from analyzing samples of the seal, in the case
of both dry holes and hydrocarbon discoveries. The
use of mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP)
data in seal evaluation has been known for many
years, and the geological applications of this technique
have been reviewed by Vavra et al. (1992). Specifically,
MICP provides information about pore size distribu-
tions, pore entry pressures, and maximum hydrocar-
bon column heights that may exist due to capillary
contrast between reservoir and seal facies. However,
the technique does not address the type and amount of
fluids originally present in the pore system of the sam-
ple, and whether hydrocarbons, if present, occur in
appreciable concentration. This information can be
obtained in a relatively straightforward manner from
geochemical studies, and can provide some key
insights in the evaluation of drilling results. For
instance, if a well is commercially “dry,” and it can be
shown that the seal rock is saturated with nonindige-
nous hydrocarbons, the reason for failure is probably
not charge limitations, but more likely due to a poor
seal that is incapable of supporting the required
amount of hydrocarbons. Alternatively, if a discovery
is made, but the hydrocarbon column is smaller than
Oil Saturation in Shales 23
Figure 6. Map of Ardjuna
Basin in the vicinity of
the BZZ oil field.
expected relative to structural spill point, then analysis
of the saturation profile through the seal may show
that the size of the column is at its maximum level rel-
ative to seal capacity. There may also be other
instances where the so-called “seal” is, in fact, a poor-
quality reservoir (waste zone), and that the actual seal
occurs higher in the section.
Indigenous vs. Nonindigenous Hydrocarbons
in Seals
Many fine-grained lithofacies that serve as seals for
hydrocarbon accumulations are known to contain
appreciable amounts of kerogen. For example, the
HRZ shale (North Slope of Alaska), which seals the
main Prudhoe Bay Reservoir, is an organic-rich shale
with TOC values often >3–4%. Similarly, the kerogen-
rich Devonian Woodford shale seals many fields in the
Permian basin of west Texas. Shales such as these will
develop their own saturation profile as a function of
depth (maturation), regardless of whether they seal a
hydrocarbon accumulation. The petroleum that is gen-
erated from the kerogen or inherited directly from pre-
cursor organisms is referred to as “indigenous
hydrocarbon saturation.” On the other hand, any
hydrocarbon moving into the rock as a result of buoy-
ancy forces exceeding pore entry pressure is referred
to as “nonindigenous hydrocarbon saturation.” Dis-
tinguishing the two is essential for proper evaluation
of seal performance.
Two techniques are used to recognize nonindige-
nous hydrocarbons in seals. The first involves quanti-
fying the amount of free hydrocarbons in the sample
and then comparing this amount to the quantity that
24 Noble et al.
100000
Hydrocarbon Column Height (ft)
10000
1000
Delta Plain
Shales
100
10
would be expected from normal maturation of the kero-
gen. If the observed quantity exceeds the expected
amount, nonindigenous hydrocarbons are likely to be
present. The second method involves analysis of the
molecular composition of the hydrocarbons. Biomarker
and molecular fingerprinting of seal extracts can be
used to determine if the hydrocarbons were generated
in situ or if they are migrated from a remote source.
A case study from the Talang Akar Formation, off-
shore northwest Java, Indonesia, is presented in which
the application of both techniques is demonstrated.
TALANG AKAR SEAL STUDY
Seal Analysis of Various Facies
The Talang Akar Formation consists of a sequence
of fluvio-deltaic to shallow-marine sands, shales,
coals, and limestones of upper Oligocene age. Much
has been published on the petroleum geology of this
region, and the reader is referred to the literature for
background information (Ponto et al., 1988; Butter-
worth and Atkinson, 1993; Young and Atkinson, 1993;
Suria et al., 1994). A generalized location map showing
all the major producing fields in the region is pre-
sented in Figure 6. An evaluation of intraformational
seals from the BZZ field of the Ardjuna subbasin has
been conducted by Kaldi and Atkinson (1997). In that
study, the seal potentials of five Talang Akar facies
were evaluated: delta plain shales, channel abandon-
ment silts, delta front shales, prodelta shales, and shelf
carbonates. Kaldi and Atkinson (1997) used mercury
injection capillary pressure (MICP) data for represen-
tative samples to calculate hydrocarbon column
heights that could be supported by each sealing facies,
as shown in Figure 7. The shelf carbonate facies was
found to have the highest seal capacity, with maxi-
mum supportable columns in excess of 1000 ft. At the
other end of the scale, delta plain shales were found to
have the lowest entry pressures, with maximum col-
umn heights ~100 ft.
Figure 7. Calculated range
of hydrocarbon column
Shelf heights that could be
Carbonates supported by Talang Akar
seals (after Kaldi and
Atkinson, 1997).
Channel
Abandonment
Silts Delta Front
Shales
Pro-Delta
Shales
Increasing Seal Capacity
It is important to note that even though the shelf
carbonates have the highest sealing capacity, they do
not necessarily make the best seals. In fact, these car-
bonates make rather poor seals, since they are quite
brittle and prone to fracture (i.e., seal integrity is low).
Nevertheless, in terms of their capacity to prevent
hydrocarbons from entering the matrix pore system,
they are extremely tight and require very high pres-
sures in the intruding fluid.
Hydrocarbon Content vs. Seal Capacity
The residual hydrocarbon saturation in the Talang
Akar seal samples was quantified using geochemical
methods. Small pieces of conventional and sidewall
core were available for analysis. There was insufficient
material to perform a detailed EOM/So study by using
Soxhlet extraction, so Rock-Eval was used as the pri-
mary analytical tool. The hand samples were carefully
examined and showed no evidence of fractures or
external contamination with drilling additives. Hence,
it was assumed that any free hydrocarbons quantified
during the analytical procedure originated either from
the matrix pore system or by desorption from the solid
kerogen/mineral matrix.
Table 3 shows the TOC and Rock-Eval data for vari-
ous Talang Akar facies. Some of the samples have quite
high TOC values and S2 pyrolysis yields and are consid-
ered good potential source rocks. However, at these
well locations, all samples are insufficiently mature for
significant hydrocarbon generation, as shown by the
Tmax values (≤436°C). The samples were taken at true
vertical depths shallower than about 6000 ft, which, on
a regional basis, places them outside the zone of intense
oil generation (Noble et al., 1991). From a maturation
standpoint, it is unlikely that the oil accumulations at
BZZ were generated locally by these organic-rich rocks.
On the other hand, these fine-grained facies provide
intraformational seals for sandstone reservoirs.
The hydrocarbon content (S1/TOC) provides a mea-
sure of the amount of free hydrocarbons relative to the
 Oil Saturation in Shales 25

Nonindigenous
250

HCs
Hydrocarbon Content

200
S1/TOC (mgHC/gC)

150

100

Indigenous
HCs
50

0
Delta Plain Channel Abandonment Pro-Delta Delta Front Shelf Carbonate
Shale Siltstone Shale Shale

Figure 8. Hydrocarbon content (S1/TOC) of Talang Akar seals. Values above 150 mg/g are indicative of non-
indigenous hydrocarbons, as is seen for the delta plain facies.

total organic pool. As shown in the study of Eagleford 10,000

shale samples, this parameter varies systematically • Delta Plain Shales
with calculated values of hydrocarbon saturation in the Delta Front Shales
Pro-Delta Shales
0–70% saturation range (Figure 5). The corresponding Ch. Aband. Silts
S1/TOC values range from 0 to 120 mgHC/gC, repre-
senting the amount of indigenous hydrocarbon that 1000
Hydrocarbon Column

was generated directly from the host kerogen. Values

above the 130–200-mgHC/gC range are considered to
Height (ft)

be the result of nonindigenous hydrocarbons moving

into the pore/kerogen network from an external
source. The precise cutoff to detect nonindigenous 100

hydrocarbons may vary from one formation to

another, but is expected to fall within the general range
of 150–180 mgHC/gC. In the case of the Talang Akar
samples, S1/TOC values above ~160 were assumed to
contain some nonindigenous hydrocarbons.
Figure 8 shows the hydrocarbon contents of the var-
ious Talang Akar seal facies. The values range from 25
to 241 mgHC/gC, with three samples recording yields
>100 and two >160 (Table 3). The two samples with the
highest S1/TOC values are delta plain shales. Their
S1/TOC values of 228 and 241 are strongly indicative
of nonindigenous hydrocarbons. A plot of hydrocar-
bon content vs. maximum possible column height
(from MICP) shows that the same two samples have
the lowest sealing capacity, capable of supporting oil
columns of only ~100 ft (Figure 9). At the other end of
the scale, samples with low hydrocarbon contents that
clearly fall in the expected range for indigenous
hydrocarbons have much higher seal capacities
(potential oil columns of 250 to >1000 ft). These results
indicate that the poorest sealing facies (delta plain
shales) have probably been impregnated with oil from
an underlying hydrocarbon column that exceeded the
maximum seal capacity. In contrast, all other facies
show no evidence of oil saturation over and above that
expected from natural in-situ generation from kero-
gen. In these samples, the absence of nonindigenous
10
10 100 1000
Hydrocarbon Content
S1/TOC (mgHC/gRk)
Figure 9. Plot of hydrocarbon content vs. column
height from MICP. Rk = rock.
hydrocarbons in the pore/kerogen matrix could be
due to oil columns smaller than the potential holding
capacity of the seal, or to seal failure occurring via
some other pathway with lower entry pressures (such
as fractures).
Molecular Fingerprinting of Hydrocarbons
Additional evidence for distinguishing indigenous
from nonindigenous hydrocarbons was obtained from
the molecular signature of the extractable organic mat-
ter. The technique used was thermal extract gas chro-
matography (TEGC), in which the “distillable”
hydrocarbons (equivalent of S1 peak) are liberated
from the rock and analyzed by gas chromatography.
26 Noble et al.

Figure 10. Gas chromatograms

for Talang Akar samples: (a)
thermal extract of “good” seal;
(b) thermal extract of “poor”
seal; (c) whole oil gas chro-
matogram of produced BZZ oil.
pr = pristane; n17 = normal C17
alkane.

Figure 10 shows the TEGC traces for two Talang Akar
seal samples: one which is described as a “good” seal
(high entry pressure, low hydrocarbon content) and
the other, as a “poor” seal (low entry pressure, high
hydrocarbon content). Also shown is the gas chro-
matogram of a Talang Akar crude oil from a produc-
ing well in the BZZ field. It is clear from Figure 10 that
the good seal yields very small amounts of hydrocar-
bons that do not have the same characteristics as the
reservoir oil. In contrast, the TEGC trace for the poor
seal affords a molecular pattern that is visually much
more akin to the BZZ oil. Note that this comparison is
based on the C 12+ carbon number range, since the
gasoline and kerosene range hydrocarbons (<C12) are
not present in the rock extracts due to sample handling
and preparation.
The largest peak in the good seal chromatogram is
pristane (pr), which occurs in much higher abundance
than the adjacent nC17 alkane (pr/nC17 = 8.8). The ratio
of pristane to nC17 generally decreases with maturation,
and values this high typically indicate immaturity. This
observation agrees with Rock-Eval Tmax and regional
maturity trends. The sample lacks the full suite of
n-alkanes that are normally found in non-biodegraded
oil-bearing rocks. The overall signature is consistent
with indigenous hydrocarbons derived from a rela-
tively poor quality, immature source rock. In contrast,
the hydrocarbon signature of the poor seal is much
more oil-like. Pristane is still the largest component, but
the n-alkanes are present in greater quantities (pr/nC17
= 3.7). A full suite of n-alkanes is clearly apparent, par-
ticularly in the waxy region (>nC25). Comparing the
pr/nC17 ratio of the BZZ oil (pr/nC17 = 1.9) with the seal
extracts shows that the poor seal has intermediate val-
ues between the good seal (indigenous hydrocarbons)
and the reservoired oil (migrated hydrocarbons). This is
interpreted to be the result of mixing between the
indigenous hydrocarbon fraction of the shale with oil
that has entered the rock as a result of the relatively low
entry pressures. The pr/nC17 ratio was chosen to illus-
trate this point, although several other parameters that
are based on more complicated biomarker structures
could have been used for the same purpose. The molec-
ular fingerprinting technique provides evidence to sup-
port the S1/TOC pyrolysis data that indicate seals with
low entry pressures contain some nonindigenous
hydrocarbons, whereas those with higher entry pres-
sures do not.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. The amount of free oil in the pore system of
shales, referred to as residual oil saturation (So),
can be estimated from geochemical data and
porosity measurements. The key geochemical
variables needed to calculate oil saturation are
extractable organic matter (EOM) corrected for
light-end loss, total organic carbon (TOC), and
kerogen sorption capacity.
2. Oil saturation values calculated in this way are
low for immature samples (So <10%), increasing
Oil Saturation in Shales 27
in the oil window (10–80%), and then decreasing
again at higher maturities. Mass balance suggests
that the mineral grains in our Eagleford shales
(≤3.8% TOC) remain water wet during hydrocar-
bon generation and expulsion. The kerogen
matrix, on the other hand, is considered to be oil
wet at all times.
3. Oil saturation values correlate with the “hydro-
carbon content” parameter (S1/TOC) from Rock-
Eval. Values for this parameter <120 mgHC/gC
correspond to oil saturations below 100% in
water-wet shales. Values >120 mg/g may indi-
cate the presence of some nonindigenous hydro-
carbons, whereas values >200 mg/g almost
certainly do. Nonindigenous hydrocarbons (i.e.,
those that were not generated by the host kero-
gen and hence are from another source) result
either from contamination with drilling fluids
(e.g., diesel) or by impregnation of oil during
migration and entrapment.
4. A case study from the Talang Akar Formation,
Indonesia, shows that seal rocks with high entry
pressures (from MICP analysis) have low hydro-
carbon contents in the range expected for in-situ
generation. However, shales with the lowest
entry pressures have very high hydrocarbon con-
tents, indicating impregnation of the pore system
with oil from an underlying accumulation. In
such samples, the seal rock has most probably
attained equilibrium with the maximum oil col-
umn height it was capable of supporting. This
information on seal performance is of value in
economic evaluations as well as in examining
exploration opportunities in shallower horizons.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their appreciation to the ARCO
Geochemistry lab staff in Plano, Texas, for analytical
data, including Luc Vo for his painstaking quantitative
extract and oil evaporation work. The advice of Steve
Franks on the locations and geological setting of Eagle-
ford shale cores is appreciated. Helpful reviews of the
manuscript were provided by Alton Brown, Steve
Franks, and Keith Katahara (ARCO), and AAPG
reviewers Brian Fowler and Leta Smith. This article is
published with permission of the managements of
ARCO Exploration and Production Technology and
Atlantic Richfield Indonesia Inc., whose support for
this project is appreciated.
REFERENCES CITED
Anderson, W.G., 1986, Wettability literature survey.
Part 1: rock/oil/brine interactions and the effects of
core handling on wettability: Journal of Petroleum
Technology, p. 1125–1144.
Boudou, J.P., 1984, Chloroform extracts of a series of
coals from Mahakam delta: Organic Geochemistry,
v. 6, p. 431–437.
Brown, A.A., 1993, Expulsion efficiency of methane
28 Noble et al.
from vitrinitic coal: ARCO unpublished research
memorandum, RM 93–0012, p. 1–29.
Butterworth, P., and C.D. Atkinson, 1993, Syn-rift
deposits of the Northwest Java basin: Fluvial sand-
stone reservoirs and lacustrine source rocks, in C. D.
Atkinson, J. Scott, and R. Young, eds., Clastic rocks
and reservoirs of Indonesia: Indonesian Petroleum
Association Core Workshop, p. 211–219.
Clementz, D.M., 1976, Interaction of petroleum heavy
ends with montmorillonite: Clays and Clay Miner-
als, v. 24, p. 312–319.
Clementz, D. M., 1979, Effects of oil and bitumen satu-
ration on source rock pyrolysis: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 2227–2232.
Collins, S.H., and J.C. Melrose, 1983, Adsorption of
asphaltenes and water on reservoir rock minerals:
Society of Petroleum Engineers, v. 1180, p. 249–256.
Cooles, G.P., A.S. MacKenzie, and T.M. Quigley, 1986,
Calculation of petroleum masses generated and
expelled from source rocks: Organic Geochemistry,
v. 10, p. 235–245.
Cuiec, L., 1984, Rock/crude oil interactions and wetta-
bility: an attempt to understand their interrelation:
Society of Petroleum Engineers, v. 13211, p. 1–14.
Durand, B., 1988, Understanding of HC migration in
sedimentary basins (present state of knowledge):
Organic Geochemistry, v. 13, p. 445–459.
Durand, B., A.Y. Huc, and J.L. Oudin, 1989, Oil satura-
tion and primary migration: observations in shales
and coals from the Keribu wells, Mahakam Delta,
Indonesia, in B. Doligez, ed., Migration of hydrocar-
bons in sedimentary basins: Paris, Editions Technip,
p. 173–195.
Engel, M.H., S.W. Imbus, and J.E. Zumberge, 1988,
Organic geochemical correlation of Oklahoma
crude oils using R- and Q-mode factor analysis:
Organic Geochemistry, v. 12, p. 157–180.
England, W.A., A.S. MacKenzie, D.M. Mann, and T.M.
Quigley, 1987, The movement and entrapment of
petroleum fluids in the subsurface: Journal of the
Geological Society of London, v. 144, p. 327–347.
Gorsline, D.S., 1984, A review of fine-grained sediment
origins, characteristics, transport and deposition, in
D.A.V. Stow and D.J.W. Piper, eds., Fine-grained
sediments: The Geological Society (Blackwell Scien-
tific) Special Publication 15, p. 17–34.
Halbouty, M.T., and J.J. Halbouty, 1982, Relationships
between East Texas field region and Sabine uplift in
Texas: AAPG Bulletin, v. 66, p. 1042–1054.
Kaldi, J.G., and C.D. Atkinson, 1997, Evaluating seal
potential: example from the Talang Akar Forma-
tion, offshore NW Java, Indonesia: AAPG Memoir
67, p. 85–101.
Koepf, E.H., 1978, Core handling—core analysis meth-
ods, in D.C. Bond, ed., Determination of residual oil
saturation: Oklahoma City, IOCC, p. 36–71.
Larsen, J.W., J.C. Cheng, and C.S. Pan, 1991, Solvent
extraction of coals during analytical solvent swelling.
A potential source of error: Fuel, v. 5, p. 57–59.
Larter, S., 1988, Some pragmatic perspectives in source
rock geochemistry: Marine Petroleum Geology, v. 5,
p. 194–204.
Levine, J.R., 1993, Coalification: The evolution of coal
as a source rock and reservoir rock for oil and gas,
in B.E. Law and D.D. Rice, eds., Hydrocarbons from
coal: Tulsa, AAPG Studies in Geology, v. 38,
p. 39–77.
Littke, R., and D. Leythaeuser, 1993, Migration of oil
and gas in coal, in B.E. Law and D.D. Rice, eds.
Hydrocarbons from coal: Tulsa, AAPG Studies in
Geology, v. 38, p. 219–236.
Lundell, L., 1991, Topics in source rocks II: Recogni-
tion of source rocks and migrated hydrocarbons
based on Rock-Eval analyses: ARCO unpublished
Research Memorandum, RM 91–0005, p. 27.
Mackenzie, A.S., I. Price, D. Leythaeuser, P. Muller,
M. Radke, and R. Schaefer, 1987, The expulsion
behavior of petroleum from Kimmeridge clay
source rocks in the area of the Brae oil field, UK con-
tinental shelf, in J. Brooks and K. Glennie, eds.,
Petroleum geology of north-west Europe: London,
Graham & Trotman, p. 865–877.
Noble, R.A., C.H. Wu, and C.D. Atkinson,1991,
Petroleum generation and migration from Talang
Akar coals and shales, offshore NW Java: Organic
Geochemistry, v. 17, p. 363–374.
Okui, A., and D.W. Waples, 1992, Relative permeabili-
ties and hydrocarbon expulsion from source rocks,
in A.G. Dore et al., eds., Basin modeling: advances
and applications: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 293–301.
Peters, K.E., 1986, Guidelines for evaluating petroleum
source rock using programmed pyrolysis: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 70, p. 318–329.
Ponto, C.V., C.H. Wu, A. Pranoto, and W.H. Stinson,
1988, Improved interpretation of the Talang Akar
depositional environment as an aid to hydrocarbon
exploration in the ARII offshore northwest Java
contract area, in Proceedings of Indonesian
Petroleum Association 17th Conference, Jakarta,
p. 397–422.
Radke, M., R.G. Schaefer, and D. Leythaeuser, 1980,
Composition of soluble organic matter in coals: Rela-
tion to rank and liptinite fluorescence: Geochemica
and Cosmochimica Acta, v. 44, p. 1787–1800.
Sandvik, E.I., W.A. Young, and D.J. Curry, 1992,
Expulsion from hydrocarbon sources: The role of
organic absorption: Organic Geochemistry, v. 19,
p. 77–87.
Sofer, Z., 1988, Biomarkers and carbon isotopes of oils
in the Jurassic Smackover Trend of the Gulf Coast
States, USA: Organic Geochemistry, v. 12, p. 421–432.
Suria, C., C.D. Atkinson, S.W. Sinclair, M.J. Gresko,
and B. Plahaperdana, 1994, Application of inte-
grated sequence stratigraphic techniques in non-
marine/marginal sediments; an example from the
Upper Talang Akar Formation, Offshore Northwest
Java: Proceedings of the 23rd Indonesian Petroleum
Association, v. I, p. 145–160.
Tarafa, M.E., J.M. Hunt, and I. Ericson, 1983, Effect of
hydrocarbon volatility and adsorption on source
rock pyrolysis: Journal of Geochemical Exploration,
v. 18, p. 75–85.

Tissot, B.P., and D.H. Welte, 1984, Petroleum forma-
tion and occurrence 2nd. ed.: Berlin, Springer-
Verlag, 699 p.
Vavra, C.L., J.G. Kaldi, and R.M. Sneider, 1992, Geo-
logical applications of capillary pressure: A review:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, p. 840–850.
Westcott, W.A., and W.C. Hood, 1994, Hydrocarbon
generation and migration routes in the East Texas
basin: AAPG Bulletin, v. 78, p. 287–307.
Wilhelms, A., S.R. Larter, and D. Leythaeuser, 1991,
Influence of bitumen-2 on Rock-Eval pyrolysis:
Oil Saturation in Shales 29
Organic Geochemistry, v. 17, p. 351–354.
Yee, D., J.P. Seidle, and W.B. Hanson, 1993, Gas sorp-
tion on coal and measurement of gas content, in B.E.
Law and D.D. Rice, eds., Hydrocarbons from Coal:
Tulsa, AAPG Studies in Geology, v. 38, p. 203–218.
Young, R., and C.D. Atkinson, 1993, A review of
Talang Akar Formation (Oligo-Miocene) reservoirs
in the offshore areas of SE Sumatra and NW Java, in
C.D. Atkinson, J. Scott, and R. Young, eds., Clastic
rocks and reservoirs of Indonesia: Indonesian
Petroleum Association Core Workshop.
 Krushin, J.T., 1997, Seal capacity of nonsmectite shale,
in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum
system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 31–47.

Chapter 3
◆

Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale

James T. Krushin1
Amoco Exploration and Production Company, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Laboratory-derived petrophysical measurements confirm that the sealing
shale’s largest interconnected pore throats can limit the size of hydrocarbon
columns. These largest interconnected pore throats define the seal capacity
of the shale. Interpreting displacement pressure from high-pressure mercury
injection porosimetry (MIP) data permits calculating seal capacity, the
hydrocarbon column-limiting capillary property of the rock. Displacement
pressure is the pressure at which the nonwetting phase (i.e., mercury in the
laboratory tests) begins to displace the wetting phase from the largest inter-
connected pore throats. The 12 well-indurated nonsmectite shales studied
range in age from Precambrian to Jurassic and vary in mineralogy, porosity,
permeability, cation exchange capacity, organic content, and stratification.
The shales are treated as two distinct groups with respect to interpreting dis-
placement pore throat size: nonorganic shales and organic shales. Estimation
of mineral percentages by X-ray diffraction analysis, and classifying the
shales according to silt/clay ratios, laminations, and major nonclay/nonsilt
mineralogy, permit petrographic prediction of seal capacity for nonorganic
shales. Quartz content of the matrix is the best predictor of the displacement
pore throat size for nonorganic shales. Sandy mudstones have the largest
measured tabular displacement pore throats for nonorganic shales and are in
the 30–40 nm range. This pore throat size range can limit the size of very
large gas columns. Clay-rich and calcareous shales have such small
displacement pore throats (<15 nm) that they are excellent capillary seals. The
organic shales studied have large displacement pore throats relative to their
low porosity when compared to nonorganic shales. Volume reduction of the
matrix associated with hydrocarbon generation contributes to the largest
pore throats in organic shales.

INTRODUCTION Seal assessment has equal importance with the other

Prospect evaluation involves properly assigning
technical risk to reservoir, structure, charge, seal, etc.
1Currently consultant, 13102 Fallsview Lane, #4904-F, Houston, Texas
geologic parameters needed for a hydrocarbon accumu-
lation. Whereas reservoirs are often cored, described,
and documented, structures are mapped and further
refined; seals, specifically shale seals, are not studied
as often. The maximum hydrocarbon column an

31
32 Krushin
undeformed shale can seal is determined by its capil-
lary properties. There is little published quantifiable
data on the capillary sealing ability of shales. This is
surprising because shales are often forecast to seal
hydrocarbons and they comprise large quantities of
the drillable crust where oil and gas exploration occur.
Potter et al. (1980) estimate shale forms more than 60%
of sediments worldwide, and Jones and Wang (1981)
state shales comprise over 75% of the clastic fill in sed-
imentary basins.
Zieglar (1992) studied the hydrocarbon column
heights for unfaulted accumulations in the Rocky
Mountain area with respect to shale seal efficiency.
He used limited and tenuous shale seal capillary
measurements, and concluded that the longest 10%
hydrocarbon columns were being limited by shale
capillary sealing capacity. Therefore, this work,
which uses laboratory-derived measurements, was
undertaken to determine the relationship between
shale compositions and the maximum hydrocarbon
column that they can seal.
This study examines and describes some basic shale
types, and shows how petrographic and petrophysical
measurements predict their seal capacity. The paper
begins by introducing previously published studies on
seals, and then continues by describing and classifying
selected shales petrographically. Next, petrophysical
measurements on vertically oriented shale plugs are
described, and these results are interpreted with
regard to seal capacity.
BACKGROUND
Proper techniques for evaluating seals are dis-
cussed in Schowalter (1979), Downey (1984), Watts
(1987), Ulmishek (1988), and Kaldi and Atkinson
(1994, 1997). These authors state that proper capil-
lary evaluation of top seals involves quantifying not
only the properties of the seal (i.e., pore throat dis-
tribution) but also the properties of the fluids (e.g.,
wettability, contact angles, and hydrodynamic con-
dition), if present. This paper does not address many
of the other important sealing scenarios, such as
mechanical properties and geometry (both thickness
and lateral continuity); fault-related features,
including gouge, deformation bands, and juxtaposi-
tion (Smith, 1966); pore pressure effects, or the prop-
erties affecting diffusion of hydrocarbons (Krooss,
1987).
Kaldi and Atkinson (1994) classify top-seal poten-
tial based primarily on three criteria: (1) seal capacity
(the size of the hydrocarbon column a lithology can
support based on both capillary and fluid properties),
(2) seal geometry (the structural position, thickness,
and areal extent of the lithology), and (3) seal integrity
(which includes the mechanical properties such as
ductility and the propensity to fracture). Therefore,
since this paper attempts to describe the capillary seal-
ing ability of nonsmectite shale seals, it will address
Kaldi and Atkinson’s “seal capacity” part of top-seal
classification.
Seal capacity is breached when the hydrocarbon
column generates enough buoyancy pressure to begin
saturating the seal. The laboratory technique of mer-
cury injection porosimetry (MIP) identifies the pres-
sure required to begin saturating the seal. In this
paper, displacement pressures, visually estimated by
backward extrapolation of log Pc vs. Sw on MIP pro-
files, define seal capacity for different shale types (Fig-
ure 1). Mercury injection porosimetry is a laboratory
technique that has been in use for about 50 yr to simu-
late migrating hydrocarbons (Jennings, 1987). MIP
data are obtained by injecting mercury, which acts as
the nonwetting phase, into the sample in a stepwise
fashion. The percentage pore volume, saturated by
mercury at each pressure increment, is recorded. The
results are usually plotted as mercury saturation vs.
injection pressure (Jennings, 1987; Vavra et al., 1992).
In practice, there is mercury saturation recorded prior
to reaching the displacement pressure, but this mer-
cury saturation at low pressure (beginning with entry
pressure) is attributed to mercury infilling surface
irregularities, such as nicks, gouges, and vugs on the
sample. (Vavra et al., 1992). These surface irregulari-
ties are attributed to sampling techniques and are not
believed to be present in in-situ conditions.
Displacement pressure should not be confused with
breakthrough pressure. Breakthrough pressure is the
minimum pressure required to cause a continuous
nonwetting phase (i.e., hydrocarbon rivulet in the
seal). Establishing a continuous nonwetting phase
causes permeability to hydrocarbons, and Schowalter
(1979) estimates that about one-half of the hydrocar-
bon column could be lost before seal capacity is
regained. For unfractured, fine-grained siltstones,
Rudd and Pandey (1973) estimate that the nonwetting
phase needs to saturate the pore volume to 20–30%
before breakthrough would occur.
This study uses displacement pressure to define
seal capacity. Once the displacement pressure of the
top seal is reached, any hydrocarbons migrating into
the underlying reservoir would not go to extending
the column in the reservoir but to saturating the crestal
portion of the seal. At this point, the reservoir column
would be at its limit. This happens because the crest is
exposed to the longest hydrocarbon column and,
therefore, the highest buoyancy pressures. The equa-
tion for calculating this maximum hydrocarbon col-
umn height is
Pds – Pdr
H max = (1)
0.433(ρ w – ρhc )
where Hmax = maximum hydrocarbon column in feet,
and Pds and Pdr = the displacement pressures of the
seal and reservoir, respectively, for the brine-hydro-
carbon system in question. For a good-quality reser-
voir, the displacement pressure is assumed to be 0.
The denominator, 0.433( ρ w – ρ hc ), = the buoyancy-
derived pressure generated from the density differ-
ence between the brine ( ρ w) and the hydrocarbons
 Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale 33

(ρhc), respectively. The 0.433 is for unit conversions

and takes into account the gravitational constant
(Berg, 1975; Downey, 1984; Watts, 1987; Vavra et al.,
1992).

METHODS
Sample Selection
Shales for this study were chosen on the basis of
core availability. Considerations in choosing and
working with shale core include:

• They are rarely cored. Reservoir rocks are the pri-

mary targets of a coring program. When a shale is
cored, it is often by mistake.
• Shales are often fissile and/or fractured. If shales are
cored, they may be too fractured for proper tests.
• Shales are improperly stored. Shales that are not
very well indurated and those that are smectite
rich may disaggregate, desiccate, or swell. Also,
dissolution of soluble minerals may occur.

Shales were sampled from conventional cores.

Table 1 lists the cored wells. Well-indurated, nonsmec-
tite shales were chosen because the largest pore
throats measured in smectite-rich shales are regarded
to be an artifact of drying. Drying smectite removes
the interlayer water, causing the interlayer pores to
shrink and form artificial large pores in the sample.
Therefore, MIP is not an appropriate method of analy-
sis for smectite-rich shales because of the prerequisite
drying (Murray and Quirk, 1992). Although shales in
this study are classified as nonsmectite, some contain
trace amounts of this clay mineral.
The 12 samples in this study range in age from Pre-
cambrian to Jurassic (Table 1). These samples cover a
range of porosity, cation exchange capacity (CEC),
organic content, mineralogy, and primary deposi-
tional structures (i.e., laminated and nonlaminated).
Table 2 shows the mineralogy and organic content of
each sample.
Shale Classification
The use and meaning of the term “shale” are worth
a brief discussion to alleviate the confusion that has
surrounded it. “Shale,” when used as a separate word
such as in the title, describes a general classification of
very fine grained, predominantly terrigenous, clastic
sedimentary rocks and has no specific reference to fis-
sility or laminations. This meaning is so ingrained in
the literature (Tourtelot, 1960) and in common “oil-
patch” jargon that this use is justified. In this respect,
shale has equal weight with the general terms “sand-
stone” and “limestone.” Shale also has the fairly pre-
cise double meaning of a “laminated clayey rock,” and
this is the source of much confusion (Tourtelot, 1960).
In this report, “shale” is also used as a root word to
further classify the samples with laminations.
In this paper, shales are subdivided according to the
classification described by Lundegard and Samuels
Figure 1. Schematic representation of a typical shale
mercury injection porosimetry (MIP) profile (adapt-
ed from Schowalter, 1979; Jennings, 1987).
Displacement pressure is determined by extending
the slope of the plateau to “0” mercury saturation.
Displacement pressure is the pressure required to
begin saturating the shale with the nonwetting
phase. In practice, there is mercury saturation prior
to reaching the displacement pressure, but this satu-
ration is attributed to mercury infilling surface
irregularities induced from sampling. This mercury
displacement pressure is converted to in-situ reser-
voir hydrocarbon column height or pore throat size
using equations 1 and 2, respectively. Also note the
similarities between this schematic mercury injec-
tion curve and the actual curves shown in Figure 8.
(1980), shown in Figure 2, using the percentage of silt
and the presence of laminations to classify shale types.
This method of classifying shales applies when over
50% of the grains are less than sand-size (62 µ), and 67%
of the grains are less than silt fraction (5–62 µ).
Shales in this study are further classified based on
fabric and the fraction of silt. Silt fraction divides the
shales into two major categories; less than one-third or
between one-third and two-thirds, with correspond-
ing prefix of “clay” or “mud,” respectively. Lamina-
tions, which are parallel stratifications less than 10 mm
thick, subclassify the fabric (Lundegard and Samuels,
1980). Therefore, based on silt fraction and the pres-
ence or absence of laminations, a shale is placed in one
of four categories (Figure 2). This classification proved
useful because of the broad and readily identifiable
categories.
34 Krushin

Table 1. Well Name, Location, Formation, Age, Depth, and Shale Type of the Conventional Cores Used in This
Study.

Well Depth
Well Name Formation/Age Location Abbreviation (ft) Shale Classification
Amoco 1— Morrison, Greeley County, RB 1511 Calcareous,
Rebecca Bounds Whitehorse Kansas lithic, mudstone
and Day Creek RB 1532 Sandy mudstone
Formations/ RB 1713 Sandy mudstone
Permian–Jurassic RB 1761 Feldspathic
mudstone
RB 1820 Sandy mudstone
RB 1856 Sandy claystone

Amoco Fayetteville Shale/ Rogers County, CAT 1200 Calcareous claystone

Catoosa-12 Carboniferous Oklahoma CAT 1202 Calcareous claystone

Amoco Oman-1 Upper Abu Oman M 9649 Dolomitic mudshale

Maimum Maharah
Formation/
Precambrian

Amoco— Antrim Shale/ Ostego County, S 1433 Organic clayshale

1–28 Swift Late Devonian Michigan S 1461 Organic clayshale
to Early S 1537 Organic clayshale
Carboniferous

Shale Composition Determination
Estimation of clay mineral compositions and
amounts are based primarily on X-ray diffraction
analysis, similar to the shale composition work of
O’Brien and Slatt (1990). X-ray diffraction analysis used
CuKα radiation. Integrating peak areas and using a set
of external standards identified the relative mineral
abundances for the bulk sample (Cullity, 1978). Clay
minerals were specifically identified in the clay size
fraction that was separated using Stoke’s Law method
(Head, 1984). This fraction was air-dried and glyco-
lated prior to analysis (Eslinger and Pevear, 1988). Min-
eral percents reported for X-ray analysis are considered
semiquantitative because of the following limitations.
The X-ray diffraction data are a weight percent
measurement dependent on such factors as orientation
of the grains, thickness of the mount, and evenness of
the spread of mixed minerals, and are accurate within
5 to 10% (Carroll, 1970). Even though X-ray analysis is
a weight percent, it is treated here as a semiquantita-
tive volume percent because the weight-to-volume
conversions are roughly 1:1 for the common suite of
minerals found in this study. Also, the layer silicates
identified by X-ray diffraction are inferred to be the
only clay-size minerals. The histograms illustrated in
Figure 3 show the amount of fine-grained material that
other researchers have found in shales. Just as there is
confusion about the meaning of the term “shale,” there
is also confusion concerning the amount of clay in
shales. Clearly, the amount of clay identified in the sam-
ples in this study is within the range of what others
have found (Figure 3). Additionally, Shaw and
Weaver (1965), by using X-ray diffraction-absorption
techniques on 300 Paleozoic through Tertiary shale
samples, concluded that the average major minerals’
composition is 31% quartz and 61% clay.
The silt-size and larger grain populations were esti-
mated by optical microscopy and standard compari-
son charts (Terry and Chilingar, 1955). In addition to
silt/clay fraction and laminations used to classify the
shale, additional modifiers such as “sandy” and “cal-
careous” are used to further describe the sample. The
modifiers are based on visual estimation for grain size
and amount using petrographic microscopy. The
modifying term is nonsilt and nonclay and generally
>10%. “Organic” is an additional modifying term. The
organic shales in this study have at least 7% total
organic carbon (TOC). Organic content was deter-
mined using a Leco Carbon Determinator.
Scanning electron microscopy and the energy-
dispersive X-ray analysis assisted in depositional fab-
ric and bulk mineral determination, respectively. The
descriptions that follow are based on composition of
the solid matrix. Note that the mineral percentages
listed for each sample in Table 2 are for percent of the
matrix; the term “matrix” describes the nonorganic
solid material.
Petrographic Description
Clayshale
Three of the studied samples are in this category.
These samples have less than one-third of the grains
 Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale 35

larger than 5µ and are thinly to thickly laminated.

Quartz content ranges from 30 to 35%. Clay content
varies from 55 to 65%, with illite being the most abun-
dant and chlorite second in abundance. Considering
Chlorite Kaolinite TOC the major modifier, these samples are further

8
7
7
described as organic clayshales. These organic
clayshales are from the Antrim shale of the Michigan
Basin. The Antrim is Upper Devonian to Lower Mis-
sissippian and is correlative to the widespread Wood-

10
10
5
ford and Devonian shales of the central and eastern
Layer Silicates

United States, respectively. The organic clayshales are

samples S 1433, S 1461, and S 1537. These organic
clayshales are well indurated and contain 7–8% TOC.
10
15
10
15

10
15
10
20
5

5
5
Pyrolysis indicates the organic matter to be predomi-
nately type 1, oil prone, in the initial stages of oil gen-
eration. Figure 4 shows sample S 1461, which is typical
Illite

of the organic clayshales in this category.

40
40
35
30
30
40
25
25
40
40
45
45
Organic matter is commonly amorphous or com-
pressed planktonic algae palynomorphs (i.e., Tasman-
ities). Figure 4C shows the typical “deflated
Total
40
45
45
45
40
60
40
40
50
55
55
65

basketball” structure of the Tasmanities or Tasmanities-

like body commonly found in these shales (O’Brien
and Slatt, 1990).
Minor minerals include pyrite, dolomite, and pla-
Anhydrite

gioclase. Porosities of the samples are low; that is, less

than 4%. Silt-size quartz is generally less than 10%,
10

based on optical microscopy.

Claystone
This category contains shales that have less than
Hematite-
pyrite

one-third silt-size clasts and show no laminations.

Table 2. Mineral Composition and Organic Content of the Shale Samples.*

Two of the three samples in this category contain more

5
2

5
5

than 10% secondary calcite. The two carbonate-rich

samples are from the Fayetteville shale, Rogers
County, Oklahoma. Because of the high secondary car-
Sample ID Quartz Plagioclase K-feldspar Calcite Dolomite
Mineralogy X-ray (wt. %)

bonate content of 35% (Figure 5), these samples (CAT

10
10

20
5

5
5
5
5

1200 and CAT 1202) have the modifier “calcareous.”

The other sample in this group, RB 1856, is from the
Whitehorse Formation in the Rebecca Bounds-1 well,
Greeley County, Kansas. Sample RB 1856 has approxi-
mately 15% sand-size quartz; hence, the modifier
35

35
35
2

“sandy” is used. Clay amounts for these three clay-

*Mineralogy was determined from X-ray diffraction analysis.

stones range between 40 and 60%, with illite compris-

ing the largest portion of the clay.
Porosities are higher for the samples in this cate-
1

5
5

5
5

gory than those in the clayshale category. The porosi-

ties for the claystone samples range from 6.6 to 19.4%.
The samples with the lowest porosities have the high-
est amount of secondary calcite. Each of the three clay-
stones have 5% dolomite.
25
5

5
5

5
5
5

Mudstone
This category contains the most varied mineralogy
due to the differing amounts of feldspar, calcite, and
20
40
35
30
35
25
20
20
20
30
35
35

anhydrite. Samples RB 1511, RB 1532, RB 1713, RB

1761, and RB 1820 are mudstones based on silt-size
fraction, ranging between one-third and two-thirds,
CAT 1200
CAT 1202

and the lack of laminations. (Figure 6 illustrates sam-

RB 1511
RB 1532
RB 1713
RB 1761
RB 1820
RB 1856

M 9649
S 1433
S 1461
S 1537

ple RB 1713, which is typical of the sandy mudstones

in this category.) These samples are from the Morri-
son, Whitehorse, and Day Creek intervals, taken from
the Amoco Rebecca Bounds-1 well in Greeley County,
36 Krushin

Figure 2. Shale
classification used in
this study. The term
“shale” is only applicable
to the four textural/ silt
fraction groups containing
less than 2/3 silt fraction.
This figure is taken from
Lundegard and Samuels
(1980) and is used with
permission of the
publishers.

Kansas, and are predominantly red beds deposited in a
sabkha-like environment. Support for this interpretation
are the interbedded aeolian sands and evaporites, and
lack of marine fauna. These samples contain between 40
and 45% clays. Samples RB 1532, RB 1713, and RB 1820
have about 15% very fine grained sand-size quartz
grains based on visual estimation and are modified
with the term “sandy.” Sample RB 1761 is a feldspathic
mudstone with 30% feldspar. Sample RB 1511 contains
sedimentary rock fragments and 35% calcite. This sam-
ple is classified as a calcareous, lithic mudstone.
Additional nonclay minerals commonly comprising
10% or less for this class of mudstones include calcite,
dolomite, pyrite, and anhydrite. All the samples have
disrupted bedding (see Figure 6A). The matrix of sam-
ple RB 1820 has halite, which is recognized from the Cl

50
Patchett (1975)

40
O'Brien and Slatt (1990)

30
Number

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Clay Percentage
Figure 3. Histograms of clay percentage found in 221 shale samples. The percentage is based on the solid bulk
material only (e.g., matrix). The data for Patchett (1975) represent 135 samples that range in age from
Ordovician to Tertiary. The data from O’Brien and Slatt (1990) are 86 samples ranging in age from Ordovician
through Quaternary. The percent clay for Patchett (1975) represents a weight percentage of <2 µm using
Stoke’s Law separation. The percent clay for the data from O’Brien and Slatt (1990) is layer silicate percentage
and is based on X-ray diffraction analysis.
 Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale 37

Figure 4. Sample S1461

of the Antrim Shale is
typical of the organic
clayshales studied.
(A) Thin-section slide
photograph shows thin
laminations and dark
color due to organic
content. Sample has 7%
TOC. (B) Thin-section
photomicrograph shows
fine-grained texture with
pyrite at top and no
visible porosity.
Crossed nicols. (C) SEM
photograph has flattened
Tasmanities (T) and
oriented clays (C).
Energy-dispersive X-ray
pattern shows Si, Mg,
Al, and Fe indicative of
quartz and chlorite. K
peak indicates illite.

peak from the energy-dispersive X-ray spectrum.
These samples as a group have the highest porosity
values, ranging from 16 to 22.2%.
Mudshale
Sample M 9649 is a mudshale from the Precambrian
Upper Abu Mahara Formation, Oman. This thickly to
lenticular-laminated sample contains 50% clays, with
illite being the most abundant. This sample illustrates an
obvious problem with using sheet silicates as deter-
mined by X-ray diffraction as percent clays. Some of the
illite is actually muscovite, larger than clay-grain size
(Figure 7). Less than 10% of the sample is sand-size
quartz, based on visual estimation. Therefore, the shale
is solely modified by the term “dolomitic” because it is
the only nonsilt, nonclay mineral >10%. Porosity is ~1%.
Mercury Injection Porosimetry
High-pressure mercury injection porosimetry (MIP)
determines the sealing shale displacement pressure,
and is visually estimated from log Pc vs. Sw plots (Fig-
ure 1). Mercury injection porosimetry to 30,000 psia
(206,850 kPa) injection pressures were measured by K
and A Laboratories, Inc., Tulsa, Oklahoma, on the 12
well-indurated shales by using unjacketed, oven-dried
samples cut from core perpendicular to bedding (Figure
8). Maintaining sample microfabric and microstructure
during the procedure is a concern. Two other drying
techniques have been applied to weakly consolidated,
fine-grained material to address this concern, namely
critical-point drying and freeze-drying (Garcia-
Bengochea, 1978; Delange and Lefebvre, 1984; Griffiths
and Joshi, 1991). Garcia-Bengochea (1978) concluded
that one of the major factors affecting the success of the
drying technique is the strength of the sample. There-
fore, because these shales are well indurated, the oven-
drying technique is believed to not affect the pore throat
sizes. Additionally, the good relationships between
porosity measured by different oven-drying techniques
and between different permeability measurements sug-
gest the samples retained their integrity on a microscale.
38 Krushin

Figure 5. Sample CAT 1202 is a calcareous claystone taken from the Fayetteville Shale, Rogers County,
Oklahoma. (A) Thin-section slide photograph shows lack of laminations. (B) Thin-section photomicrograph
illustrates fine-grained texture, lack of laminations, and no visible porosity. Black mineral is pyrite (P); white
mineral is sparry calcite. Crossed nicols. (C) SEM photograph shows uniform clay matrix and abundant rhom-
bohedral calcite (C). Energy-dispersive X-ray pattern shows large Ca peak indicative of calcite. Also, Si, Al,
Mg, and K indicative of quartz, illite, and chlorite. Fe peak may also indicate chlorite and/or pyrite.

Because the morphology of the clay minerals is
sheetlike, the MIP-derived displacement pressure was
converted to the distance between two parallel sheets
and is referred to as tabular-shaped pore throats (Ayl-
more and Quirk, 1967). The equation for conversion of
mercury (Hg) displacement pressure to tabular-
shaped pore throats is (using the Washburn, 1921,
equation modified from Schowalter, 1979):
–2Cγ cos θ
D tp = (2)
Pd
where D tp = diameter of tabular-shaped pore (in
nanometers); C = unit conversion constant of 1.45 ×
10 2; γ = interfacial tension of the Hg-air system (in
dynes/cm); θ = contact angle expressed in degrees; and
Pd = displacement pressure of Hg (psia). Table 3 shows
the Hg displacement pressures converted to pore
throat size for the shale samples using a standard con-
tact angle of 140° and an interfacial tension of 485
dynes/cm (Vavra et al., 1992). Diamond (1970) mea-
sured contact angles of 147° for kaolinite and illite, but
the standard value of 140° was used because these
shales are not pure kaolinite/illite samples.
Although shale seal capacity is mainly a function of
the capillary properties of the rock, additional mea-
surements (e.g., porosity and permeability) were used
to illustrate relationships among the various petro-
physical properties and to give the reader additional
confidence in the manner of analysis and interpreta-
tion. Both porosity and permeability were measured
by two methods. Table 3 summarizes these data.
Petrophysical measurements also include cation
exchange capacity. The low values help confirm the
nonsmectite composition of these shales.
 Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale 39

Figure 6. Sample RB 1713 of the Whitehorse Formation is typical of the sandy mudstones studied. (A) Thin-sec-
tion slide photograph shows poor sorting, disruptive bedding, and red color due to hematite staining. (B) Thin-
section photomicrograph shows very fine-grained sand and silt. Blue areas of epoxy are porosity. This sample has
20.2% Boyle’s Law derived porosity. Plane light. (C) SEM photograph shows cavities of plucked silt clasts (arrows)
and no orientation to clay fabric. Energy-dispersive X-ray pattern of Si, Al, and K indicates quartz and illite. Fe
peak represents hematite.

Porosity helium porosity, a value using the regression shown in

Boyle’s Law helium porosity was measured on
humidity-dried and vacuum-dried, vertically oriented
plugs cut from conventional core. The humidity-dried
samples were dried for 48 hr at 130°F (54°C) and 35% rel-
ative humidity. Samples were humidity dried because of
concern that complete drying would cause the samples
to fracture from desiccation. According to Bush and
Jenkins (1970), humidity drying should leave about two
molecular layers of water on the clay minerals and thus
prevent complete desiccation, although during the
study dessication was not a problem. Additionally,
Boyle’s Law helium porosity for 9 of the 12 samples was
measured on companion samples that were dried under
vacuum and at 122°F (50°C) (Table 3). Predictably, this
results in higher porosity values than those porosities
measured by humidity drying (Figure 9). Interpretation
of these data uses the vacuum-derived porosity. For the
three samples that do not have measured vacuum-dried
Figure 9 is calculated.
Permeability
Permeabilities were measured for both air and
water. K and A Laboratories, Inc., Tulsa, Oklahoma,
measured air permeability as well as the Boyle’s Law
porosity on the humidity-dried samples. Core Labora-
tories Inc., Bakersfield, California, measured the water
permeability along with the Boyle’s Law porosity for
vacuum-dried samples.
Permeabilities to both air and water were measured
on 1-in. (2.54-cm) diameter, vertically oriented samples
cut from conventional core. Each test used companion
samples cut from the same depth. The air permeability
was measured on the humidity-dried samples, using
humidified air as the permeant. The resulting air per-
meabilities were not corrected for gas slippage. These
tests were done with a hydrostatic confining pressure
40 Krushin

Figure 7. Sample M 9649 of the sandy, dolomitic mudshale of the Upper Abu Maharah Formation is the only
mudshale studied. (A) Thin-section slide photograph shows excellent thin to thick laminations. (B) Thin-sec-
tion photomicrograph shows interval of disrupted bedding, very fine-grained sand and silt and mica (M).
Plane light. (C) SEM photograph shows mica (M). Energy dispersive X-ray pattern shows peaks of Si, Al, Mg,
K, and Fe. These indicate quartz, illite, and biotite.

of 400 psia (2758 kPa). The resulting air permeabilities
range from 0.3 to 5.9 µd (Table 3).
The pressure-pulse, transient method was also
used because of documented reproducibility in this
permeability range (Amaefule et al., 1986). This
method uses a small water-pressure pulse upstream
of the plug. The pressure decay characteristics are
dependent on the permeability. The samples were
vacuum-pressure saturated using a standard labora-
tory synthetic solution of 50,000 ppm NaCl and 5000
ppm CaCl2. This solution was also used as the perme-
ant. The measured water permeabilities range in val-
ues of 4.2–8.3 µd. The brine pressure decay
permeabilities were run with an effective hydrostatic
confining pressure of 1000 psia (6895 kPa) and by
using a 50 psia (345 kPa) pressure pulse. The two per-
meabilities relate extremely well (Figure 10), with the
water permeability having the higher value. Jones
and Owens (1979) document the opposite relation-
ship for low-permeability sandstones. The relation-
ship documented here for shales is in spite of the
water permeability being measured at a higher con-
fining pressure and the air permeabilities not being
corrected for gas slippage. The effects seen here are
attributed to two causes: (1) the salinity of the perme-
ating fluid decreasing the distance of the diffuse dou-
ble layer on the clay surfaces, thereby allowing for
more open fluid pathways (Jose et al., 1989), or (2) a
relative permeability effect. The humidity drying
introduced a water phase and may have caused a
 Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale 41

100000

10000
Mercury Injection Pressure (psia)

(B) Claystones
(A) Mudstones
1000
RB 1856 CAT 1200 CAT 1202
RB 1511 RB 1532 RB 1713
RB 1761 RB 1820

100

10

1
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Mercury Saturation (% Pore Volume) Mercury Saturation (% Pore Volume)

(C) Mudshale and Clayshales

M 9649 S 1433
S 1461 S 1537

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Mercury Saturation (% Pore Volume)

Figure 8. High-pressure mercury injection porosimetry (MIP) profiles used for calculating seal capacity. The
pressures are converted to pore throat sizes using equation 2 in the text. (A) contains the MIP profiles for the
mudstones, (B) contains the MIP profiles for the claystones, and (C) contains the MIP profiles for the one
mudshale sample and the clayshale samples. Mudshale sample M 9649 has a relatively large part of its pore
volume attributed to surface effects. This is not surprising because the sample only has 1.2% porosity.

decrease in the absolute air permeability (J.G. Patch- Nonorganic Shales

ett, personal communication, 1991).
Table 4 shows correlation coefficients between the
shale displacement throat size and many of the petro-
DISCUSSION graphic and petrophysical measurements. The correla-
tion coefficients in Table 4 illustrate the usefulness of
As mentioned earlier and illustrated by equation 1, interpreting the factors that control seal capacity sepa-
the shale displacement pressure greatly controls the rately for nonorganic shales. The best correlation for
seal capacity. The Hg displacement pressure was visu- displacement pore throat size, for nonorganic shales, is
ally estimated from the MIP profiles (Figure 8). Dis- with quartz content of the matrix. Surprisingly, quartz
cussion of the organic clayshales is separate from the content by itself relates better to displacement pore
nonorganic shales because hydrocarbon generation throat than either bulk volume quartz (used here as
from the organic component is interpreted to have an quartz percent × [1–porosity]) or bulk volume quartz
effect on the displacement pore throat size. and porosity. Figure 11 is a plot of displacement pore
42 Krushin

which indicates halite. This anomalously large dis-

Displacement
placement pore throat size is attributed to partial dis-

Pore Throat
Size (nm)
solution of halite in the core, which results in large
pore throats. Therefore, the discussion and predictive

11
37
31
15
60
14
7
8
7
72
24
15
regression (Figure 11) do not include this sample.
The displacement pore throat sizes for the nonor-
ganic shales in this study range from 7 to 37 nm. Kat-
sube et al. (1991) document pore throat sizes for
deeply buried shales with less than 9% porosity from
Hg-Air System
Entry Pressure

the Ventura Gas Field, offshore Nova Scotia, Canada.

Plotting the MIP data from Katsube et al. (1991) with
(psia)
9500
2900
3500
7000
1800
7500
15,000
13,000
15,000
1500
4500
7000
mercury saturations vs. injection pressure does not
yield obvious displacement pressures (there is no
plateau that can be extended to 0 Hg saturation). Also,
displacement pore throat sizes were not reported for
their data. The geometric mean of the pore throat sizes
Permeability

for their ten shale samples range between 9 and 16 nm.

7.9**

6.0**

8.9**

5.5**
Water

The pore throat sizes presented in Katsube et al. (1991)

(µd)

7.3
5.7

8.3

5.5
4.2

4.8
4.9
5.3 certainly support the smaller displacement pore
Petrophysical Measurements

throats measured here. Figure 11 shows that the

nonorganic shales with the smallest displacement pore
throats are calcareous or dolomitic mudshales, mud-
stones, and claystones. Also, Figure 11 shows that
Vacuum Dried Permeability

sandy mudstones contain the largest pore throats,

4.7
3.5
3.2
2.5
4.7
5.9
2.3
0.3
1.8
1.2
0.9
1.0
(µd)

with sandy claystones and feldspathic mudstones hav-

Air

ing intermediate values.

Heling (1970) studied both pore throat size distribu-
Table 3. Petrophysical Measurements of the 12 Shale Samples.

tions and fabrics of Tertiary shales, as a function of

depth, from the Rhinegraben of southwestern Ger-
Porosity—

many. He found that the coarser grained components

19.0**

22.4**

19.4**

of shale (e.g., quartz) shield the larger pore throats and

(%)

12.6
20.2

20.8

6.6
7.9
1.2
3.7
3.6
3.9

inhibit compaction-generated fabric orientation,

thereby preserving the larger pore throats as the shales
are compacted. This supports the findings that show
the largest displacement pore throats are found in
shales that contain the coarsest grained components,
Humidity Dried

for example, sandy mudstones, although it is not

**Calculated from regressions; see text and figures.
Porosity—

known at what depth this shielding begins to override

(%)
13.5
10.1
14.4
16.0
13.7
13.8
5.0
3.9
0.8
1.2
1.4
3.4

the effects of compaction. Because the largest pore

throats in this study are associated with the coarsest
grained shales, it appears that quartz shielding is a
dominant factor. Not represented in this study are
poorly compacted clay-rich shales.
Exchange
Sample ID Capacity

Additional effects of compaction on shale seal

Cation

capacity are inferred from MIP performed on clayey

6.7
6.1
3.8
6.4
2.0
4.8
4.4
7.7
1.1
0.1
1.5
*

soils and clays that were subjected to increasing uni-

axial overburden strain in the laboratory. These stud-
ies provide useful analogies for the effects of
CAT 1200
CAT 1202

*Not measured.
RB 1511
RB 1532
RB 1713
RB 1761
RB 1820
RB 1856

compaction on shales. The compaction studies of

M 9649
S 1433
S 1461
S 1537

Sridharan et al. (1971), Delange and Lefebvre (1984),

Griffiths and Joshi (1989), and Lapierre et al. (1990)
show that the loss of pore volume with increasing
states of compaction is at the expense of the largest
pore throats, and this loss is nonrecoverable and
inelastic. Therefore, clay-rich shales should attain
throat size vs. the amount of quartz in the matrix. The their highest degree of seal capacity due to the great-
sample having 35% quartz and 60 nm displacement est depth of burial that they have been exposed to.
pore throat size does not appear to follow the trend This degree of seal capacity will not be decreased
with the other samples. An examination of the miner- upon uplift, since unloading involves the elastically
alogy of this sample, RB 1820, shows why it is differ- recovered deformation (Mitchell, 1976). Disregarding
ent. The energy-dispersive X-ray pattern shows Cl, the effects of secondary cements, the shales with the

highest compaction-derived seal capacity would be
those with the least coarse-grained fabric; that is, the
clayshales and claystones.
Quantifying seal capacity involves both the proper-
ties of the rock (e.g., displacement pore throat size) and
the properties of the fluids, buoyancy pressure, contact
angle, and interfacial tension. Zieglar (1992) studied
hydrocarbon column sizes to determine if seal capacity
could be a limiting factor in the size of the columns. He
concluded, based on tenuous shale capillary data, that
only the largest 10% of unfaulted gas columns in the
Rocky Mountain area have generated enough buoyancy
pressure to overcome the shale seal capacity. His 10%
largest percentile gas columns are about 1000 ft (305 m),
and the largest gas column is 1800 ft (549 m). Using
Zieglar’s fluid properties, these gas columns convert to
displacement pore throat size. His average conversion
factor for gas buoyancy gradient of 0.35 psia/ft (7.91
kPa/m) results in 350 psia (2413 kPa) and 630 psia (4344
kPa), respectively, for buoyancy-generated gas pres-
sures. Substituting into equation 2 the hydrocarbon/
brine contact angle of 0° for a water-wet system, gas-
water interfacial tension of 49 dynes/cm, and the afore-
mentioned pressures results in a displacement
tabular-pore throat size range of 23–41 nm. This is very
close to the largest pore throats measured in this study
and supports Zieglar’s (1992) conclusions. Shorter gas
columns would not generate enough pressure to over-
come the shale’s displacement pressure.
Organic Shales
A review of Table 3 shows that organic shales have
large displacement pore throats relative to their very
low porosity values, when compared to nonorganic
Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale 43
Figure 9. This chart shows
the relationship between
porosity measurements on
samples that were dried two
different ways. Boyle’s Law
helium porosity for shale
samples that were humidity
dried for 48 hr at 130°F
(54°C) and 35% relative
humidity are compared
to companion samples that
were dried at 122°F (50°C)
under vacuum. The
vacuum-derived porosity
is used for the discussion
in the text.
shales. These are in the range of 15–72 nm, with
porosities of ~4%. The large displacement pore throats
for organic shales are clearly in contrast to nonorganic,
calcareous claystones, with porosities ranging from 6.6
to 7.9%. These nonorganic calcareous claystones have
displacement pore throat sizes of <10 nm. Luffel and
Guidy (1989) report a maximum displacement pore
throat size of 100 nm for organic Devonian shales,
with porosities ranging from 2 to 7%. Considering
SEM photomicrographs, thin-section microscopy, and
the low porosity values, these large displacement pore
throats do not appear to be associated with quartz
shielding or low levels of compaction. The relatively
large pore throats are attributed to hydrocarbon gen-
eration effects.
Scanning electron microscope microfabric studies
of organic shales by O’Brien et al. (1994) document
microchannels in organic-rich shales, some possibly
with oil globules in them. Therefore, organic shales
that are generating hydrocarbons are actually creating
larger pore throats, associated with microchannel,
micotunnel, or microfracture formation (O’Brien, 1989;
O’Brien et al., 1992). These large pore throats are
formed by the volume reduction associated with
hydrocarbon generation. No attempt is made to relate
size of displacement pore throat to column height
because of the uncertainty of what contact angle to
use because of the possibility for nonwater-wet in-situ
conditions.
CONCLUSIONS
Nonsmectite shales were studied by using laboratory-
derived measurements to determine how well they
44 Krushin

9 Figure 10. This chart shows

the relationship between
8 air permeability and water
Shale Permeability permeability. The air
Water Permeability (microdarcies)

7 permeability was measured

using humidified air and
6 is not corrected for gas
slippage. The water
5 Y = 0.83X + 3.98 permeability was measured
2
R = 0.88 using the pressure-pulse
4 technique with a standard
laboratory solution as the
3 permeant.

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Air Permeability (microdarcies)

can seal hydrocarbons. The maximum size of the nonorganic shales that have abundant calcare-
hydrocarbon column a shale can seal is limited by the ous or dolomitic cement, or are clay rich, have
shale’s largest interconnected pore throat. This capil- displacement pore throats of <15 nm and would
lary sealing property of nonsmectite shales, referred to be excellent capillary seals. Nonorganic shales
as seal capacity, is determined by identifying the dis- with abundant coarse-grained material (e.g.,
placement pressure on an MIP plot. Plotting mercury sandy mudstones) contain the largest measured
saturations vs. mercury injection pressure on a linear pore throats. These are in the range of 30–40 nm
log-scale plot easily identifies the displacement pres- and could control the size of long gas columns
sure. Maximum hydrocarbon columns are estimated (~1000 ft; 305 m).
by converting MIP-derived displacement pressure to 3. Seal capacity can be predicted by quantifying
reservoir conditions. The major conclusions of this the amount of quartz in the shale matrix. Quartz
work are: content measured by using X-ray diffraction
analysis predicts displacement pore throat size
1. Nonsmectite shales are divided into two major by the following equation: displacement pore
categories with regard to factors controlling dis- throat size (nm) = 1.4 (% quartz in matrix) – 20.5.
placement pore throat size. These categories are 4. Compaction also can affect shale seal capacity.
nonorganic and organic shales. Maximum seal capacity for clay-rich shales is a
2. Petrology is a major control of displacement result of the maximum depth of burial and is
pore throat size in nonorganic shales. Classify- maintained upon uplift. Compaction was not
ing nonorganic shales with regard to amount of studied as part of this work, but compaction
silt/clay ratios, laminations, and major nonclay, effects on shale seal capacity are inferred from
nonsilt minerals allows for a preliminary esti- compaction studies performed on clays and
mation of seal capacity. The low-porosity, clay-rich soils. These compaction studies on

Table 4. Correlation Coefficients Between Seal Capacity* and Selected Petrophysical Measurements.**

Porosity +
Kw Porosity Quartz in Bulk Volume Bulk Volume
Seal Capacity (µd) (%) Matrix (%) Quartz (%) Quartz (%)
Nonorganic Shales Only 0.47 0.47 0.82 0.75 0.75
All Samples 0.10 0.07 0.57 0.46 0.33

*i.e., displacement pore throat size (nm).

**The nonorganic shales relate better (have higher correlation coefficients) to the petrophysical/petrographic properties than the group con-
taining all the shale samples.
 Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale 45

Figure 11. This chart illustrates the relationship between quartz content of the matrix, obtained from X-ray
diffraction analysis, and the displacement pore throat size, from MIP. Data are for nonorganic shales only.
The sample with the largest displacement pore throat size contains halite interpreted to have partially dis-
solved prior to analysis, perhaps in storage. Thus, the large-displacement pore throat is an artifact, not repre-
sentative of in-situ conditions, and is not included in the final interpretation or the regression.

fine-grained material show that compaction is at
the expense of the largest pore throats, thereby
increasing seal capacity with increasing degree of
compaction, although it is not known at what
depth the clay-rich shale has such small pore
throats that seal capacity is no longer a reasonable
exploration concern. This question remains unan-
swered because shallowly buried shales in active
depositional settings are smectite rich, and MIP is
not an appropriate analytical technique. Shales
with abundant coarse-grained components (e.g.,
sandy mudstones) have quartz grains shielding
the larger pore throats and inhibiting compaction-
generated fabrics. Thus, increasing compaction
would not increase seal capacity for a sandy mud-
stone, as it would for a claystone. Questions con-
cerning the complete relationship among
displacement pore throat size, quartz content, and
degree of compaction remain unanswered.
5. Matrix volume reduction associated with hydro-
carbon generation causes relatively large dis-
placement pore throats in organic shales.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper resulted from a Amoco Petrophysics
Class XXIV project. I would like to thank G.R. Powers
of Amoco for X-ray diffraction analysis and interpreta-
tion. Thanks go to J. Martin-Elliott for assistance in
drafting some of the figures and to F.M. Krushin for
typing the manuscript. The reviews of Leta K. Smith
and Norman R. Morrow greatly improved this manu-
script. The coordinating efforts of Katherine I.
Kirkaldie are also appreciated. I would also like to
thank the management of Amoco Exploration and
Production for granting me permission to publish this
paper.
REFERENCES CITED
Amaefule, J.O., K. Wolfe, J.D. Walls, A.O. Ajufo, and E.
Peterson, 1986, Laboratory determination of effec-
tive liquid permeability in low quality reservoir
rocks by the pulse decay technique: Society of
Petroleum Engineers 56th Annual California
Regional Meeting, p. 493–499.
Aylmore, L.A., and J.P. Quirk, 1967, The micropore
size distribution of clay mineral systems: Journal of
Soil Science, v. 18, p. 1–17.
Berg, R.R., 1975, Capillary pressure in stratigraphic
traps: AAPG Bulletin, v. 59, p. 939–956.
Bush, D.C., and R.E. Jenkins, 1970, Proper hydration of
clays for rock property determinations: Journal of
Petroleum Technology, v. 22, p. 80–84.
46 Krushin
Carroll, D., 1970, Clay minerals: A guide to their X-ray
identification: U.S. Geological Survey, Special Paper
26, 79 p.
Cullity, B.D., 1978, Elements of X-ray diffraction, 2nd
ed.: Reading, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 553 p.
Delange, P., and G. Lefebvre, 1984, Study of the struc-
ture of a sensitive Champlain clay and of its evolu-
tion during consolidation: Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, v. 21, p. 21–35.
Diamond, S., 1970, Pore size distribution in clays: Clay
and Clay Mineralogy, v. 18, p. 7–23.
Downey, M.W., 1984, Evaluating seals for hydro-
carbon accumulations: AAPG Bulletin, v. 68,
p. 1752–1763.
Eslinger, E., and D. Pevear, 1988, Clay minerals for
petroleum geologists and engineers: SEPM Short
Course 22, 311 p.
Garcia-Bengochea, I., 1978, The relationship between
permeability and pore size distribution of com-
pacted clayey silts—interim report: Joint Highway
Research Project 78–4, 179 p.
Griffiths, F.J., and R.C. Joshi, 1989, Change in pore size
distribution due to consolidation of clays: Géotech-
nique, v. 39, p. 159–167.
Griffiths, F.J., and R.C. Joshi, 1991, Change in pore size
distribution owing to secondary consolidation of
clays: Canadian Geotechnical Journal, v. 28,
p. 20–24.
Head, K.H., 1984, Manual of soil laboratory testing,
volume 1: Soil classification and compaction tests:
London, ELE International Limited, 339 p.
Heling, D., 1970, Micro-fabrics of shales and their
rearrangement by compaction: Sedimentology,
v. 15, p. 247–260.
Jennings, J.B., 1987, Capillary pressure techniques:
Application to exploration and development geol-
ogy: AAPG Bulletin, v. 71, p. 1196–1209.
Jones, E.A., and H.F. Wang, 1981, Ultrasonic velocities
in Cretaceous shales from the Williston Basin: Geo-
physics, v. 46, p. 288–297.
Jones, F.O., and W.W. Owens, 1979, A laboratory
study of low permeability gas sands: Society of
Petroleum Engineers Symposium on Low Perme-
ability Gas Reservoirs, Paper No. 7551, 10 p.
Jose, U.V., S.T. Bhat, and B.U. Nayak, 1989, Influence
of salinity on permeability characteristics of marine
sediments: Marine Geology, v. 8, p. 249–258.
Kaldi, J.D., and C.D. Atkinson, 1994, Seal potential of
the Talang Akar Formation, BZZ area, offshore
northwest Java, Indonesia (abs.): AAPG Annual
Convention, p. 183.
Katsube, T.J., B.S. Mudford, and M.E. Best, 1991, Petro-
physical characteristics of shales from the Scotian
shelf: Geophysics, v. 56, p. 1681–1689.
Krooss, B.M., 1987, Experimental investigation of the
diffusion of low molecular weight hydrocarbons in
sedimentary rocks, in B. Doligez, ed., Migration of
hydrocarbons in sedimentary basins: 2nd IFP
Exploration Research Conference, 681 p.
Lapierre, C., S. Leroueil, and J. Locat, 1990, Mercury
intrusion and permeability of Louisville clay:
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, v. 27, p. 761–773.
Luffel, D.L., and F.K. Guidy, 1989, Reservoir rock
properties of Devonian shale from core and log
analysis: The Society of Core Analysts Annual
Technical Conference, Paper No. 8910, 15 p.
Lundegard, P.D., and N.O. Samuels, 1980, Field classi-
fication of fine-grained sedimentary rocks: Journal
of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 50, p. 781–786.
Mitchell, J.K., 1976, Fundamentals of soil behavior:
New York, John Wiley and Sons, 422 p.
Murray, R.S., and J.P. Quirk, 1992, Comment on “Clay
fabric response to consolidation” by F.J. Griffiths
and R.C. Joshi: Applied Clay Science, v. 6,
p. 411–413.
O’Brien, N., 1989, Origin of lamination in Middle and
Upper Devonian Black Shales, New York State:
Northeastern Geology, v. 11, p. 159–165.
O’Brien, N.R., and R.M. Slatt, 1990, Argillaceous rock
atlas: New York, Springer-Verlag, 141 p.
O’Brien, N.R., R.M. Slatt, and J. Senftle, 1992, The sig-
nificance of oil shale fabric and primary hydrocar-
bon migration: Eastern Oil Shale Symposium,
November 17–20, Lexington, Kentucky, p. 294–297.
O’Brien, N.R., G.D. Thyne, and R.M. Slatt, 1994,
“Micro-channels” in organic-rich shales and
mudrocks as primary hydrocarbon migration path-
ways: Possible example from the Monterey Forma-
tion, California (abs.): AAPG Annual Convention,
p. 227.
Patchett, J.G., 1975, An investigation of shale conduc-
tivity: SPWLA 16th Logging Symposium, Paper U,
41 p.
Potter, P.E., J.B. Maynard, and W.A. Pryor, 1980, Sedi-
mentology of shale: New York, Springer-Verlag,
306 p.
Rudd, N., and G.N. Pandey, 1973, Threshold pressure
profiling by continuous injection: AIME-SPE Paper
4597, 7 p.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Secondary hydrocarbon migra-
tion and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin, v. 63,
p. 723–760.
Shaw, D.B., and C.E. Weaver, 1965, The mineralogical
composition of shales: Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, v. 35, p. 213–222.
Smith, D.A., 1966, Theoretical considerations of seal-
ing and non-sealing faults: AAPG Bulletin, v. 50,
p. 363–374.
Sridharan, A., A. Hschaeffl, and S. Diamond, 1971,
Pore size distribution studies: Proceedings of ASCE
Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division,
May, p. 771–787.
Terry, R.D., and G.V. Chilingar, 1955, Summary of
“Concerning some additional aids in studying sedi-
mentary formations” by M.S. Shvetson: Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, v. 25, p. 229–234.
Tourtelot, H.A., 1960, Original and use of the word
“shale”: American Journal of Science (Bradley Vol-
ume), v. 258–A, p. 335–343.
Ulmishek, G.F., 1988, Types of seals related to migra-
tion and entrapment of hydrocarbons, in L.B.
Magoon, ed., Petroleum systems of the United

States: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, v. 1870, 68 p.
Vavra, C.L., J.G. Kaldi, and R.M. Sneider, 1992, Geo-
logical applications of capillary pressure: A review:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, p. 840–850.
Wasburn, E.W., 1921, Note on a method of determining
the distribution of pore sizes in a porous material:
Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences, v. 7,
p. 115–116.
Seal Capacity of Nonsmectite Shale 47
Watts, N.L., 1987, Theoretical aspects of cap-rock and
fault seals for single- and two-phase hydrocarbon
columns: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 4,
p. 274–307.
Zieglar, D.E., 1992, Hydrocarbon columns, buoyancy
pressures, and seal efficiency: Comparisons of oil
and gas accumulations in California and the Rocky
Mountain area: AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, p. 501–508.
 Niemann, J.C., and M.R. Krolow, 1997, Delineation of a
pressure fault seal from shale resistivities, in R.C.
Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum sys-
tem: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 49–55.

Chapter 4
◆

Delineation of a Pressure Fault Seal

From Shale Resistivities
James C. Niemann
Mark R. Krolow
Chevron USA Production Co.
New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Pressure differentials between fault blocks are definitive evidence of a fluid
seal across faults. A method is proposed for using log-derived and calculated
pressure gradient values to correlate and map pressures on cross sections to
delineate pressure differentials across fault zones. These values were calculated
and mapped along a known hydrocarbon sealing fault inferred to be a pressure
seal in a field from the Gulf of Mexico. The results indicate that this method can
generate a detailed picture of the fluid and pressure history to aid in the docu-
mentation and prediction of sealing or leaking relationships along fault zones.

INTRODUCTION However, where abnormal pressure primarily is

Fluid pressure differentials have been documented
along many hydrocarbon sealing fault closures in the
Gulf Coast and Gulf of Mexico Tertiary fields (Myers,
1968; Fowler, 1970; McCullough, 1990). Pressure dif-
ferences between fault blocks are not the only indica-
tions that a fault is sealing. The presence of tilted fluid
contacts or freshwater zones indicates hydrodynamic
flow across a leaking fault (still capable of supporting
hydrocarbon columns) such as in the Bastian Bay Field
in southeast Louisiana (Myers, 1968). However, in the
absence of such criteria, pressure differences between
fault blocks are strong evidence for a fluid sealing fault
that retards the equilibration of pressures and
supports hydrocarbon accumulations. Ideally, pres-
sure differences are determined from downhole
pressure measurements in wells either with a wireline
formation testing tool or a downhole pressure bomb.
Unfortunately, in some parts of the world, downhole
pressure data are not commonly available and are not
consistently measured by many oil and gas operators.
49
caused by compaction disequilibrium, pressures can
be estimated from wireline log-derived shale porosity
indicators, such as resistivity or conductivity, and
interval transit time or velocity measurements. These
values can then be correlated between wells along
structural and stratigraphic datums to evaluate pres-
sure differences along fault zones with unknown seal-
ing or leaking relationships. An offshore Gulf of
Mexico gas field with an inferred hydrocarbon sealing
fault was chosen to determine if log-derived shale
properties can be used to calculate pressures and
delineate pressure differences across faults; this would
indicate if a fault was sealing or leaking.
SEALING FAULT DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 is a structure map on a Miocene age gas
reservoir sand in a field located in the Gulf of Mexico,
offshore Louisiana. The Miocene section is highly
expanded downthrown to the “A” fault, creating a
50 Niemann and Krolow

A' 7

0'
-1450

00'
0
-1450

5
-14
"A" FAULT

0'
00
-14

'

-14
000

00
0'
-15

'
00
40
'

-1
000
-16 5

0' "B" FAULT

00
4 -13

N
3

GAS RESERVOIR
1
A
OFFSHORE GULF OF MEXICO GAS FIELD
0 1 2 3 KM CHEVRON USA PROD. CO.
13300' SD STRUCTURE
0 1 2 MILES

Figure 1. Structure map at the 13,300 ft sand horizon with >200 m (700 ft) of
gas column trapped upthrown to the “B” fault. On N-S cross section A–A′,
note that wells 8, 9, and 10 shown on Figure 2 are out of the map view to the
north. SD = sand.

large rollover anticline typical of many Tertiary Gulf
of Mexico producing fields. The structure has been
bisected by another expansion fault (“B”), creating a
steep asymmetric anticline with the southeast limb
collapsed by fault expansion as shown by cross section
A–A′ in Figure 2. Gas is trapped primarily in several
stacked sandstones on the upthrown side of the “B”
fault, but a few gas reservoirs are present on the
downthrown side of the “B” fault as well. Gas column
heights range up to 800 ft (250 m), which is atypically
large for fault traps in the Gulf of Mexico.
Sealing faults are defined by differences in hydro-
carbon-water contacts in reservoirs juxtaposed across
the fault zones that cannot be accounted for by errors
in depth measurement or by capillary pressure varia-
tions between the reservoirs. Reservoir juxtaposition is
best documented by construction of a fault plane pro-
file or “Allan Map” (Allan, 1989). Because of variable
changes in the fault displacement, bifurcation of the
fault (not shown on the structure map) and the large
expansion of the section downthrown, a reliable Allan
Map projection, could not be constructed on the “B”
 Pressure Fault Seal 51

A A' A"
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2.5 KM-

TSNP

LT
3 KM -
-10000'
FAU
"B"

3.5 KM-

2000
TSNP 4 KM -
13

T
30

UL
0'

FA
SD

"
"A
2000 0 FEET 4.5 KM-
MA

-15000'
PH
OR

OFFSHORE GULF OF MEXICO GAS FIELD

IZO

CHEVRON USA PRODUCTION CO.

N

N-S STRUCTURAL CROSS-SECTION

SANDSTONE
GAS RESERVOIR

Figure 2. N-S structural cross section A–A′ showing stacked gas reservoirs trapped upthrown and downthrown
to the “B” fault. SD = sand, TSNP = top of supernormal pressure.

fault. However, the cross section shows some water-
filled sandstone to gas-filled sandstone juxtapositions
across the “B” fault, and the changing displacement
along the fault strike suggests that the upthrown gas
reservoirs are juxtaposed against water-filled sand-
stones at some or many points along the fault. Further-
more, the top of the transition zone from a normal,
hydrostatic pressure environment to a supernormal
pressure environment, determined from well logs and
drilling mudweights, is displaced ~2000–3000 ft
(600–900 m) downthrown across the “B” fault, as
shown by the line labeled TSNP (top of supernormal
pressure) on Figure 2. The apparent juxtaposition of a
lower pressure section against a higher pressure sec-
tion and the possible juxtaposition of gas reservoirs
against water-filled sandstones, plus the anomalously
high gas columns in some of the reservoirs, suggests
that the fault itself is sealing. The displacement of the
transition to supernormal pressure indicates a pres-
sure differential across the “B” fault, but it does not
document the dynamic changes that may be occurring
on either side of the fault and whether the pressure
differential continues with depth. There are only two
available initial bottom-hole pressure measurements
from wireline formation testing tools, and both of
those measurements came from the upthrown side of
the fault. Therefore, to map out the pressure differen-
tial across the entire fault surface in two dimensions,
pressures were calculated from well log–derived shale
porosity properties.
DETERMINATION OF PRESSURE
FROM WELL LOGS
The determination of pressures from well logs is
based on the work of Athy (1930), Terzaghi and Peck
(1948), and Hubbert and Rubey (1959), who established
that porosity is an inverse exponential function of the
effective stress, which is the difference between the
overburden or lithostatic stress and the fluid pressure.
If the change in fluid pressure with depth remains con-
stant (hydrostatic gradient), the effective stress will
increase, because the overburden stress increases at a
greater rate than the hydrostatic pressure change. Con-
sequently, porosity will decrease exponentially with
depth as the effective stress increases. Under supernor-
mal conditions where the fluid pressure gradient is
much higher than hydrostatic, the porosity will
decrease at a lower rate or may actually increase locally
with depth. Therefore, by knowing or estimating the
overburden and hydrostatic pressure gradients, the
52 Niemann and Krolow

Figure 3. Logarithmic shale

DEPTH RESISTIVITY (OHM-M) resistivity vs. depth plot for
0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0 the #4 well overlain by a
series of isopressure
gradient lines in terms of
PPG (lb/gal) mudweight.
The gradient overlay was
2.5 KM calculated from a modified
form of Eaton’s equation:
PRESSURE FPG = 19.2 – (19.2 – 9.0)
GRADIENT (Ro/RN)1.5, where Ro =
ppg (kPa/m) observed shale resistivity
and RN = shale resistivity
11-12 (13.0-14.2) along the normal
3.0
-10000' 12-13 (14.2-15.3) compaction trend line.
Along the right side of the
11-12 (13.0-14.2)
diagram is a partial log of
NOR

10-11 (11.8-13.0) the pressure zones in the

well as determined from the
MAL

9-10 (10.6-11.8)
10-11 (11.8-13.0) shale resistivities.
3.5
COM

11-12 (13.0-14.2)
12-13 (14.2-15.3)
PAC

"B"
13-14 (15.3-16.5)
TION

14-15 (16.5-17)
TRE

4.0 MAP HORIZON

ND L
10 p
INE
15.0

pg (
- 9.0
ppg

11.8

4.5
ppg
(17.6

-15000'
kPa/
(10.6
m)
kPa/

k
Pa/m
m)

fluid pressure can be back-calculated by deriving shale
porosities from well log electric or acoustic measure-
ments. Many variations on the calculation of pore pres-
sure from log data have been published (Hottman and
Johnson, 1965; MacGregor, 1965; Hamouz and Mueller,
1984; Martinez and King, 1987; Weakley, 1989, 1990). The
method of Eaton (1975) was chosen for this study
because it is generally accepted for use in the industry,
can be used in a variety of geologic settings, and is adapt-
able to studies with either an abundance or a sparsity of
geologic data. A general form of the Eaton equation is:
X
FPG = OBG – (OBG – HPG ) o R 
R be affected adversely by changes in formation water
N
(1)
where FPG = formation pressure gradient; OBG =
overburden pressure gradient; HPG = hydrostatic
pressure gradient; Ro = observed shale porosity indica-
tor (resistivity/conductivity or interval transit
time/velocity) at some depth; RN = extrapolated shale
porosity indicator at that depth if the section were nor-
mally compacting; and X = an empirically derived
exponential value. The technique works only in areas
where supernormal pressure primarily is caused by
the inability of shales to compact normally due to sed-
iment loading and formation of vertical fluid seals.
Where overpressuring is caused by other factors (for
example, hydrocarbon generation or by tectonic
stresses), the calculations will be in error. When using
shale resistivity or conductivity data, the results may
resistivity, borehole rugosity, shale anisotropy result-
ing from high angles between the borehole and bed-
ding, and pervasively silty or diagenetically tight,
calcareous shale sections. Interval transit time data
has the advantage of not being affected by changes in
 A A' A"
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2.5 KM-

LT
FAU
TSNP

"B"
3 KM -
-10000'-

3.5 KM-

PRESSURE GRADIENT
4 KM -
<9.0 PPG (<10.6 kPa/m)
ULT 9.0-10.0 (10.6-11.8)
FA 10.0-11.0 (11.8-13.0)
" 11.0-12.0 (13.0-14.2)
"A
12.0-13.0 (14.2-15.3)
4.5 KM-
13.0-14.0 (15.3-16.5)
-15000'-
14.0-15.0 (16.5-17.7)
15.0-16.0 (17.7-18.9)
16.0-17.0 (18.9- 20.1)
17.0-18.0 (20.1- 21.2)

2000 OFFSHORE GULF OF MEXICO GAS FIELD

CHEVRON USA PRODUCTION CO.
A-A' N-S STRUCTURAL CROSS SECTION
WITH PRESSURE GRADIENTS
0 FEET
2000 0 FEET
Pressure Fault Seal

Figure 4. Pore pressure zones in terms of PPG mudweight are overlain on the cross section from Figure 2. This overlay is derived from the pore
pressure logs that are calculated from each well’s resistivity profile. These pressure logs are then correlated along structural and stratigraphic
datums to yield a pore pressure cross section.
53
54 Niemann and Krolow
formation water resistivity. For most areas of the Gulf of
Mexico, however, away from the flanks of salt domes,
by using straight-hole well logs on moderate dip struc-
tures, negligible errors should result from using either
type of data. For the purposes of establishing fluid seals
across faults, the relative differences in pore pressure
are required rather than the absolute, accurate determi-
nation of pressure at any one point; thus, the choice of
method or data to be used for pressure determination is
less important than the consistent application of that
method, understanding the assumptions used, to all the
log data included in the study.
The overburden pressure gradient can be obtained
by using a composite graphical function derived by
Eaton (1975) or by integrating a bulk density log from
a well in the study area with corrections for water
depth where applicable. The OBG was assumed to be a
constant 1.0 psi/ft (22.6 kPa/m) in this study to sim-
plify the calculations. The hydrostatic pressure gradi-
ent was assumed for this study to be 0.468 psi/ft (10.6
kPa/m). For this area of the Gulf of Mexico, 1.5 has
been used previously as the X exponent, and that
value yields results that are consistent with the limited
downhole formation pressure data from the field. Ro is
obtained by plotting the shale porosity indicator val-
ues vs. depth, as shown in Figure 3 for the #4 well in
the cross section. If plotted on a semilogarithmic scale,
the trend of the shale porosity indicator data, in this
case shale resistivity, is approximately linear in the
normal or hydrostatic pressure section. This trend is
called the normal compaction trend line (NCTL). Val-
ues along the NCTL, which is equivalent to RN in the
Eaton equation, extrapolate what the shale resistivity
would measure if the entire section were normally
compacting under hydrostatic pressure conditions.
The NCTL can also be considered the hydrostatic iso-
pressure gradient line equivalent to 0.468 psi/ft or 9.0
PPG mudweight (10.6 kPa/m). “Mudweight” is an
industry term for pressure gradient that refers to the
density of drilling fluid necessary to balance down-
hole formation pressure safely during well drilling
and is equivalent to kPa/m by multiplying by 1.18 (or
psi/ft by multiplying by 0.052). Using the Eaton equa-
tion and the NCTL, a series of isopressure gradient
lines can be calculated and superimposed over the
shale resistivity data in Figure 3. The pressure gradient
environment can then be logged (shown for a portion
of the well on the right-hand side of Figure 3) based on
where the shale resistivity data fall within the isopres-
sure gradient overlay. This is a tedious process to per-
form manually, especially when a nonconstant OBG
function is desired; therefore, computer calculation of
pressure gradients from digital well log data is recom-
mended.
PRESSURE GRADIENT CROSS-SECTION
MAPPING
Pressure gradients vs. depth were calculated for
additional logs in the cross section, and the values
were then plotted on the cross section. By correlating
these values between wells along interpreted struc-
tural and stratigraphic datums, a pressure gradient
cross section, in terms of mudweight, was generated.
This pressure gradient cross section, shown in Figure
4, dramatically displays the pressure differential along
the fault surface and its wide variation in magnitude
with depth. Over most of the fault, the upthrown side
is of higher pressure than is the downthrown side. At
the intersection of “B” fault and the map horizon,
however, the differential is slightly reversed, with
lower pore pressure upthrown and higher pressure
downthrown. This higher pressure on the juxtaposed
downthrown side of the fault may add to the fault
zone seal capacity, accounting for larger gas columns
seen in the upthrown sandstones at or near the map
horizon. The pressure gradients between fault blocks
along some sections of the fault are equivalent, which
may be coincidental or could mean that portions of the
fault zone are leaking and that the fault blocks are in
pressure communication. Arching of the pressure gra-
dients upward across stratigraphic boundaries at the
middle level of the cross section on the downthrown
side of the fault suggests there has been some limited
pressure communication up or across the fault to the
downthrown side. The mapping of pressure gradients
from the shale resistivity gives a very complex and
dynamic picture of seal and possible leakage along the
fault, which is not possible from other discrete point
data such as downhole formation pressures, even if
abundant pressure test data were available.
CONCLUSION
Mapping of pressure differentials across fault
blocks can aid in the prediction of fault seal and the
determination of the height of potential trapped
hydrocarbon columns. Formation pressure data for
documenting pressure differentials are often scarce or
unavailable, especially at horizons and faults of inter-
est. Pressures can be calculated from log-derived shale
porosity data, such as commonly available resistiv-
ity/conductivity or interval transit time logs. Approxi-
mate determinations of pressure might be made from
seismic velocity in untested areas where well log data
do not yet exist. By applying this pressure data to cross
sections, pressure gradients can be correlated along
geologic boundaries and extrapolated to fault zones
where differences between fault blocks can be
observed and evaluated. The areally continuous
nature of shale porosity–derived pressure data as con-
trasted with discrete, single-point, formation pressure
data gives a more complete and detailed, although
approximate, picture of the fluid movement and pres-
sure history in the shales; this enhances our under-
standing and prediction of hydrocarbon entrapment
along fault zones.
REFERENCES CITED
Allan, U.S., 1989, Model for hydrocarbon migration
and entrapment within faulted structures: AAPG

Bulletin, v. 73, p. 803–811.
Athy, L.F., 1930, Density, porosity and compaction of
sedimentary rocks: AAPG Bulletin, v. 15, p. 1–24.
Eaton, B.A., 1975, The equation for geopressured pre-
diction from well logs: Society of Petroleum Engi-
neers Paper 5544, presented at the 50th Annual Fall
SPE-AIME Meeting, Dallas, Texas, September
28–October 1, 5 p.
Fowler, W.A., 1970, Pressure, hydrocarbon accumula-
tion, and salinities—Chocolate Bayou Field,
Brazoria County, Texas: Journal of Petroleum Tech-
nology, April, p. 411–423.
Hamouz, M.A., and S.L. Mueller, 1984, Some new
ideas for well log pore-pressure prediction: Society
of Petroleum Engineers Paper 13204, presented at
the 59th Annual Fall SPE-AIME Meeting, Houston,
Texas, September 16–19, p. 1–11.
Hottman, C.E., and R.K. Johnson, 1965, Estimates of
formation pressures from log-derived shale proper-
ties: Journal of Petroleum Technology, June,
p. 717–722.
Hubbert, M.K., and W.W. Rubey, 1959, Role of fluid
pressure in mechanics of overthrust faulting, part 1:
Mechanics of fluid-filled porous solids and its
application to overthrust faulting: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 70, p. 115–165.
MacGregor, J.R., 1965, Quantitative determination of
reservoir pressures from conductivity log: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 49, p. 1509–1511.
Pressure Fault Seal 55
Martinez, R.D., and G.A. King, 1987, Formation pres-
sure prediction using seismic data from the Gulf of
Mexico: OTC Paper 5513, presented at the 19th
Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,
Texas, April 27–30, p. 259–288.
McCullough, J.D., Jr., 1990, MacPac Field (Matagorda
Island Block 487-L), new gas reserves in a mature
area: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies
Transactions, v. 40, p. 585–596.
Myers, J.D., 1968, Differential pressures, a trapping
mechanism in Gulf Coast oil and gas fields: Gulf
Coast Association of Geological Societies Transac-
tions, v. 18, p. 56–80.
Terzaghi, K., and R.B. Peck, 1948, Soil mechanics in
engineering practice: New York, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 566 p.
Weakley, R.R., 1989, Recalibration techniques for accu-
rate determination of pore pressure from shale
resistivity: Society of Petroleum Engineers Paper
19563, presented at the 64th Annual Fall SPE-AIME
Meeting, San Antonio, Texas, October 8–11,
p. 457–466.
Weakley, R.R., 1990, Plotting sonic logs to determine
formation pore pressures and creating overlays to
do so worldwide: International Association of
Drilling Contractors/Society of Petroleum Engi-
neers Paper 19995, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Houston, Texas, February
27–March 2, p. 703–712.
 Sales, J.K., 1997, Seal strength vs. trap closure—a fun-
damental control on the distribution of oil and gas,
in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum
system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 57–83.

Chapter 5
◆

Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—

A Fundamental Control on the Distribution
of Oil and Gas
John K. Sales1
Mobil Oil Corporation (retired), U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Prediction of hydrocarbons ahead of the drill is our highest goal. Every
factor relating to it has been studied extensively, except the role that traps
play. I suggest that this role is important, and in some cases pivotal. Traps
act as “valves,” controlling what they retain, leak, and spill. Closure (vertical
distance between spillpoint and top of the trap) vs. seal strength (height of
the hydrocarbon column the seal can retain before leaking) controls this.
Three classes of trap are essential to cover the possibilities. Two key hydro-
carbon columns are used as thresholds for the classification: the highest pos-
sible gas column and the highest possible total column the seal of the trap
will allow. The spillpoint may be above (class 1), below (class 3), or between
(class 2) these two thresholds. The three classes distribute hydrocarbons dif-
ferently. Class 1 traps spill rather than leak gas, finally spilling oil from the
trap. Class 3 traps spill neither fluid, but accumulate oil until it balances seal
strength; thereafter, gas plus excess oil leaks. Class 2 traps leak gas but spill
oil, and have gas/oil contacts suspended in midtrap. The argument that oil
has a lower interfacial angle and entry pressure applies only until leakage
starts. Then gas’s higher position, smaller molecules, and lower viscosity
make it more mobile. Traps equilibrate based on this principle: full of gas
(class 1), partly full of oil (class 3), or filled with a mixed charge (class 2).
To the extent that the best provinces are exposed to an excess of both flu-
ids, this principle controls world distribution of oil and gas. More practically,
in an economy-favoring oil, higher-class traps leak gas, preserving oil in
themselves and traps updip. The trap class of a discovery has implications
that may modify drilling sequence.
During uplift, class 1 traps may be gas-flushed and thus degrade. Class 3
traps should change minimally. Class 2 traps should vent additional, now
more buoyant gas, and make more space for oil, improving their economics.
A slightly different scenario applies if seal strength decreases during uplift.
In the North Sea, Gullfaks, Snorre, and most of the Ekofisk group of chalk
anticlines are class 3, Oseberg is class 2, and Troll East, is class 1. Turner Valley
in Alberta, which has a two-phase fill, perpetual gas flare, great closure, and
1Currently at RR-1, Box 197, Cabot, Vermont, 05647

57
58 Sales
is surrounded by gas fields with less closure, is class 2. The Mahakam
Delta in Indonesia has seemingly random distribution of oil and gas fields,
but on closer inspection, the class 1 gas fields may have the less-damaged
seals and the class 3 oil fields the more-damaged seals. Despite historic
interpretation as a class 1 trap, the Little Lost Soldier Field in Wyoming
appears to be class 3.
INTRODUCTION
Definitions
The following paragraphs define terms and concepts
as used in this paper. “Closure” is the vertical distance
from the crest of trap to spillpoint. “Spillpoint” is the
highest point in the periphery of the trap—where the
growing hydrocarbon column first has egress from it—
and the geometric feature limiting the hydrocarbon col-
umn. “Cryptic” spillpoints are those that cannot be seen
on seismic or reconstructed from the structural/strati-
graphic framework of the trap; points of smear-gauge
failure on trap-bounding faults are characteristically
cryptic. “Filled-to-spill” indicates a full trap filled to the
spillpoint; such a trap may also simply be called “full.”
“Seal strength” refers either to pressure in excess
of hydrostatic or to the height of hydrocarbon col-
umn that can be retained before leakage. Such a
column may be thoroughly described as the “maxi-
mum possible, oil-dominated column” or the “
maximum possible, most buoyant gas column.” Alter-
natively, it may simply be called the “trappable col-
umn,” as context requires. “Reserve seal strength”
refers to strength in excess of that needed to balance
the most-buoyant (gas) column that closure allows.
Conversely, “reserve-closure” refers to closure in
excess of the longest possible (oil-dominated) column
that seal strength allows.
A pressure-enhanced seal has excess pressure in
and above the seal driving fluids downward into the
reservoir. It is characterized by a pressure overhang on
the well’s pressure curve. A pressure-degraded seal
has excess pressure in the reservoir driving fluids
upward through the seal. It is characterized by a flat-
tened pressure step in the pressure curve. Seal failure
indicates that the seal has started leaking hydrocar-
bons. Trap failure indicates that the seal is damaged to
the extent that no hydrocarbon column is possible. A
trap is said to have a membrane seal if failure is
through preexisting sedimentologically created pores
that become the failure path; it is said to have a
hydraulic seal if the failure path is through fractures
newly opened by pressures in the reservoir.
The mercury injection test is most ofte used to deter-
mine capillary entry pressure, the pressure at which a
hydrocarbon-wet failure path is established, in a sample
from a membrane seal. The leak-off test, done in the
well, is most often used to determine pressure at which
a hydraulic seal starts to fail by development of
microfractures. As a rule of thumb, these new frac-
tures start to open at ~80% of lithostatic pressure,
defined as the weight of the overburden. This 80%
pressure is called “fracture pressure.” On a pres-
sure/depth diagram, it is represented as a fracture gra-
dient at 80% of the lithostatic gradient.
Seal failure does not axiomatically lead to trap fail-
ure; it may instead lead to a steady-state, in which
there is matched flowage into the base of the hydrocar-
bon column and leakage from the top of the column,
with an economically viable volume of hydrocarbons
retained. Spilling indicates bed-parallel flow into and
out of the base of the hydrocarbon column. Leaking
indicates flow through the seal in upper parts of the
trap. Stratigraphically higher traps are those sealed by
a shallower horizon than the trap in question and nor-
mally positioned directly above it (both inclined axial
planes and fault cutoffs can modify this vertical stack-
ing). Structurally higher traps are those that updip at
shallower levels but are sealed with the same horizon
that seals the trap in question.
Unless otherwise stated, all discussion in this paper
assumes traps have been exposed to a minimum of one
trap-volume each of both oil and gas. The terms
“charge” and “fill” are used interchangeably to indicate
type and volume of hydrocarbons in the trap. With one
exception, condensates are not discussed; hydrocarbons
are considered to be oil or gas only, oil is considered to
be less dense than water, and gas less dense than oil.
These fluid phases are separated by fluid contacts: the
gas/oil contact above and oil/water contact below. A
volume-controlled fluid contact is dictated by the
amount of fluid that has entered the trap. A spillpoint-
controlled fluid contact is dictated by the spillpoint. A
pressure-controlled fluid contact, also called an equilib-
rium fluid contact, is dictated by pressure constraints
determined by seal strength. The latter type of contact
remains stationary, even as fluids enter and exit the trap.
These relationships show most clearly on a pres-
sure/depth diagram—a cross-plot showing increasing
depth downward and increasing pressure to the right.
On such a diagram, water has a more gentle hydro-
static gradient, reflecting its greater pressure buildup
with increasing depth. Gas has the steepest gas gradi-
ent, reflecting the least pressure buildup with increas-
ing depth. Because density of oil is intermediate, the
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas
oil gradient is intermediate. These diagrams may
extend from surface to basement, or crest of trap to
oil/water contact, as needed. Aspects of them, such as
pressure in a certain horizon, can be contoured basin-
wide. Trap classes are often discussed in the order 1, 3,
2 because the classification represents a continuum of
seal strength relative to closure; it is clearer to explain
the end-members and then the intermediate case. The
terms “seal” and “sealing horizon” are used in prefer-
ence to “caprock.“ The closure vs. seal strength princi-
ple refers to interrelation of those two factors, the basis
for the trap classification presented here. Trap process-
ing refers to the manner in which traps retain, leak, and
spill fluids, based on this principle. Class 1 reasoning
(Gussow’s differential entrapment) refers to spilling of
oil from a trap by gas, and the implications this has for
fluid distribution in successive updip traps.
Overview
Most papers on trapping and migration assume
traps have enough seal strength to prevent leakage. If
so, because gas is more buoyant and overlies oil, and
because oil is normally generated first and at lower lev-
els of maturation, gas might force oil to be spilled from
traps in a manner that can be predicted. A trap should
sequentially be charged with water, oil/water, oil,
gas/oil, gas. A migration route would show the transi-
tion gas, gas/oil, oil, oil/water, water in successively
updip traps. Once traps in such a route have been
flushed with gas, additional oil would underspill them
and continue updip, eventually to be lost to the surface.
At the extreme, migration chains, basins, or whole
provinces might become gas-flushed, even though oil
had preceded gas in the traps. This is sometimes
referred to as “Gussow’s principle” (Gussow, 1954).
Such analysis assumes, however, that seal strength
exceeds closure (i.e., that the seal can retain even a gas
column, the most buoyant column, filling it). The sce-
nario is very different if closure exceeds seal strength;
that is, if the seal leaks before the trap fills. Such a trap
must preferentially leak gas: gas is more buoyant and
has a position above oil; it has both its buoyancy and
that of the total oil column below it forcing it through
the seal; and gas is made up of smaller, more mobile
molecules and has less viscosity. In such traps, because
oil can’t spill, it accumulates until the buoyancy of the
oil column matches seal strength, with no seal strength
remaining to support an additional gas column. With
the exception of gas in solution in the oil, gas must now
leak as fast as it enters the trap, with minimal free gas
in the trap, regardless of the quantity of gas entering
the trap. Oil in excess of that required to use all of the
trap’s seal strength must also leak from the upper part
of the column as fast as it enters the trap.
During filling, trap charge evolves, reflecting vol-
umes of oil and gas entering the trap. After one trap
volume each of both oil and gas have entered the trap, it
comes to an equilibrium forced by its particular combi-
nation of closure relative to seal strength. Once at equi-
librium, additional oil and gas entering the trap will not
significantly change the charge. Rather than continuing
59
to evolve, the trap is now steady-state, with fluid con-
tacts nearly stationary and dictated by pressure, rather
than volume of oil and gas entering the trap.
The closure vs. seal strength principle leads to three
classes of trap, defined on the relation between closure
and the maximum possible gas column and the longest
possible (oil-dominated) column. After capillary break-
through and establishment of a hydrocarbon-wet “fail-
ure” path through the seal, the longest column is
almost surely a nearly pure oil column.
The resulting three-class trap classification can be
visualized most easily in a simplified cross section
showing one of each class of trap (Figure 1). This
cross section contains the three principal reference
lines used in the classification: (1) top of trap, (2) max-
imum possible gas column, and (3) the deeper
maximum possible, oil-dominated column. Spillpoints
may be above the maximum possible gas column
(class 1); below the maximum possible, oil-dominated
column (class 3); or between these two reference col-
umn heights (class 2). The following paragraphs pro-
vide a brief comparison of trap classes (Table 1 gives a
summary).
Class 1, gas-prone, traps have seal strength exceeding
closure: reserve-seal strength, even for a gas-full column.
Gas can flush oil and, once it does, oil “underflows,”
rather than entering, the trap. Such traps spill both flu-
ids, leak neither, and preferentially accumulate gas.
Class 3, oil-prone, traps are at the other extreme,
with spillpoints deeper than longest possible, oil-
dominated column that their seal’s strength allows.
Rather than having reserve-seal strength, as class 1
traps have, they have reserve-closure. Some combina-
tion of great closure and/or diminished seal strength
forces a class 3 trap to leak from its crest before it fills
to its spillpoint. Because gas overlies oil, oil accumu-
lates until it uses all seal strength, with none left to
retain gas. Gas flows through such a trap, with accu-
mulation of a minimal free gas cap. Gas leakage must
balance the rate that gas is entering the trap (i.e., be
steady-state). Oil also leaks steady-state, but does
accumulate. Only oil in excess of that required to bal-
ance seal strength is leaked. Such traps have failed in
the classical sense that capillary entry pressure has
been exceeded and a hydrocarbon-wet failure path has
been established. They are, however, still viable traps.
In fact, from an economic perspective, they are some of
our best traps, because their hydrocarbon columns are
dominated by oil. Thus, class 3 traps perform nearly
opposite to that predicted for class 1.
Class 2, balanced or two-phase-prone traps, are
transitional between class 1 and class 3 and have
intermediate seal strength relative to closure. They
have enough seal strength to support a full oil col-
umn, but not enough to support a full gas column.
The height of their free gas cap is limited by gas leak-
age, but the spillpoint intervenes before all seal
strength for oil is utilized. With the gas gradient con-
strained by the strength of the seal for gas, and the oil
gradient constrained to the spillpoint, only one posi-
tion of the gas/oil contact, somewhere in midtrap, is
viable. Like the oil/water contact in class 3 traps, the
60 Sales

Figure 1. Diagrammatic
G G cross section showing one
O O of each class of trap, and its
CREST OF TRAP
characteristic fill. Bubbles
(G = gas, O = oil) indicate
G ?
G the type of fluid that is
GAS G/O spilled or leaked from each
class of trap.
W
MAX GAS
COLUMN
OIL
O
OIL
WATER
MAX (OIL-DOMINATED)
COLUMN WATER

CLASS 1 CLASS 2 CLASS 3

gas/oil contact in class 2 traps is pressure-controlled,
rather than volume-controlled. This is called the
“equilibrium gas/oil contact.” Regardless of how
much gas leaks from the crest of class 2 traps, and how
much oil spills from their spillpoint, their gas/oil con-
tact will remain suspended in midtrap.
During filling, fluid contacts are volumetrically
controlled: they evolve as more oil and gas are
added. Thereafter, fluid contacts are either spillpoint
or pressure-controlled. Gas/water contacts in class 1
traps and oil/water contacts in class 2 traps are spill-
point-controlled. Gas/oil contacts in class 2 traps and
both fluid contacts in class 3 traps are pressure-con-
trolled. The gas/oil contact in class 3 traps, however,
may be forced right against the top of the trap because
oil is using all seal strength. Pressure-controlled con-
tacts maintain position as fluids flow through the trap.
These relationships show most clearly in pressure/
depth graphs (Figure 2). Gussow (1954) correctly inter-
preted the mechanics and implications of what are here
termed class 1 traps. He, however, considered all traps
to be class 1 and thus, conceptually, only considered
one-third of the possible spectrum of solutions.
Implications for exploration and field development
are significant. Traps function as “valves,” distributing
oil and gas in a manner that can be predicted if the
basic data are available. The two key pieces of data are
whether the trap is filled to its spillpoint and whether
it is actively leaking. These factors are discussed later.
Thus, if seal strength exceeds closure (class 1), the
trap is likely to be full of gas, and traps stratigraphi-
cally above it are likely to be water-wet. Traps updip
are likely to be gas-charged, although oil charges may
occur farther up the migration route. If seal strength is

Table 1. Characteristics of the Trap Classes.

Characteristic Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

Dominant Fluid Gas Both Oil
Spills Both Oil Neither
Leaks Neither Gas Both
At Seal Cap No Yes—Gas Yes—Both
Filled-to-Spill Yes Yes No
Controls GOC* Charge Volume Pressure Pressure
Controls OWC** Spillpoint or Charge Spillpoint Pressure
Trap Updip Gas Oil Water-Wet
Trap Stratigraphical Above Water-Wet Gas Both
Uplift Gas Flushes Improves Variable

*GOC = gas/oil contact.

**OWC = oil/water contact.
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas 61

PRESSURE
RESERVE SEAL STRENGTH
➟ Figure 2. Pressure-depth diagrams
characterizing the three classes of
SEAL STRENGTH TOP OF TRAP
traps. Note that they have the same

GA S
W
CLASS 1 TRAP three fundamental horizontal lines as
Figure 1: crest of trap, maximum

GR A
AT BOTH OIL AND GAS SPILL
ER
GR (NOTHING LEAKS) possible gas column, and the deeper,

DIEN
AD O
IE
NT maximum possible total (oil-

T
SPILL POINT
G GRADIENT OF MAXIMUM dominated) column.
POSSIBLE GAS COLUMN
DEPTH

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE GAS COLUMN

➟

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE (OIL-DOMINATED) COLUMN

GAS OIL FLUID TYPE

G PRESSURE
RESERVE SEAL STRENGTH (OIL)
➟
SEAL STRENGTH TOP OF TRAP

W
AT EQUILIBRIUM
CLASS 2 TRAP
ER GAS/OIL CONTACT
GR
AD
GRAD

OI

IE
L

NT
GAS T
GR
AD
IEN

IE
NT
DEPTH

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE GAS COLUMN

O
➟

SPILL POINT

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE (OIL-DOMINATED) COLUMN

PRESSURE ➟
GAS AND OIL LEAK
SEAL STRENGTH TOP OF TRAP

W
AT
CLASS 3 TRAP
ER
GAS

GR
AD
OI

IE
L

NT
GRA

GR
AD
DIE

IE
NT
NT
DEPTH

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE GAS COLUMN

➟

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE (OIL-DOMINATED) COLUMN

OIL/WATER CONTACT
NOTHING
RESERVE
SPILLS
CLOSURE

SPILL POINT
62 Sales
exceeded by closure (class 3), the trap may contain
oil, leak gas and oil to stratigraphically higher traps,
and not spill either fluid updip to structurally higher
traps. If the trap has a relationship between closure
and seal strength that is intermediate (class 2), it is
likely to leak gas to traps that are stratigraphically
higher and spill oil to traps that are structurally
higher, while retaining a two-phase fill. Both class 2
and class 3 traps prevent gas from continuing updip
to structurally higher traps, allowing traps updip to
retain oil, even if these traps updip are class 1 and
capable of being flushed with gas. If several traps in a
basin act this way, the basin may contain significant
oil, even when exposed to excess gas. If these higher-
class traps are the deeper traps in the basin, located
near the lower ends of long migration routes, their
oil-enhancing effect may be multiplied, because
many traps updip may retain oil. The entire line of
reasoning can be reversed, and stratigraphically and
structurally shallow traps can be used to decipher the
probable fill of deeper traps.
Assumptions
The following assumptions are generally adhered
to in this study:
Hydrocarbons migrate as separate phases of differ-
ing density, controlled dominantly by buoyancy (Eng-
land et al., 1987; Tissot, 1987; Durand, 1988; Ungerer et
al., 1990). Seal failure may be by capillary break-
through (Berg, 1975) or hydraulic fracturing (Watts,
1987). Both are covered by the trapping mechanics
suggested here. Condensates are also included, but are
limited to class 1 or class 3 traps.
Leaking and spilling cease when charging ceases,
with minimal shortening of columns from what they
were during maximum charging. The alternative,
that seals become hydrocarbon-wet, the trap drains,
and the seal does not repair itself until the column is
dissipated and the seal again becomes water-wet,
seems unlikely; there are too many high and oil-
dominated hydrocarbon columns in areas requiring
long-term retention for that alternative to be the gen-
eral rule. Class 2 and class 3 traps have to have had
hydrocarbon-wet seals that were actively leaking
when they were forming. They are dynamic rather
than static traps, that cause traps in areas of active
charging simply because a column “backs up”
behind them due to excessive inflow relative to leak-
age. Somehow, perhaps because of pore clogging
(Leith et al., 1993), they become statically competent
at nearly the same column heights as when actively
charging.
In class 2 and class 3 traps, it is assumed that fluid
contacts and rates of spilling and leaking continually
equilibrate. This seems to be substantiated by rapid
rates of migration relative to geological processes
(Dembicki and Anderson, 1989; Schowalter, 1991;
Xiaowen et al., 1992). Rates of fluid flow and, there-
fore, equilibration seem almost always to exceed tec-
tonic rates and, more importantly, rates at which the
maturation boundaries migrate through the rock mass
of the basin.
Variations in rate of fluid input are assumed to be
subordinate to the relationship between seal strength
and closure in determining fluid contact levels. Vari-
ations in rate of input to traps at seal strength (class 2
and class 3) will be compensated for by adjustments
in rates of leakage and spillage. Thus, while a tempo-
rary surge might disturb this equilibrium, the shift of
fluid contacts should be minimal and short-lived
because of the downward increase in perimeter
(“flare”) of most traps’ seals. If, for example, a trap is
forced to leak more gas because of a surge of gas into
the trap, the area of seal exposed to gas leakage can be
doubled with only a nominal lowering of the gas/oil
contact because of this strong downward increase in
the perimeter. If the surge lowers the gas/oil contact,
not only does the surface area exposed to gas leakage
increase, but pressure increases at every point, acceler-
ating leakage at each point. These two factors com-
bined should create pronounced stability in the
position of the gas/oil contact and force reestablish-
ment of equilibrium rapidly; in a geologic time frame,
the trap would be steady-state.
An approximate quantification can be done by con-
sidering a trap as a cone with low-dipping sides.
Indeed, the cone representing the “average” trap
would probably have dips in the 2˚–5˚ range, although
faulted boundaries are often steeper. This almost
degenerates to a circle. Doubling the height of the gas
column is approximated by doubling the radius of the
circle. Thus, the area of the cone exposed to gas is
about squared when the free gas cap height is dou-
bled. It is more difficult to quantify the increased rate
of leakage, but it would be significant. As a rule of
thumb for testing, I suggest that leakage is about
cubed when the gas cap height is doubled on average
higher-class traps. If we invert this line of reasoning,
doubled inflow of gas would only require a small
cube-root increase in height of the gas cap to reestab-
lish equilibrium leakage.
A simple experiment illustrates this: hold a cone-
shaped coffee filter under a faucet and increase flow
until the water level equilibrates in midfilter. First
increase and then decrease flow from this equilibrium
level; note how large changes in flow rate cause rela-
tively small changes in the equilibrium water level.
The average trap should have even more stability
because the cone representing it is relatively lower and
flatter (has a greater flare factor) than the cone of the
coffee filter.
It is assumed that traps either leak or spill a particu-
lar fluid, but seldom do both in subequal proportions.
If seals were perfect, no pore would leak until all
started leaking at the same entry pressure, at any one
height in the trap. To the extent that seals are imper-
fect, there may be a gray zone that allows some leak-
age in class 1 traps that still dominantly spill their
fluids. This is not to be confused with the situation in
class 2 traps that leak gas but spill oil because of pres-
sure constraints.
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas 63

PRESSURE ➟
SEAL AT TOP OF PRESSURE CELL
PRESSURE CELL
OVER PRESSURE THAT HYDROCARBON COLUMN
CURVED

CHARACTERIZES CELL
SEAL FOR TRAP
O
THIS TRAP MUST BE LEAKING
GAS

HYDROCARBONS – GAS IF 2-PHASE

G
DEPTH

BOTH IF OIL-CHARGED
TOP OF OIL COLUMN
WA

LIMITED BY FRACTURE
OIL

GRADIENT – THIS TRAP

TE
GRA

RG

MUST BE CLASS 2 OR CLASS 3

➟

GRAD

DIE

RA
2 PHASES

OIL GRADIENT FOR TRAP

DIE
NT

LI
IENT

NT

FR TH
A OS
C TA
TU
R TI
E C
DEEP PRESSURE G GR
CONDEN-

R AD
SATES

BUILDS TOWARD OIL/WATER A

D IE
FRACTURE IE NT
CONTACT N
T
GRADIENT
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
Figure 3. Idealized pressure/depth diagram showing an overpressured compartment (lighter shaded area) with
a trap (darker shaded area) superimposed on it. The trap is limited by the fracture gradient. Solid lines repre-
sent gradients; the dashed line is a pressure curve, such as a mud weight curve from the well. Because gas is
compressible, its gradient is curved rather than straight. The depth where it becomes tangential with the oil
gradient approximates the top of the condensate realm. Bottom scale is density.

SINGLE VS. DUAL SEAL STRENGTH
MODELS
There is room for interpretation as to what seal
strength and seal failure mean. Most classic treat-
ments (e.g., Berg, 1975) emphasize capillary entry
pressure, which is the pressure differential at which
hydrocarbons are initially forced through pores of
the previously water-wet seal, as the key factor.
Semantics become important. This factor places the
theoretical upper limit on column height, but traps
do not catastrophically “fail” when it is exceeded.
Rather, they become “supply and demand” (class 2
and class 3) type traps that “back up” hydrocarbon
columns while equilibrating steady-state to the inter-
play between active input to, and leakage from, the
trap. If the trap has reserve-seal strength (class 1), the
column will be limited first by how much of each
fluid has reached it, or later by the spillpoint. If the
trap has excess closure relative to seal strength (class
2 and class 3), the column will be limited first by how
much hydrocarbon has reached the trap, or later by
transmissibility of the hydrocarbon-wet failure path
relative to input to the trap. Only for a theoretical
instant, and only in a trap with excess closure relative
to seal strength, will the hydrocarbon column be lim-
ited by the initial capillary breakthrough pressure in
a water-wet seal.
At the point that leakage is initiated, at least six
things can happen: (1) traps can drain; (2) fluid contacts
can come to equilibrium; (3) column heights might
reduce to a lower “dynamic” seal strength that con-
trasts with the initial “static” seal strength that existed
prior to capillary breakthrough; (4) seals might readjust
and reduce pore-throat sizes, as at first larger and then
successively smaller molecules begin to clog failure
paths; (5) traps might respond to supply variations,
retaining higher columns during active inflow and
lower columns as inflow wanes; or (6) traps might
drain to a lower column height, hydrocarbon filaments
64 Sales

PRESSURE ➟ Figure 4. Pressure-depth

SEAL STRENGTH FOR OIL
IN DUAL-STRENGTH CASE
DEPTH
SEAL STRENGTH FOR GAS IN
DUAL-STRENGTH CASE, FOR
BOTH IN SINGLE-STRENGTH CASE
TOP OF TRAP, ALSO EQUILIBRIUM
GAS/OIL CONTACT FOR
SINGLE-STRENGTH CASE
OIL GRADIENT,
MAXIMUM COLUMN,
DUAL-STRENGTH CASE
OIL GRADIENT,
diagram showing the
difference between the
single (solid line) and dual
(dashed line) seal strength
models. Note that the
dual-strength model leads
to a significant gas cap
when at equilibrium; the
single-strength model
does not.

MAXIMUM COLUMN,
MAXIMUM POSSIBLE SINGLE-STRENGTH CASE
(GAS DOMINATED) COLUMN,
W
IF ONLY GAS AVAILABLE TO TRAP AT
ER
➟

GR
AD
IE
NT
OIL/WATER CONTACT (DUAL-STRENGTH CASE)

BOTH ARE "EQUILIBRIUM" CONTACTS

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE (OIL-DOMINATED) COLUMN,

ALSO OIL/WATER CONTACT (SINGLE-STRENGTH CASE)

may “snap off,” repairing failure paths, and traps may
refill to pre-initial-leakage column heights.
It is not apparent which, or what combination, or in
what sequence, or what quantification of each possi-
bility applies. One thing is apparent: it is not axiomatic
that traps “fail” (drain) when capillary entry pressure
is exceeded; there are commercial traps with active
leakage above them, with seals resaturated with
hydrocarbons from the reservoir, and traps not filled-
to-spill in areas of overexposure to overample hydro-
carbons. There are traps not filled-to-spill whose
upper hydrocarbon column pressure as deduced by
drill stem tests is in balance with fracture pressure
defined by leak-off tests (Figure 3).
Schowalter (1979) suggests that, under most condi-
tions, gas has higher entry pressure than oil, due to a
higher interfacial angle; oil is more “wettable.” Watts
(1987) follows this lead and shows that the relation
between column height can be variable for the two flu-
ids, with the trappable oil column sometimes being
less and sometimes more than the trappable gas col-
umn. Although not a major emphasis of his paper,
Watts also suggested the concept of a “gas veneer,” a
thin veneer of gas clogging the critical pore throats
and adding its entry pressure characteristics to the oil-
dominated column that it is holding back. He pointed
out that such a column should utilize gas’s higher
entry pressure and oil’s lower buoyancy stress to
allow the longest of all possible columns.
While these uncertainties do not affect the viability
of the closure vs. seal strength principle, they do affect
the configuration of traps at equilibrium. If the gas-
veneer model is appropriate, the gas cap degenerates
to a thin film and class 3 traps should tend to stabilize
with a column made up almost entirely of oil, although
gas may be contained in solution (Figure 4, solid-line
case). If seals have a higher seal strength for gas than
for oil, traps should start to leak oil steady-state before
the gas cap diminishes to 0. Class 3 traps should equi-
librate with one-third to one-fourth gas by column
height (Figure 4, dashed-line case). This paper advo-
cates that neither of the first two alternatives are cor-
rect and that, after leakage of both fluids has been
established, it is gas’s higher position and lower vis-
cosity that allow oil to drive it out of the trap.
The correct interpretation should be represented
by a maximum in frequency of occurrence (cluster) in
statistical data on trap fill (Figure 5). To date, the only
test seems to be of the Norwegian data (Sales, 1993),
as exemplified in the cross-plot of column height vs.
percent of oil in the column-by-column height (Fig-
ure 6). Note that this cross-plot also identifies traps
that appear filled and not filled, and that there is con-
siderable consistency: gas traps are almost always
filled, oil traps are not. A data cluster at nearly 100%
oil by column height (similar to Figure 4, single-
strength case), but the presence of no such data clus-
ter at 60–80% oil by column height (similar to Figure
4, dual-strength case), is strong evidence for either,
(1) the gas-veneer and single-seal-strength interpreta-
tion or (2) the relative viscosity argument that
increases gas’s mobility to greater than that of oil in
hydrocarbon-wet leakage paths. The data do not
indicate that leaking traps have higher entry pressure
for gas than for oil, leading to a significant free gas
cap in traps at equilibrium. Tentatively, the most gen-
eral case is the simpler single-seal-strength model
(solid-line case in Figures 4, 5).
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas 65

% OIL IN COLUMN
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
600
DATA CLUSTER IF SINGLE-STRENGTH

DATA CLUSTER IF
500 DUAL-STRENGTH
COLUMN HEIGHT (m) CASE PREVAILS

DOMINANTLY FILLED,
GAS DOMINATES
400

DOMINANTLY NOT FILLED,

300
OIL DOMINATES

200

"SADDLE" REFLECTS
LESS-FREQUENT
100 OCCURRENCE OF
CLASS 2 TRAPS

CLASS 1 CLASS 2 CLASS 3 TRAPS

0
Figure 5. Idealized cross-plot of column height vs. percent oil in the column, by column height, if traps came
to equilibrium with the single-seal strength model (solid curve), or the dual-seal strength model (dashed
curve). With the single-seal strength model, trap frequency should have a peak at ~100% oil by column height,
reflecting a nearly pure oil column as the preferred class 3 column. With the dual-seal strength model, trap fre-
quency should have a peak at 60–80% oil by column height, reflecting that preferred column for class 3 traps.
Both models should have a second peak at ~0% oil, reflecting gas-flushed class 1 traps. Class 2 traps, because
they are transitional and should occur less frequently, should normally occur as a frequency “saddle” between
these peaks in both models. As Figure 6 shows, the single-seal strength model appears to be the more valid.
Compare also with Figure 4.

In summary, seal theory has concentrated on condi- CLOSURE, SPILLPOINT, AND

tions leading to initial capillary breakthrough, but con-
ditions after breakthrough are more important. An
important point has been overlooked: traps that spill
both fluids (class 1) never test seal strength; traps that
leak fluids (class 2 and class 3) immediately go beyond
initial breakthrough and equilibrate to a steady-state;
no trap ever “hangs” at the condition of initial capil-
lary breakthrough. Likewise, if the main thesis of this
paper is correct, few traps drain catastrophically after
initial capillary breakthrough.
WHAT HAPPENS WITH
CONDENSATES?
Condensates do fit into this trap classification. In
successively deeper traps, more gas can be dissolved
in oil, until there is no distinction between phases (Fig-
ure 3). This eliminates class 2 traps. There can still be
class 1 condensate traps, with excess seal strength that
spill condensate updip. There can still be class 3 con-
densate traps with excess closure that leak condensate
rather than spill it. Although a two-phase charge is
precluded in the traps in question, condensate spilled
or leaked to shallower levels can exsolve back to sepa-
rate phases.
FILLED-TO-SPILL
Normally, closure and spillpoint are considered to
influence size and economics of a prospect, but not
mechanics by which its fill-type is determined. In this
paper, it is suggested that closure and spillpoint play a
dominant role, in combination with seal strength, in
determining what kind of fluid the trap is capable of
holding. This determination pivots on whether a trap is
filled, which is critical in determining trap class. Unfor-
tunately, closure and spillpoint may be hard to evaluate
from field and literature data. To quote Zeigler (1992,
p. 503): “Determining, with any confidence, whether
traps were full to their structural spillpoints or were
underfilled was impossible from the oil and gas field
catalogs. Consequently this important aspect cannot be
used to help evaluate the potential for leakage through
the interconnected pore throats of the sealing beds.”
I reject that it is impossible, but admit that it is diffi-
cult. The determination is simpler in structures with
four-way dip closure than in faulted structures, and
simpler in faulted structures than in stratigraphic
traps. Different workers use differing analytical and
reporting procedures. Obvious traps with the largest
columns, “sheepherder anticlines,” were discovered
early, with crude techniques and equipment. Data
66 Sales
% Oil in Column
0 20 40 60
700 31
600 33
500
Column Height (m)
400
2 to be filled either deeper or shallower than the highest
300
22,35
25,34
200 36
8 fluids supplied to the trap, or a limit on seal strength is
3,16,21
19,37
100
20,17,18,23
32
0 contact is likely to be a pressure-controlled contact in a
Figure 6. Cross-plot of hydrocarbon column heights
vs. percent oil in the column, by column height, for
Norwegian fields. Numbers are keyed to the field
chapter numbers in Spencer et al., 1987. Italicized
numbers denote traps that appear to be filled-to-
spill; upright numbers denote those not appearing
to be filled-to-spill. The judgment was based (1) on
the original author’s statement, (2) assessment of the
original author’s map, (3) crest minus lowest closing
contour statement in tabulated data, and (4) pressure
data. Note the skewing of the trap population
toward all-gas and all-oil traps, and the strong over-
lap of column heights in these two populations.
Compare with Figure 5.
such as pressure measurements were not taken or
reported for these largest and most important traps.
Waste strata (transitional strata between reservoir
and seal) won’t produce in a field-life time frame, but
may leak in a geological time frame. Thus, the actual
effective spillpoint may be some distance up into this
waste strata, and not be exactly at the top of the pro-
ducing reservoir (Schowalter, 1979). Such a trap may
be filled, while appearing not to be.
Fractured traps, such as salt-induced chalk anti-
clines of the North Sea, give special problems. Bending
produces fracturing, the essential permeability of the
chalk reservoir. Bending, fracturing, and permeability
diminish off-structure. Actual closure in the labyrinth
of fractures usually exceeds structural closure of the
fold. The actual spillpoint is hidden in this labyrinth of
fractures and independent of structural closure (Van
den Bark and Thomas, 1981; Watts, 1983). Such traps
80 100 appear to be filled beyond their spillpoint, but are
actually not filled-to-spill.
In faulted traps (Figure 7), the spillpoint may be the
structural spillpoint, a permeable unit juxtaposed
against the reservoir across the fault, or a point of
smear gauge failure (Skerlec, 1993). If at the structural
spillpoint, the fault must be cross-sealing. If spilling
through a permeable unit juxtaposed across the fault,
this point will normally be higher than the structural
spillpoint. Such a trap appears not filled to its struc-
tural spillpoint, but actually is filled-to-spill. Likewise,
5 a spillpoint at a cryptic point of smear gauge failure
6 can cause a full trap to appear unfilled. It may appear
24
9 point of juxtaposition of sand on sand on a fault plane
27 diagram (Downey, 1984; Allen, 1989). Because the
oil/water contact in class 3 traps can also be in any
28
24,12
position above the structural spillpoint, it may be diffi-
cult to judge whether a cryptic spillpoint, a limit on
11
26,10,7
36
limiting column height. Indications of leakage above
4 the trap favor the latter.
15 Postdrill, the most meaningful clue to trap class
30,14,13 may be performance of the trap itself. If the trap has an
29,28 oil charge in an area of apparent exposure to gas or
14B with indications of hydrocarbons over it, the oil/water
class 3 trap, not filled-to-spill. If the trap is gas-
charged, it is most likely class 1 and filled-to-spill,
although the spillpoint may be cryptic. If gas was
encountered at higher horizons and it has two-phase
fill, it is probably class 2 and filled to a cryptic spill-
point. If no gas was encountered, that same trap is
probably class 1, still evolving, but filled to a spill-
point. If oil-filled, but in a basin of very low matura-
tion, it may be a class 1 trap that gas has not reached.
SEAL STRENGTH
A trap’s seal strength is controlled by the largest
flaw in the best-sealing membrane nearest the crest of
the structure. That flaw may rarely be sedimentologi-
cally induced, occasionally diagenetically induced,
and frequently structurally induced. It may predate
hydrocarbon charging and act passively as the largest
pore that becomes the failure path. Alternatively, it
may be hydraulically opened by pressures created by
the buoyancy of the hydrocarbon column added to the
reservoir pressure in the water system (Hubbert and
Willis, 1957; Watts, 1987).
The best and most used test for estimating seal
strength is the mercury injection test (Berg, 1975;
Schowalter, 1979). To the extent that seals are not uni-
form, the success of this test may depend on compen-
sating sampling errors. On the one hand, the sample(s)
probably seldom include the best and actual sealing
membrane in the thick shale unit. The sample actually
tests somewhat inferior shale that gives a somewhat
lower entry pressure than the best membrane. On the
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas
other hand, the sample almost surely does not test the
exact largest pore in the exact critical failure path in
that best membrane in the crest of the trap. This critical
pore would also have an entry pressure somewhat less
than the average for the best membrane. In sedimento-
logically uniform condensed shales that have not been
made brittle by uplift or excessively strained by struc-
turing, a high degree of accuracy can be obtained from
mercury injection tests, especially if multiple samples
are tested (Sneider and Neasham, 1993).
While it is statistically improbable to sample this
single actual failure point in a core, it is sampled auto-
matically in traps in areas of active generation that are
at seal strength and leaking. Thus, the hydrocarbon
column in active class 2 and class 3 traps exactly por-
trays the effective seal strength of that trap. If column
heights and fluid densities are known, seal strength
can be calculated precisely on a pressure-depth plot.
However, that seal strength is not the initial capillary
breakthrough pressure in a water-wet pore. Rather, it
is the steady-state seal strength of the hydrocarbon-
wet leak path after initial breakthrough, and after
inflow and outflow have equilibrated.
WHY CLOSURE SHOULD OFTEN
EXCEED SEAL STRENGTH
A significant number of traps should have closure
that exceeds seal strength: (1) Closure of fault blocks,
anticlines, and wedge-outs of inclined strata that form
the world’s traps can be several times greater than
hydrocarbon columns (see Zeigler, 1992, for a compila-
tion of column heights for the western United States;
see Figure 6 for hydrocarbon column heights in Nor-
way). (2) If hydrocarbon columns and closures had the
same (probably log-normal) height distribution, but
67
Figure 7. Options for
spillpoints in a faulted trap.
were randomly matched, half of the traps would have
a closure that exceeded seal strength. Because the
upper limit on closure exceeds the upper limit on seal
strength, more than half of all closures should exceed
their seal strength. (3) Many traps appear to leak (Fig-
ure 8). (4) Many of these, while not filled, retain a com-
mercial hydrocarbon column. (5) Statistical studies
(Figure 6) suggest that the strength of seals may vary
significantly from trap to trap, further increasing the
probability of weak seals paired with large closure. In
fact, larger closures have greater curvature, larger
faults, more secondary brecciation, and more severe
tectonic stressing, which aggravates this tendency. (6)
Pressure studies show many traps are at seal strength;
pressure at the top of the hydrocarbon column, as indi-
cated on RFT tests, coincides with pressure at which
the seals fail, as indicated by leak-off tests.
EXAMPLES OF TRAP CLASSES
Class 1 Trap—Troll East, Norwegian North Sea
Troll (Gray, 1987) has three blocks (Figure 9). Each
more westerly and downdip block has a slightly deeper
hydrocarbon/water contact and a thicker oil column.
Troll East, with 230 m of gas and 0–4 m of oil, is the
largest gas trap in Norway. The 0–4-m oil column may
indicate a borderline class 2 trap. Alternatively, Troll
East may be a class 1 trap and simply have that much oil
in transit, underspilling the giant trap. If so, it has possi-
bilities for quantifying present migration along one of
the most prolific routes in Norway. An isopach of the
oil leg might show thinning toward the spillpoint. This
is because a slight slope should be required, both at the
base and top of the oil, to allow the oil to flow across the
broad undersurface of the gas.
68 Sales

Figure 8. Seismic section across Ekofisk Field in the North Sea, showing the strong gas chimney over that oil-
filled trap, which is positioned over a gas kitchen [from Dangerfield et al. (1992, their figure 1)].

The western two blocks of Troll cannot be class 1
traps or they would be flushed with gas; gas generated
downdip in the Troll kitchen almost surely passed
through them on its way to Troll East. These western
blocks have columns appropriate for higher-class
traps. Rather than leaking vertically to higher strati-
graphic levels, they probably leak across the fault
plane into adjacent blocks (Figure 9). Thus, although
Troll East is likely to be the largest class 1 trap in Nor-
way, the three blocks are one of the strongest indica-
tions that simple class 1 type reasoning is inadequate.
By class 1 reasoning, each successively more easterly
block should have proportionally more oil, not pro-
portionally more gas.
Class 2 Trap—Oseberg, Northern North Sea
Oseberg (Figure 10) has a 375m gas and 602m total
column, filled-to-spill (Nipen, 1987). As shown in
Spencer and Larsen (1990), and shown clearly in the
distribution of column heights, it is an exceptional trap
for the area (Field 33 on Figure 6). Apparent gas
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas 69

Figure 9. Diagrammatic
M cross section of fill relation-
SS ships in the three blocks of
Approx. 40 Km
1300 the Troll Field, Norway.
Class 3 Class 2 Each successively updip
and more easterly block
contains proportionally less
oil and more gas. Class 1
Class 1 reasoning suggests more oil
1400
updip; therefore, the
Troll Troll western blocks of Troll
Troll must be class 2 traps. Troll
West West
East East is Norway’s largest
(Oil) (Gas)
class 1 trap. Note extreme
vertical exaggeration.
[Based on data from Gray
1500 (1987).]

0-4 M
12 M
±25 M
1600

blooms, hydrocarbon shows in Cretaceous limestone
stringers, and areas of poor seismic quality (Nipen,
1987) suggest leakage. If Oseberg were class 1 and
capable of filling with gas, it would require about 25%
more seal strength than the actual column requires,
and could support an equivalent oil column of >1000
m. Because Oseberg already has an exceptional seal for
the area (Figure 6), it seems more likely to be a class 2
trap at equilibrium than a class 1 trap still filling.
Class 3 Traps—Gullfaks, Snorre, and Ekofisk,
North Sea
Gullfaks, which has very large structural closure,
may be a class 3 trap. Eriksen et al. (1987) feel that
large bounding faults may divert gas from it. How-
ever, the trap may have exposure to gas, is not filled,
and shows reservoir pressure at the fracture gradi-
ent (Karlsson, 1986). Pockmarks and acoustic distur-
bances over the field seen on sparker profiles
(Hoveland and Judd, 1988) suggest that the seal is
leaking. There were gas-related drilling problems,
and relief wells were drilled to vent gas. Indications
of gas occur in the shallower strata (Miles, 1990, his
figure 13). Gullfaks has a small gas cap. Some of the
gas encountered above the reservoir may be bio-
genic. Thus, the main criteria that define a class 3 oil-
prone trap are satisfied: (1) crestal leakage, (2) not
filled, (3) a column dominated by oil, (4) indications

Pressure (PSI x 100) Figure 10. Pressure-depth

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 diagram showing
0 generalized seal-spill
relationships for the
Act

Oseberg Field. [Based

Ma
ual

1
on data from Nipen (1987).]
xim Class

EGOC
Depth (M x 1000)

Gas

um

(Class 3) Wa
if

2
Col

terG
Gas 1

rad
um

i ent
Col

3
n

um
n

4 Gas-Oil Contact Ac
tua
lO
il C
5 Capacity Gas Column ol.
Spill Point
6
70 Sales
of leakage, and (5) pressure tests that indicate that
seal strength has been reached.
Snorre is a large complex fault block that, in the
present interpretation, is a class 3 trap not filled-to-
spill. It has no significant gas cap. Work by Leith
(1993) has established that the Kimmeridge Clay seal,
rather than being saturated with indigenous Kim-
meridge hydrocarbons, is resaturated with hydrocar-
bons from the oil pool below that have been forced
upward through it. This resaturation is differential,
with smaller and more mobile molecules penetrating
farthest up through the seal.
Ekofisk (Figure 8) and many related chalk anticlines
have characteristics that are similar. They have oil
charges, but are located over a gas kitchen (Figure 11)
and under gas chimneys.
Little Lost Soldier and Wertz Fields, Wyoming
With pays from the Upper Cretaceous Dakota For-
mation down to and including fractured basement, the
Little Lost Soldier (Lost Soldier) anticline (Figure 12) is
considered perhaps the best oil field in the Rocky
Mountains for its size (although fields such as
Rangely, Salt Creek, and Elk Basin are larger). Wertz
dome, only 2.5 mi (4 km) away, is filled instead with
gas. Gussow (1954) interpreted Wertz to have been
filled from the Washakie Basin to the west and to have
spilled oil and then much gas updip to the east into the
Mahogany-Ferris trend. It then spilled only oil into
Lost Soldier dome by “differential entrapment,” Gus-
sow’s term for class 1 mechanics.
Several things are suspect in this interpretation: (1)
Wertz does not, in Irwin’s map (1929), appear to be
filled. Taken at face value, Wertz could have spilled
neither oil nor gas to the east into the Mahogany-Ferris
trend nor to the south into Little Lost Soldier anticline.
(2) If oil did spill from Wertz to fill Lost Soldier, Wertz
had to be filled-to-spill with gas, and it is extremely
fortuitous that significant gas did not follow it: Lost
Soldier had no significant gas cap. (3) Lost Soldier
actually has as good or better access to the Washaki
depocenter than Wertz does: if overample gas entered
Wertz, overample gas should have entered Lost Sol-
dier. (4) It is as unlikely for Wertz to have spilled both
updip into the Mahogany-Ferris trend and into Lost
Soldier as it is for a lake to have two outlets. Ironically,
the correct interpretation (in my judgment) was well
stated in Gussow’s quotes from the original mappers,
here reproduced from Gussow (1954) as reprinted in
Foster and Beaumont (1988).
“Twenty-five years ago Irwin (1929) attributed the
apparent ‘anomalous’ trap of hydrocarbons to the
presence or absence of faults and their tightness. Thus
the absence of a gas cap at Little Lost Soldier was
attributed to selective leakage of gas [my emphasis],
whereas the occurrence of gas to the exclusion of oil at
Wertz was attributed to the absence of faults or to their
tightness if present,” Gussow (1954, p. 131). [And
again:] “...Dobbin (1947, p. 811) stated that the lack of
gas in the Little Lost Soldier field ‘suggests strongly
that there has been vertical migration of oil and leakage of
gas’ [my emphasis]. However, the remark that ‘...some
of the conditions of oil trapped in the region defy satis-
factory explanation,’ indicates that he is not all
together satisfied with the explanation. According to
the principle of differential entrapment, no anomalous
condition need exist.”
Considering geometry and the statements of the
original workers, the case seems strong against differ-
ential entrapment and for closure vs. seal strength rela-
tionships being the primary principle that causes a gas
charge in Wertz but an oil charge in Little Lost Soldier.
Under this interpretation, both Wertz and Lost Soldier
were exposed to both oil and gas. Wertz, with its lower
amplitude and less-stressed seal, filled with gas as a
class 1 trap and spilled all of its oil and much gas
updip into the Mahogany-Ferris trend by differential
entrapment. The greater closure and higher degree of
stressing of the seal by both faulting and bending, pos-
sibly in combination with deeper breaching, caused
Little Lost Soldier to perform as a class 3 trap, with clo-
sure exceeding seal strength. It vented its gas, as the
original workers suggested, allowing it to retain its oil
instead of spilling oil as Wertz did. Thus, the Little
Lost Soldier anticline became perhaps the best oil field
for its size in the Rockies because its closure exceeded
its seal strength, not because only oil reached the trap
by differential entrapment.
ALBERTA FOOTHILLS BELT
The Alberta Foothills belt (Fox, 1959) contains many
gas fields and one larger two-phase field, Turner Val-
ley (Figure 13). These fields should have equal expo-
sure to gas. Link (1949) suggested that the presence of
oil at Turner Valley might be explained by trapping of
oil in a precursor stratigraphic wedge-out that later
was remobilized into the Turner Valley structure. A
second option is that Turner Valley received insuffi-
cient gas to spill all of the oil from the trap by differen-
tial entrapment, by Gussow’s reasoning. Neither, I
think, is correct.
With the on-trend and surrounding fields filled
with gas, it seems likely that Turner Valley has been
exposed to overample gas to fill that trap. This gas
should have displaced the oil from both the strati-
graphic and later structural trap at Turner Valley sug-
gested by Link (1949). The presence of one of the
world’s largest deep gas traps (Masters, 1984) under
and in front of these structures further suggests over-
ample gas availability: the entire core of the foredeep
is saturated with gas. Further, Turner Valley has a
very large and well-known natural perpetual gas flare
over it.
All of these factors point to venting of excess gas
and away from differential entrapment as the cause of
the oil leg at Turner Valley. The most likely alterna-
tive may be that Turner Valley, perhaps because it
is one of the largest of the structures, is a trap with
small enough seal strength relative to closure that
it is forced to vent its gas at the well-known perpet-
ual flare (Porter, 1992), rather than retaining and
Figure 11. Position of Ekofisk relative to gas generation [from Cayley (1987)]. Even though Cayley came to a
different conclusion, this figure, in combination with the strong gas chimneys over traps like Ekofisk (see
Figure 8), is strong evidence that gas has access to these traps, despite the fact that they are filled with oil.
72 Sales

R90W R89W R88W R87W

2000

WERTZ

0
40 000
00
2

200
T
0

0
26
N LITTLE 200
0
0
LOST MAHONEY 200
0
SOLDIER
-20
00

T
25 4000
N

Figure 12. Map of the Little Lost Soldier (Lost Soldier) and Wertz fields, central Wyoming. [Modified slight-
ly from Gussow (1954) as taken from Irwin (1929) (the less-applicable eastern third of the diagram has been
omitted)].

accumulating the gas to drive out the oil leg (i.e., it is a
class 2 trap).
MAHAKAM DELTA, INDONESIA
The Mahakam Delta in Kalimantan (Borneo) in
Indonesia (Figure 14) is a small but prolific delta that
contains both oil and gas fields. In a map view, they are
interspersed in what at first seems to be a confusingly
random pattern. There is indication, however, that the
oil fields are the more highly faulted, while the gas fields
are the more perfect anticlines, with less-faulted seals, as
indicated by the following quote (Duval et al., 1992, p.
70): “This does not answer why Bekapai and Attaka oil
fields exist along the same trend as Tunu (gas and con-
densate field). The explanation is that vertical migration,
in spite of being a subsidiary process, is an important
factor and occurred late in these faulted structures.
Whereas Tunu is not faulted, Bekapai is explained by
dismigration through active faults from a previous gas
condensate pool in deeper horizons.”
Thus, some of the oil fields in the Mahakam Delta
may have enough structural damage to lower their
seal strength relative to their closure so they perform
as class 3 traps, venting gas so that they can retain oil.
The gas fields may have enough seal strength that they
perform as class 1 traps, spilling oil updip.
EFFECT OF UPLIFT ON THE
TRAP CLASSES
Each trap class should be affected differently by
uplift because each has differing characteristics of seal
strength relative to closure. Gas becomes less dense as
the confining hydrostatic pressure decreases during
uplift. In contrast, oil density remains more constant,
although it does change some as gas is exsolved.
There is a convergence of the hydrostatic and fracture
gradients toward the surface (Figure 15), the feature
that limits column heights in shallow traps and allows
some very deep traps to have great column heights.
Except for a few traps in rare underpressured areas,
all traps are confined between these two gradients,
and pressure at the trap crest can never exceed frac-
ture pressure. If this happens and the trap is class 1
and gas-charged, it will probably become class 2 or
class 3 and have a two-phase or an oil charge, but will
in any case have column height degraded. Charge
economics may, however, improve if a significant oil
leg is added.
To thoroughly cover the possibilities, both the case
for constant and the case for lowered seal strength
during uplift must be considered. Seal strength may
remain constant if the traps, after uplift, do not
impinge on the fracture gradient. They will almost
surely degrade if they do. In the following discussion,
it is assumed that the uplift does not involve tilting
and that closure does not change. First, assume a con-
stant seal strength during uplift.
Class 1 traps, with reserve-seal strength for gas, can
be gas-flushed. Class 3 traps, with little or no seal
strength for gas, before or after uplift, shouldn’t
change much. Class 2 traps should gain room for oil at
the expense of gas: it takes a shorter column of more-
buoyant gas after uplift to match the buoyancy stress
exerted by the longer column of less-buoyant gas that
was in equilibrium with the seal strength of the trap
Figure 13. Regional map showing the southern part of the Alberta Foothills belt gas fields, western Canada [modified from Fermor and Moffat (1992)].
Blowup of the Turner Valley Field is from Link (1949, his figure 3). According to Link (1949): “The structure relief or effective closure, from the highest
known contour on the gas cap to the water-oil boundary, is slightly more than 5000 feet.” Note that while closure is definitive on the east, west, and
south, splay faults at the north end of the structure probably contain a spillpoint. These factors, in combination with its perpetual gas flare due to crest-
al leakage, suggest that Turner Valley’s prime reason for not being flushed with gas, in a province that is dominated by gas, is that it is a class 2 trap
that vents gas to retain room for oil.
74 Sales
Figure 14. Map of the
Mahakam delta, redrafted
from Duval et al. (1992, their
figure 2). Note the close and,
at first glance, random
association of oil and
gas fields.
before uplift (Figure 16). However, the spillpoint inter-
venes before the oil leg gets high enough to use all of
the oil’s seal strength. Therefore, class 2 traps spill
their oil rather than leak it. Thus, there is both room
and enough seal strength for the oil column to expand
to replace the shortened gas column. In an economy-
favoring oil, this should improve the economics of
these class 2 traps.
Seal strength may diminish as, during uplift, the
weight of the water column above the seal is lowered,
while pressure in the reservoir, being more confined,
may respond more gradually. This may have differing
influences on the trap classes. Class 1 traps might lose
enough seal strength to convert to class 2, improving
economically by gaining an oil leg at the expense of
shrinking gas caps. Class 3 traps should degrade, as
diminished seal strength allows less oil column height.
Class 2 traps might be forced toward, and eventually
into, class 3 configurations, shrinking their equilibrium
gas caps. The oil leg of such class 2 traps would at first
expand because class 2 traps have excess seal strength
for oil. If uplift is arrested at this stage, these traps
would have improved. If uplift and lowering of seal
strength continue, however, these class 2 traps at some
stage should convert to class 3 traps and cease to be
filled. They now have lost their ability to support a
free gas cap and to spill oil. They should now start to
leak oil steady-state. These former class 2 traps would
now start to decline economically, as their oil column
height and volume start to reduce.
Note that wholesale gas-flushing and catastrophic
loss of oil to the surface during uplift require all class 1
traps and no diminution in sealing strength. It was
appropriate for Gussow (1954) to suggest this possibil-
ity, because he only dealt with class 1 traps. Because it
is the most easily visualized, industry has picked up
on this and often automatically assumes that uplift
equates with gas-flushing. It should not be considered
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas 75

PRESSURE ➟ Figure 15. Pressure-depth

diagram showing conver-
gence of the hydrostatic and
SAME TRAP EXCEEDS FRACTURE fracture gradients toward the
GRADIENT AFTER UPLIFT surface. As shown, this may
AMOUNT OF UPLIFT

cause traps that did not

THEREFORE HYDROCARBON COLUMN intersect the fracture gradi-
HEIGHT WILL BE LOWERED AT LEAST ent before uplift to exceed it
THIS MUCH, AND TRAP WILL BECOME after uplift, forcing them to
CLASS 2 OR 3
DEPTH

have lower column heights.

TRAP TOP IS WELL BELOW
FRACTURE GRADIENT
BEFORE UPLIFT
➟

UPLIFT MAY FORCE

TRAPS TO EXCEED
OIL GRADIENT
FRACTURE GRADIENT, IN TRAP
LOWERING
COLUMN HEIGHTS

axiomatic, however, because all of the other alterna-
tives are equally possible. Further, the presence of
just one class 2 or class 3 trap near the downstream
end of a long migration chain of class 1 traps can
vent gas from the chain and possibly save all traps
updip for oil. This is not axiomatic, however,
because additional gas may be coming out of solu-
tion in each trap affected by the uplift. Thus,
depending on the volume of this exolved gas, traps
updip from the higher-class trap in question may
have some secondary gas-flushing.
PREDICTION
Implications for Migration Chains
The systematic way in which the three classes of trap
distribute oil and gas has implications for migration

PRESSURE ➟
GAS LEAKS
Figure 16. Pressure-depth
diagram showing the effect
G of uplift on a class 2 trap.
SEAL STRENGTH TOP OF TRAP Class 2 traps gain room for
GAS GRADIENT oil as the gas cap is forced to
(POST-UPLIFT) CLASS 2 TRAP shrink, this is because a
more-buoyant shorter gas
DURING UPLIFT column after uplift must
balance the less-buoyant
W trappable gas column that
GAS/OIL AT
ER characterized the trap before
GAS GRADIENT
DEPTH

CONTACT GR
uplift, raising the gas/oil
AD (PRE-UPLIFT)
(POST-UPLIFT) IE
NT contact. Thus, class 2 traps
may be improved by uplift.
➟

GAS/OIL O
IL OIL
CONTACT G
RA SPILLS
(PRE-UPLIFT) DI
EN
T

OIL LEG OIL LEG O

AFTER BEFORE
UPLIFT UPLIFT
SPILL POINT
76 Sales
CLASS 1
TRAP
CLASS 2
TRAP
CLASS 3
TRAP
(Figure 17). The upper cross section of Figure 17 shows
a migration chain consisting of all class 1 traps
exposed to an excess of both oil and gas, but with all
oil flushed to the sea floor by the gas.
The middle cross section shows the same chain
under the same conditions, but with the lowest trap
being class 2 rather than class 1. Because class 2 traps
vent gas and spill only oil updip, the chain above is
saved for oil.
The bottom cross section shows the same chain
under the same conditions, but with a class 3 trap as
the lowest in the chain. Because such traps leak both
oil and gas and spill neither, the chain updip should be
water-wet. Alternatively, tributary migration routes
might bring oil generated at shallower levels into the
upper part of the chain. Thus, in the presence of class 2
and class 3 traps, the migration chain updip has an
increased probability for oil, even though the lower
end of the chain has had access to excessive gas to
flush oil from the entire chain.
There are also implications for traps stratigraphi-
cally above the one in question. Such a stratigraphi-
cally higher trap has increased probability of being
water-wet in the upper cross section and full of gas
in the lower two cross sections. There is a difference in
the lower two cross sections, however. The shallow
trap in the upper of the two should have received only
gas, and still-shallower traps updip from it have
enhanced probability for gas. In the lowest cross sec-
tion, the shallow trap should have received both oil
and gas, and the fact that it now contains only gas sug-
gests that oil has been spilled updip. Thus, other shal-
low traps updip from it have an enhanced probability
for oil. In the uppermost cross section, these shallow
traps are most likely water-wet.
Implications for Exploration Programs
These concepts also dictate different drilling
sequences, depending on the type of trap encountered.
The following examples assume access to both fluids,
that oil is the more economic, and that migration routes
connecting the discussed traps are simple and linear.
Figure 17. Three diagram-
matic cross sections of a
linear migration chain, in
which it is assumed that
the chain has been exposed
in each case to enough gas
to flush the entire chain.
The lowest trap in the
upper cross section is class
1; in the middle cross
section, class 2; and in the
lower cross section, class 3.
Note that middle and bot-
tom cross sections have an
enhanced chance for oil
even when exposed to an
excess of gas.
Example 1
A drilling well just encountered a trap, filled with
gas, but not to its apparent spillpoint (Figure 18). Such a
trap could have been sourced by spillage from a class 1
trap downdip at the same stratigraphic level. Such a
downdip trap, however, should normally have spilled
oil ahead of the gas, and space to have preserved some
of that oil remains in the trap that has just been drilled.
Alternatively, the just-drilled trap was filled from a
subjacent class 2 trap: the ideal class 2 trap leaks only
gas to higher stratigraphic levels and spills all of its oil
updip in the main carrier bed. Such a subjacent trap
should contain oil as well as gas because, in principle,
class 2 traps leak only gas and have an oil leg.
Under these constraints, the logical next target is to
deepen the well that is drilling to try for that oil leg. If
found, it implies that additional oil has spilled updip
at this deeper level: test for this after the first well is
completed.
Example 2
The well just drilled encountered gas, filled-to-spill
(Figure 19). This enhances the possibility that the
trap was filled by gas spilled from a trap downdip,
although filling from a subjacent class 2 or class 3
trap at a deeper stratigraphic level is not precluded.
Now, however, oil spilled from a trap downdip
could have preceded the gas into the just-drilled
trap, but has been displaced updip by the gas. This
possibility is enhanced if there is residual oil staining
within the gas column. This scenario increases the
possibility that the trap updip has received oil,
although it, like the trap just drilled, may also have
been flushed by gas. If so, you might have to “chase”
the oil to still higher traps.
Because the alternative, that the just-drilled trap
was filled from a trap downdip, is now logical, it
somewhat decreases the probability that the just-
drilled trap was charged from a subjacent class 2 or
class 3 trap. However, the possibility that the subjacent
trap is a class 3 trap, charged with oil, is also enhanced.
Class 3 traps leak both fluids, but there is no room for
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas
CLASS 1 FILLING?
JUST DISCOVERED
A TRAP PARTLY FILLED
WITH GAS WATER
GAS
NOT FILLED-TO-SPILL
GAS OIL
G
G
GAS
OIL O
GAS MORE LIKELY
2 OPTIONS
OPTION
the oil in the gas-filled upper trap. If this is the correct
alternative, it also enhances the chance for oil updip
at the level of the first-drilled shallower trap. The oil
that leaked vertically from the subjacent class 3 trap
had no trap space in the gas-filled trap above and
must have underflowed it and migrated updip.
Thus, this scenario has two attractive remaining tar-
gets: (1) deepen the present hole while in it and (2)
drill the trap updip for the possibility of shallow oil.
Example 3
A trap just drilled contains both oil and gas filled-to-
spill (Figure 20). It may be a class 1 trap still in the
process of having its oil displaced by gas that is still
accumulating. Alternatively, it may be a class 2 trap
at equilibrium and leaking gas. Indications of shal-
low gas while drilling enhance the class 2 trap inter-
pretation. In either interpretation, the trap just
drilled could have been sourced from oil and gas
spilled from a trap downdip or from oil and gas
leaked from a deeper subjacent class 3 trap. In either
case, the trap updip has an enhanced probability for
containing oil because gas has not yet been spilled
updip from the trap just drilled.
Given these constraints, the best chance for find-
ing additional oil is to drill the trap updip. However,
since you are already in the hole, the best sequence is
probably to deepen the present hole first to see if the
just-discovered trap was charged from a subjacent
class 3 trap at a deeper stratigraphic level that has
leaked both oil and gas up into the trap that you
have just discovered. After that, one would drill the
trap updip to tap the oil that should have spilled
updip from the trap that was just drilled. Note that
the drilling sequence is the same as in the case above,
even though the reasoning differs.
77
Figure 18. Exploration
scenario when a trap that
appears to be only partly
filled to its spillpoint with
WATER
gas is discovered.
OIL
Example 4
The trap just drilled contains dominantly oil, but with
gas-related problems encountered while drilling, and it
appears not to be filled-to-spill (Figure 21). It may either
be a still-evolving class 1 trap or a class 3 trap that has
the capability of supporting some free gas cap. A third
possibility is that subsidence since filling has com-
pressed the gas cap and put more of the gas in solution
in the oil. Such a trap could have been charged from a
subjacent class 3 oil-prone trap that has leaked both
fluids into it. Alternatively, it may have been charged
from a class 1 trap downdip that spilled oil and then
gas into it. The trap downdip is most likely filled with
gas, the excess of which spilled into the just-drilled
trap. The trap updip should be water-wet, since the
just-drilled trap is not filled. With the trap downdip
likely to be gas-filled, and the trap updip likely to be
water-wet, the best procedure would be to deepen the
present hole and test for the deeper class 3 trap.
AN INITIAL ATTEMPT AT STATISTICAL
VERIFICATION: NORWAY
These concepts, formulated while working in Nor-
way, were motivated by a feeling that there was more
gas available than recognized, and more oil pre-
served than should have been by class 1 reasoning.
Many of Norway’s traps leak, and failure paths must
be hydrocarbon-wet. Ekofisk, for example, is above a
gas kitchen, below a gas chimney, and filled domi-
nantly with oil (Van den Bark and Thomas, 1981).
Pressure regimes preclude filling of some traps; full,
they would exceed fracture pressure as indicated by
leak-off tests. Gullfaks has these characteristics (Erik-
sen et al., 1987). Caillet (1993), Lieth (1993) and Lieth
78 Sales
CLASS 1 TRAP
JUST DISCOVERED
A TRAP FILLED-TO-SPILL GAS
WITH GAS
OIL
O
GAS
FILLED-TO-SPILL
G
C-1 O
GAS G OIL
G O
O
OIL
G O
OIL 2 OPTIONS
et al. (1993), suggest that Snorre and possibly Statfjord
may have these characteristics. Thus, some traps in Nor-
way have “failed” by capillary breakthrough, yet are
commercial and, indeed, the best and largest oil fields.
To assess whether closure vs. seal strength relation-
ships played a part in distributing oil and gas in Nor-
way, cross-plots based on data in the Oil and Gas
Fields Volume (Spencer et al., 1987) were made. A sim-
ple technique was used to safeguard objectivity: work-
ing backward through the book, making decisions as
to whether the trap was filled without knowing which
field it was until the decisions were made. The deci-
sion was based on: (1) author’s statement, (2) my inter-
pretation of author’s map, (3) fluid contact levels vs.
lowest closing contour figures from tabulated data
(there is one contour interval of looseness in this
method), and (4) pressure considerations: would a
filled trap exceed the fracture gradient?
Norway, compared with other prolific areas, has
relatively simple plumbing (Spencer and Larsen,
1990), with one dominant source bed (Upper Jurassic
Kimmeridge equivalent) and one dominant reservoir-
carrier bed (Middle Jurassic Brent equivalent). In that
sense it is an ideal place for such a study. Preliminary
analyses suggest:
1. Little correlation between fill character and dis-
tance from generating kitchens (Figure 22) or
depth of the trap (Figure 23).
2. A subequal number of gas- and oil-dominated
traps, with few traps with subequal fills of both
fluids.
3. Gas traps tend to be filled; oil traps are not.
4. Significant overlap and scatter in column heights
between oil- and gas-dominated fields (Figure 6).
5. A cutoff of column heights at ~400 m. Only a few
columns (Oseberg, Agat, Smorbukk) are higher.
Figure 19. Exploration
scenario when a gas trap
appearing to be filled-to-
spill is discovered.
OIL
O
OIL
Each except Oseberg is problematic, but all
seem to have significant pressure-enhancement
of the seal.
6. Gas traps have less signs of leakage. Several
traps, especially the Ekofisk group, located close
to gas generation, support spectacular gas chim-
neys, yet are filled dominantly with oil. Signifi-
cantly, a few of these are gas-charged, but appear
to have no more access to gas. The oil traps are
gas-saturated, and produce significant gas, but
have little free gas cap.
If all of these traps were class 1, with fill determined
by volume of each fluid delivered, and fluids limited,
fill would correlate with distance from kitchens and
trap depth: it does not. Likewise, with excess fluids, all
traps would be gas-flushed: they are not. With just the
right amount of oil and gas, the right stage of migra-
tion could fortuitously produce the skewed distribu-
tion seen (about half gas traps and half oil traps, with a
few two-phase traps). Then, however, gas should be
concentrated downdip from oil, and it appears not to
be, either when the total trap distribution is consid-
ered or when only the Middle and Late Jurassic field
distribution is considered.
Significant scatter and overlap of column heights
between oil- and gas-dominated traps might be
explained in two ways. The gas side of the distribu-
tion, with traps that tend to be filled, might be
explained by distribution of closure heights. Equal
scatter occurs on the oil-dominated side of the distri-
bution, where it is less likely to be related to closure,
because this set of traps tends not to be filled. Tenta-
tively, imperfections in seals, in combination with
pressure limitations on column height, explain this
variation in seal strength and resulting column height.
Had the principles worked perfectly and had there
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas
GAS PROBLEMS CLASS 2 TRAP
WHILE DRILLING?
JUST DISCOVERED
A FULL TRAP WITH
BOTH OIL AND GAS
G OIL
GAS
OIL O FILLED-TO-SPILL
O
GAS WATER
G G
O
OIL
G
NOT FILLED-TO-SPILL
OIL 2 OPTIONS
NOT FILLED-TO-SPILL
been no variation in seal strength, a simpler, idealized
distribution might be expected (Figure 24). Had that
been the case, we might have had a high degree of pre-
dictability as to fill type prior to drilling; as with most
simplistic solutions, this seems elusive. This explana-
tion probably does not cover every trap. Class 1 type
reasoning is the probable cause in some cases. Exam-
ples of differentially filled class 1 migration chains,
such as suggested by Thomas et al. (1985) seem rea-
sonable. Nevertheless, an alternative explanation may
be necessary for many of Norway’s traps.
As a working hypothesis, many traps in Norway
have been exposed to excess oil and gas. The main
source is Kimmeridge-equivalent Late Jurassic (hot)
shales. Thomas et al. (1985) suggest “vast oversupply”
in relation to the northern Viking Graben. Bernard and
Bastow (1991) suggest that “...the oil productivity of
the Kimmeridge Formation in the Central Graben,
Moray Firth, and southern Viking Graben areas of the
North Sea is estimated to be >250 billion bbl, of which
25% is accounted for in traps discovered to date.”
These authors (in their figure 4) suggest oil productiv-
ity in excess of 100,000 bbl/acre in depocenters.
Kimmeridge shales are also a main source of gas in
gas kitchens along the axis of the Viking Graben
(Thomas et al., 1985) and Central Graben (Cayley,
1987). Kimmeridge gas potential is augmented, possi-
bly even exceeded, by the combination of multiple
gas-prone source rocks at deeper stratigraphic levels
and by biogenic gas. This deeper gas source potential
exists in the Middle Jurassic Brent Formation coals and
Lower Jurassic Statfjord Formation coals. Addition-
ally, Triassic and especially Carboniferous units have
gas-producing potential in England, Germany, Green-
land, and Svalbard. Although too deep for exploration
in the Norwegian offshore, these deeper sources must
79
Figure 20. Exploration
scenario when a trap with a
two-phase fill that appears
OIL to be filled-to-spill is
discovered.
WATER
contribute significantly as well. A corollary of the
present analysis is that deep class 2 and class 3 traps
can be expected to leak gas from traps in these as yet
undrilled older strata up into the commercially
exploited shallower traps.
Thus, a significant proportion of Norway’s traps
may have been exposed to an excess of both oil and
gas. They equilibrated with a fill appropriate to their
closure vs. seal strength relationships. Traps such as
Troll East were flushed with gas (class 1), traps such as
Gullfaks and Ekofisk that couldn’t be flushed with gas
retained oil, while gas continues to leak through these
traps steady-state (class 3). A few traps, with Oseberg
possibly being an example, reached seal strength with
a balanced fill, part oil and part gas. They now spill
their oil but leak their gas (class 2).
DISCUSSION
If the best basins are characterized by overproduc-
tion of both oil and gas, and still contain oil, they are
likely to do so because they contain traps that leak gas
while retaining oil (class 2 and especially class 3 traps).
Thus, while the volumetrics of source bed richness
and maturation, expulsion efficiency, and details of
migration may be paramount in basins with margin-
ally developed hydrocarbon systems, closure vs. seal
strength relationships may dominate in determining
fill character in the best (oversupplied) basins. To the
extent that these rich basins dominate world supply
and determine the world mix of oil vs. gas, it is possi-
ble that this relationship dominates in determining the
world mix of oil vs. gas.
Unfortunately, the principle, even if one considers it
completely valid, does not lead easily to predictivity.
80 Sales

Figure 21. Exploration

scenario when a trap with
GAS PROBLEMS
CLASS 1 (FILLING) oil that appears not to be
WHILE DRILLING? filled-to-spill is discovered.
OR CLASS 3
WATER
O AT EQUILIBRIUM
JUST DISCOVERED
A TRAP PARTLY FULL
G WATER
OF OIL

OIL
NOT FILLED
WATER

G
GAS
O WATER
OIL O

OIL

GAS 2 OPTIONS

OIL O

% Oil in Column In the few places analyzed, it seems that there is high
0 20 40 60 80 100 variability in seal quality, even in adjacent traps. This
does not seem to be related to depositional factors, but
14
50 to diagenetic and especially tectonic imperfections
25A,29A
implanted later and unique to each trap. The Wood-
35(K) ford Shale, for example, a recognized sourcing and
sealing formation of the U.S. midcontinent, contains
Distance from Gas Gen. (Km)

28A calcite concretions >5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter (Kirkland

34C 26
40 et al., 1992). These concretions could disrupt seal conti-
nuity and provide failure paths. Nevertheless, the
dominant reason is likely to be the variable tectonic
stressing of the individual trap’s seal.
34B After the referenced statistical study, I felt the prin-
30
ciples were sound but that seal strength wasn’t consis-
tent and/or spillpoints were not being treated
consistently. Yet considerable data (Sneider and
Neasham, 1993) suggested great consistency in the
32A
20 21
32B,28 mercury injection test data. The alternative seemed
that this consistent data was not testing actual seal
31
strength; it tested the perfect pores and not the cracks
7 in the seals. Yet Sneider and Neasham’s data (1993)
22 could not work as well as it does if it were not the cru-
10 33
cial data in the fields that they are dealing with.
19 2,3,8,16, 11,10 Uplift may be the key. The fields that Sneider and
36 17,18,20,25 12,9,6,2,4 13 Neasham (1993) are dealing with are mostly in the
23 24
27 Gulf Coast, and the seals have had a history of contin-
0 ual burial. Shales are created by and attuned to over-
burden pressure and remain plastic as long as burial is
Figure 22. Cross-plot of distance (near edge of continuous. Under these conditions, the sedimento-
Kimmeridge gas generation to the near edge of trap) logical pore-throat size, as reflected in the mercury
vs. fill character for the Norwegian North Sea. Actual injection tests, should be the critical parameter. In Nor-
migration distances for Kimmeridge-generated gas way, on the other hand, there has been uplift of indi-
could have been considerably greater, but migration vidual structures by footwall uplift during rifting and
distances for gas generated from deeper horizons could by the later Neogene uplift of the entire area that cur-
have been less. Note lack of relationship between fill rently uplifts Norway. This may have made seals brit-
character and distance from gas generation. tle and fractured. Fractures, rather than the perfect
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas 81

trap-configuration domains the sedimentological pore

Oil Fields 0 Gas Fields size is critical and in which the crack-induced pore size
is critical.

CONCLUSIONS
Interplay among closure, seal strength, and buoy-
ancy provides a fundamental control on proportions of
oil and gas in traps, migration chains, basins, and possi-
bly the world. In a trap exposed to excess of both fluids,
closure vs. seal strength relationships are the dominant
control on fill character. Three trap classes are based on
1 this relationship, using the height of the longest possi-
ble gas column and the deeper longest possible (oil-
dominated) column as thresholds. Position of
34 spillpoints in relation to these thresholds determines
trap class. Each class has different fill character and
implications for traps updip and at shallower strati-
Depth (m x 1000)

15 graphic levels. Conversely, shallow traps give clues

16 about traps downdip or at deeper stratigraphic levels.
26,32 Class 1 (gas-prone) traps have excess seal strength,
17 and class 3 (oil-prone) traps have a deficiency of seal
18,20 strength relative to closure. Class 2 (two-phase-prone)
33
2 traps have intermediate seal strength relative to clo-
19,37 sure. Class 1 traps will contain gas; class 2 will contain
14 21,34 both gas and oil; and class 3 will contain dominantly
27,28 oil, even when exposed to excess gas. Class 1 traps
spill gas and oil and leak neither; class 2 spill oil and
11,24,30 leak gas; and class 3 leak oil and gas, and spill neither.
7,29 Salient features are given in Table 1.
6 Fluid contacts can be spill-, charge-, or pressure
31 controlled. Pressure-controlled contacts equilibrate in
3 midtrap, despite movement of oil and gas through the
5,9 trap. With too much closure to allow gas flushing,
3 class 2 and class 3 traps have enhanced probability for
4,12 2 oil, even when exposed to excess gas, as long as they
8 are not so deep that oil is cracked to gas in the trap.
Thus, large closure and/or low seal strength are insur-
10 22,23 ance against gas flushing. Leakage of gas is required to
maintain room for oil in a trap exposed to excess gas.
36 Rather than being negative, signs of gas leakage
25 enhance the probability for oil.
Gussow (1954) considered all traps to be class 1.
While he made a landmark contribution, he dealt with
only one aspect of the total spectrum of trap processes
4 and thus oversimplified. Some of his examples appear
13 valid, some suspect. All are ripe for review in a
broader conceptual framework.
The northern North Sea, with too much exposure to
Figure 23. Graph of trap depth vs. fill character for gas and generally good migration potential, still has oil
the Norwegian North Sea. Note that the shallowest in the majority of traps. There are enough class 2 and
trap (Troll East) is gas and the deepest trap (7/11-5 class 3 traps along the migration pathways to vent suffi-
Discovery) is oil, and that there is no apparent rela- cient gas to increase the proportion of oil relative to gas
tionship between trap depth and fill character. Data in the area’s traps. In such areas, with overabundance of
from Spencer et al. (1987) keyed to field numbers in both fluids, present generation, and long migration
that volume. routes, trap processing may be paramount in control-
ling trap charge. In marginal areas, volumetrics may be
more important. In the North Sea, Troll East is class 1;
sedimentological pore, mayprovide the critical failure Oseberg is class 2; and Gullfaks, Snorre, Ekofisk, and
path in such areas. There is need for studies that both most of the chalk fields are class 3. (Examples in
test this hypothesis and define in which geographic or Wyoming, Alberta, and Indonesia are discussed.)
82 Sales

700 John Snedden, Nick Theis, and Joana Vizgirda com-

Hypothetical mented on early versions of this manuscript. A.G. Dorés
Distribution if editing improved a previously published version (Sales,
All Traps Had 1993). Anonymous reviewers of both versions helped
600
Same Seal Never Filled greatly. I thank them all, but retain responsibility for
errors that remain. I thank Mobil Oil Corporation for
Capacity
permission to publish this paper.
500
REFERENCES CITED
HC Column Height (M)

All
Class 3
Allen, U.S., 1989, Model of hydrocarbon migration and
Oil Traps
400 entrapment within faulted structures: AAPG
Mixed Traps Bulletin, v. 73, p. 803–811.
Class 2
Berg, R.R., 1975, Capillary pressure in stratigraphic
traps: AAPG Bulletin, v. 59, p. 939–956.
300 Bernard, P.C., and M.A. Bastow, 1991, Hydrocarbon
Capacity Gas Column generation, migration, alteration, entrapment and
mixing in the Central and Northern North Sea, in
W.A. England and A.J. Fleet, eds., Petroleum migra-
200 tion: Geological Society of London Special Publica-
Gas Traps
(Class 1)

tion 59, p. 167–190.

100
0
0 20 40 60
% of Oil by Column Height
Figure 24. Idealized pressure-depth plot of relations
if all traps had the same seal strength and ample
access to both fluids.
Trap classes respond differently to uplift. Assuming
constant seal strength, class 1 may be gas-flushed as
gas expands in the trap and in traps downdip. Class 2
should improve, gaining a higher oil column at the
expense of the gas cap, as leakage of the less-dense gas
accelerates. Class 3 might modestly improve if the
only gas was in solution and it is forced out of solution
by uplift. A different scenario applies if seal strength
decreases during uplift.
Prediction on many scales based on these concepts
seems possible, although working with the data is
inherently difficult. To the extent that oversupply of
both fluids characterizes the world’s best provinces,
the provinces that dominate the world’s supply, clo-
sure vs. seal strength relationships may dominate in
determining the world’s mix of trapped oil and gas.
More practically, a knowledge of the characteristics of
the trap classes may influence exploration rationale
and the order in which targets are drilled.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Steve Buck, George Claypool, Jim Dixon, Pete
Hansen, Jim Helwig, Doug Kirkland, Gene Leavitt, Pam
Luttrell, Randy Martinsen, Tim Matava, George Moekel,
Caillet, G., 1993, The caprock of the Snorre Field, Nor-
way: a possible leakage by hydraulic fracturing:
Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 10, p. 42–50.
Cayley, G.T., 1987, Hydrocarbon migration in the cen-
tral North Sea, in J. Brooks and K. Glennie, eds.,
Petroleum geology of northwest Europe: London,
Graham & Trotman, p. 549–555.
80 100
Dangerfield, J., I. Knight, and H. Farrell, 1992, Character-
ization of faulting and fracturing in Ekofisk Field from
seismic, log, and core data; in R.M. Larsen, H. Brekke,
B.T. Larsen, and E. Talleraas, eds., Structural and tec-
tonic modelling and its applications to petroleum
geology: Norwegian Petroleum Society Special Publi-
cation 1: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 397–407.
Dembicki, H., and M.J. Anderson, 1989, Secondary
migration of oil: experiments supporting efficient
movement of separate, buoyant oil phase along lim-
ited conduits: AAPG Bulletin, v. 73, p. 1018–1021.
Dobbin, C.E., 1947, Exceptional oil fields in the Rocky
Mountain region of the United States: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 31, p. 797–823.
Downey, M.W., 1984, Evaluating seals for hydrocar-
bon traps: AAPG Bulletin, v. 68, p. 1752–1763.
Durand, B., 1988, Understanding of HC migration in
sedimentary basins (present state of knowledge):
Organic Chemistry, v. 13, p. 445–459.
Duval, B.C., G.C. de Janvry, and B. Loir, 1992, Detailed
geoscience reinterpretation of Indonesia’s Mahakam
Delta scores: Oil and Gas Journal, August 10, p. 67–71.
England, W.A., A.S. Mackenzie, D.M. Mann, and T.M.
Quigley, 1987, The movement and entrapment of
hydrocarbon fluids in the subsurface: Journal of the
Geological Society of London, v. 144, p. 327–347.
Eriksen, T., M. Helle, J. Henden, and A. Rognebakke,
1987, Gullfaks, in A.M. Spencer, E. Holter, C.J. Camp-
bell, S. Hanslien, P.H.H. Nelson, E. Nysæther, and E.
Ormaasen, eds., Geology of the Norwegian oil and
gas fields: London, Graham & Trotman, p. 273–286.
Fermor, P.R., and I.W. Moffat, 1992, Tectonics and
structure of the Western Canada foreland basin, in
 Seal Strength vs. Trap Closure—A Fundamental Control on the Distribution of Oil and Gas
R.W. MacQueen and D.A. Leckie, eds., Foreland
basins and fold belts: AAPG Memoir 55, p. 81–106.
Foster, N.H., and E.A. Beaumont, compilers, 1988,
Traps and seals: AAPG Treatise of Petroleum Geol-
ogy, Reprint series 7, 2 vol., 42 papers, 1064 p.
Fox, F.G., 1959, Structure and trap of hydrocarbons in
southern Foothills, Alberta, Canada: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 43, p. 992–1025.
Gray, I., 1987, Troll, in A.M. Spencer, E. Holter, C.J.
Campbell, S. Hanslien, P.H.H. Nelson, E. Nysæther,
and E. Ormaasen, eds., Geology of the Norwegian
oil and gas fields: London, Graham & Trotman,
p. 389–401.
Gussow, W.C., 1954, Differential entrapment of oil and
gas: a fundamental principle: AAPG Bulletin, v. 38,
p. 816–853.
Hoveland, M., and A.G. Judd, 1988, Seabed pock-
marks and seepages: London, Graham and Trot-
man, 293 p.
Irwin, 1929, quoted in W.C. Gussow, 1954, Differential
entrapment of oil and gas: a fundamental principle:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 38, p. 131.
Hubbert, M.K., and D.G. Willis, 1957, Mechanics of
hydraulic fracturing: Petroleum Transactions of the
American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical
Engineers, v. 210, p. 153–168.
Karlsson, W., 1986, The Snorre, Statfjord and Gullfaks
oil fields and the habitat of hydrocarbons on the
Tampen Spur, offshore Norway, in A.M. Spencer et
al., eds., Habitat of hydrocarbons on the Norwegian
Continental Shelf: Norwegian Petroleum Society,
London, Graham & Trotman, p. 181–197.
Kirkland, D.W., R.E. Denison, D.M. Summers, and J.R.
Gormly, 1992, Geology and organic geochemistry of
the Woodford Shale in the Criner Hills and western
Arbuckle Mountains, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geo-
logical Survey Circular 93, p. 38–69.
Leith, T.L., 1993, Caprock leakage on the Tampen
Spur, Norwegian North Sea: IKU Poster at AAPG
Traps and Seals Conference, June 21–23, 1993,
Crested Butte, Colorado.
Leith, T.L., I. Kaarstad, J. Connan, J. Pierron, and G.
Caillet, 1993, Recognition of caprock leakage in the
Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea: Marine and
Petroleum Geology, v. 10, p. 29–41.
Link, T.A., 1949, Interpretations of Foothills structures,
Alberta, Canada: AAPG Bulletin, v. 33, p. 1475–1501.
Masters, J.A., ed., 1984, Elmworth—case study of a
deep basin gas field: AAPG Memoir 38, 316 p.
Miles, J.A., 1990, Secondary migration routes in Brent
sandstones of the Viking Graben and East Shetland
Basin: AAPG Bulletin, v. 74, p. 1718–1735.
Nipen, O. 1987, Oseberg, in A.M. Spencer, E. Holter,
C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien, P.H.H. Nelson, E.
Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen, eds., Geology of the
Norwegian oil and gas fields: London, Graham &
Trotman, p. 379-388.
Porter, J.W., 1992, Early surface and subsurface inves-
tigations of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin,
in R.W. MacQueen and D.A. Leckie, eds., Foreland
basins and fold belts: AAPG Memoir 55, p. 125–158.
83
Sales, J.K., 1993, Closure vs. sealing strength—a funda-
mental control on the distribution of oil and gas:
Basin modeling: advances and application: Norwe-
gian Petroleum Society Special Publication 3,
p. 399–414.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–760.
Schowalter, T.T., 1991, Secondary hydrocarbon migra-
tion in basin modelling: International conference on
basin modelling; advances and applications (abs.):
Norwegian Petroleum Society, p. 23.
Skerlec, G.M., 1993, Seals: risking fault seal and top
seal: PetroQuest International Inc., Informal Course
Notes, Mobil Oil Corp., Dallas, Texas.
Sneider, R.M., and J. Neasham, 1993, Comparison of
seal strength determinations: cores vs. cuttings
(abs.): AAPG Seals and Traps Conference, Abstracts
with Program, Addendum, June 21–23, 1993,
Crested Butte, Colorado.
Spencer, A.M., and V.B. Larsen, 1990, Fault traps in the
northern North Sea, in R.F.P. Hardman and
J. Brooks, eds., Tectonic events responsible for
Britain’s oil and gas resources: U.S. Geological
Society Special Paper, v. 55, p. 251–298.
Spencer, A.M., E. Holter, C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien,
P.H.H. Nelson, E. Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen, eds.,
1987, Geology of the Norwegian oil and gas fields:
London, Graham & Trotman, 493 p.
Thomas, B.M., P. Moller-Pedersen, M.F. Whitaker, and
N.D. Shaw, 1985, Organic facies and hydrocarbon dis-
tributions in the Norwegian North Sea, in B.M.
Thomas et al., eds., Petroleum geochemistry in explo-
ration of the Norwegian Shelf: London, Graham &
Trotman, p. 3–26.
Tissot, B., 1987, Migration of hydrocarbons in sedimentary
basins: a geological, geochemical and historical per-
spective, in B. Doligez, ed., Migration of hydrocarbons
in sedimentary basins: Paris, Editions Technip, p. 1–20.
Ungerer, P., J. Burrus, B. Doligez, P.Y. Chenet, and
F. Bessis, 1990, Basin evaluation by integrated two-
dimensional modeling of heat transfer, fluid flow,
hydrocarbon generation, and migration: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 74, p. 309–335.
Van den Bark, E., and O.D. Thomas, 1981, Ekofisk: first
of the giant oil fields in western Europe: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 65, p. 2341–2363.
Watts, N.L., 1983, Microfractures in chalks of
Albuskjell Field, Norwegian Sector, North Sea: pos-
sible origin and distribution: AAPG Bulletin, v. 67,
p. 201–234.
Watts, N.L., 1987, Theoretical aspects of cap-rock and
fault seals for single- and two-phase columns:
Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 4, p. 274–307.
Xiaowen, F., L. Chatzis, and A.L. Dullien, 1992, An
experimental study of oil migration: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 76, p. 638–650.
Ziegler, D.L., 1992, Hydrocarbon columns, buoyancy
pressures and seal efficiency: comparisons of oil
and gas traps in California and the Rocky Mountain
area: AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, p. 501–508.
 Kaldi, J.G., and C.D. Atkinson, 1997, Evaluating seal potential:
example from the Talang Akar Formation, offshore north-
west Java, Indonesia, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and
the petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 85–101.

Chapter 6
◆

Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the

Talang Akar Formation, Offshore Northwest
Java, Indonesia
J.G. Kaldi
ARCO Indonesia
Jakarta, Indonesia

C.D. Atkinson
ARCO British Ltd.
Guildford, United Kingdom

◆
ABSTRACT
The seal potential of various lithologies in the Upper Oligocene Talang Akar
Formation (TAF) is evaluated in the BZZ area of offshore northwest Java. Seal
potential comprises (1) seal capacity (the calculated amount of hydrocarbon
column height a lithology can support); (2) seal geometry (the structural posi-
tion, thickness, and areal extent of the lithology); and (3) seal integrity (rock
mechanical properties such as ductility, compressibility, and propensity for
fracturing). Seal capacity is determined by mercury injection capillary pressure
(MICP) analyses. Seal geometry is derived by integrating seismic data, core,
detailed well correlations, regional sedimentological/stratigraphic relation-
ships, and comparisons to known depositional analogs. Seal integrity is evalu-
ated qualitatively by core examination, borehole imaging, and petrographic
studies. These three variables were integrated and the totals were “ranked.” In
the BZZ area, deltaic distributary channel sandstones and delta-front/mouth
bar heterolithic sandstones comprise the main reservoirs. Possible seals include
prodelta, delta-front, and delta-plain shales; channel abandonment silts; and
transgressive shelf carbonates in both the upper and lower TAF. Seal potential
is best in the delta-front shales, which have high seal capacity and are thick, lat-
erally continuous, and very ductile. Seal potential is moderate in the thicker
(upper TAF) transgressive carbonates. These rocks have high seal capacity and
excellent lateral continuity, but are brittle and, hence, prone to fracturing. Delta-
plain shales and prodelta shales are poor seals due to their limited seal capacity
(delta-plain) or because they are too thin (prodelta shales). Channel abandon-
ment siltstones have even poorer seal potential because of small lateral extent
and limited seal capacity. The least favorable seal potential occurs within the
thin (lower TAF) carbonates. These rocks are relatively thin, as well as being
prone to fractures.

85
86 Kaldi and Atkinson
INTRODUCTION
Recent drilling successes in the Talang Akar Forma-
tion (TAF) in the offshore northwest Java (ONWJ)
region have proved the formation to be an important
and viable exploration target. To date, most Talang
Akar prospects have been drilled on the basis of struc-
tural closure, often as extensions to wells drilled for
stratigraphically higher objectives. Few stratigraphic
plays have been drilled, despite the fact that the depo-
sitional origin of the formation, particularly that of the
main reservoir sandstones (i.e., deltaic channel bod-
ies), favors stratigraphic trapping. Maxus’s (1988) dis-
covery of the large Widuri field in the nearby Asri
basin confirms this belief (Young et al., 1991). This
field, which contains in-place reserves >500 MBO,
comprises a succession of stacked, interconnected
channel sandstone reservoirs trapped by a combina-
tion of gentle, three-way fault dip closure and updip
sandbody pinch-out (Young et al., 1991).
Normal faulting has resulted in a variety of litholo-
gies positioned updip against the reservoir intervals:
which of the many potential sealing lithologies, juxta-
posed against which reservoir units, provide the most
favorable reservoir-seal couplets? In addition, there is
good stratigraphic prospectivity within the TAF
because the reservoir sandstones are interbedded with
good source rocks and a variety of potential sealing
lithologies. This untested stratigraphic potential, in
combination with the excellent reservoir quality of the
sandstones, makes the Talang Akar one of the few
remaining plays in the highly explored ONWJ basin
that may contain sizable recoverable reserves. In order
to optimize drilling success, a comprehensive knowl-
edge of the geological characteristics of the formation
is a necessity at this stage in exploration.
In this study, an assessment is made of the sealing
potential of the various lithologies known to exist
within the formation. A similar study (Noble et al.,
1991) uses geochemical methods for testing whether
seal capacity has been exceeded.
Seals and Seal Potential
Any lithology can form a seal in the subsurface,
provided that the minimum displacement pressure of
the potential seal rock is greater than the established
buoyancy pressure of the hydrocarbons within the
accumulation (Schowalter, 1979; Sneider, 1987; Vavra
et al., 1992). The capacity of a seal to hold back hydro-
carbons is thus controlled by the size of the largest
interconnected continuous pore throats and the rela-
tive densities of the hydrocarbon (oil or gas) and for-
mation water. For a seal to be truly effective, however,
it also needs to be relatively thick, laterally continuous,
relatively homogeneous, and fairly ductile (Downey,
1984). Murris (1980) documents the interdependence
of these factors in his discussion of the Upper Jurassic
Hith anhydrite and Albian Nahr Umr shale seals of the
Middle East. In their appraisal of more than 160
prospects, Sluijk and Nederlof (1984) and Sluijk and
Parker (1986) find an empirical relationship between
seal thickness and seal effectiveness. Another impor-
tant factor in seal potential is the structural position of
the sealing lithology. All other variables being equal, a
lithology on the crest of a tightly folded structure has a
higher probability of having developed tensile frac-
tures, leading to hydrocarbon escape, than the same
lithology on a broad, open structure.
The seal potential of a lithology is a combination of
the calculated amount of hydrocarbon column height
supported (seal capacity); the structural position,
thickness, and areal extent of the lithology (seal geom-
etry); and rock mechanical properties such as ductility
(seal integrity). Seal capacity is measured in the labo-
ratory by using mercury injection capillary pressure
(MICP) analysis of representative rock samples. Seal
geometry can best be determined by integrating seis-
mic data, borehole information, regional sedimento-
logical/stratigraphic relationships, detailed well
correlations, and comparisons to known depositional
analogs. Seal integrity can generally be evaluated from
rock mechanics studies and/or petrographic analysis.
Study Objectives
The overall goal of this study is to evaluate the
potential variability in seal quality within the TAF in
the BZZ field and its applicability to understanding
reservoir/seal relationships in the TAF throughout the
ONWJ area. This goal was subdivided into the follow-
ing specific objectives:
• to subdivide potential seal lithologies within the
TAF, according to depositional origin;
• to combine the sealing capacity results with thick-
ness and estimated areal extents of each lithology
to determine overall seal potential;
• to develop criteria for ranking the seal potential of
various lithologies in the TAF; and
• to provide recommendations concerning seal qual-
ity and distribution to guide future exploration of
TAF reservoirs throughout the ONWJ area.
Database and Methodology
The database for the study comprises >20% explo-
ration and development wells from the BS-BTS-BZZ
area of the central Ardjuna basin, ONWJ (Figure 1;
Table 1). In this area, detailed core studies of >76 m
(250 ft) of conventional core and comprehensive
interwell correlations have been carried out, primar-
ily in the BZZ field (Suria, 1991). Since this area is
one of the few to date in which TAF reservoirs are
under development, it represents the only area in the
ONWJ region where enough data are present to be
used as the basis for a study of this type. In both the
BTS and BZZ fields, the main hydrocarbon accumu-
lations occur within the uppermost part of the
deltaic TAF member. While most available conven-
tional core has been obtained from this stratigraphic
level, well-logs and detailed correlation sections
from the entire succession were used.
 Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the Talang Akar Formation
Figure 1. Location of BS, BTS, and BZZ fields within central Ardjuna region of ARII’s offshore northwest Java
(ONWJ) contract area.
The methodology of the study first involved using
sedimentological criteria to determine the depositional
environment for all potential seal and reservoir
lithologies observed within the conventional cores.
Comparisons to wells from other areas suggest that
the interpreted environments are typical for the TAF
throughout the ONWJ region. Thus, any conclusions
developed on the basis of the BS-BTS-BZZ data should
be applicable on a regional scale.
From each determined lithology or “lithofacies,” a
series of representative 1-in. (2.5-cm) diameter plug
samples were cut and used for plug porosity/perme-
ability and MICP analysis. Helium porosity and per-
meability to nitrogen gas were measured on each
sample at room temperature and under a confining
pressure of 500 psi. The measured permeability of
some samples has been affected by natural fractures
and/or partings shown on Table 1. Mercury injection
capillary pressure (MICP) testing was performed by
RUI Analytical by using the Micromeritics AutoPore
9201 mercury injection machine and specialized soft-
ware developed by RUI Analytical. All samples
underwent mercury injection to 30,000 psi (drainage
87
cycle). Routine MICP analyses involve a time-deter-
mined incremental increase of injection pressure.
However, the extremely low porosity and perme-
ability of most of these samples (Table 1) caused
injection rates to be very slow. Therefore, injection
pressures were held at each pressure point and
increased only after equilibration had been reached
at that point. This method is recommended by Snei-
der (1987).
STRATIGRAPHY AND DEPOSITIONAL
SETTING OF THE TALANG AKAR
FORMATION
The Talang Akar Formation (TAF), along with the
overlying Batu Raja carbonates, comprises the lower
portion of the Cibulakan Formation in the ONWJ
region (Figure 2). In most previous studies, the Talang
Akar has been assigned formation status and has been
subdivided into a series of informal members based
loosely upon depositional environment. These are,
from youngest to oldest: marine Talang Akar, deltaic
88 Kaldi and Atkinson

Table 1. Sample Database.

Depth Porosity Permeability Grain

Sample Well (ft) Facies* (%) (md) Density
1 BZ-2 7264.9 CAS 4.70 2.24** 2.73
2 BZ-2 7270.3 CAS 3.25 0.25 2.67
3 BZ-2 7262.3 CAS 4.75 3.26 3.01
4 BZ-2 7256.7 DCS 23.21 381.00 2.53
5 BZ-2 6983.6 SC 0.17 <0.001 2.83
6 BZ-2 6980.6 PDS 9.87 0.003 3.14
8 BZ-2 6970.8 DFS 5.67 1.05** 2.72
9 BZ-2 8058.3 DFS 1.29 0.003 2.73
10 BZZA-7 7898.0 DPS 2.10 0.008 2.67
11 BZZA-7 7897.0 DPS 1.05 0.54** 2.56
13 BZZA-7 7892.2 PDS 1.40 44.60** 2.79
14 BZ-2 6968.6 DMBS 9.77 2.00 2.71
17 KLN-1 8031.0 SC 0.66 <0.001 2.87

* CAS = Channel abandonment siltstones; DCS = Distributary channel sandstone (reservoir rock); SC = Shelf carbonate; PDS = Prodelta shale;
DFS = Delta-front shale; DPS = Delta-plain shale; and DMBS = Distributary mouth bar sandstone (reservoir rock).
** Fracture present in sample.

Talang Akar, and the so-called Talang Grits. The lim-
ited amount of available biostratigraphic data pro-
hibits a more refined and accurate subdivision of the
formation at this time. However, the data do confirm
that the sediments accumulated from at least the late
Oligocene until the early Miocene.
The general vertical sequence through the forma-
tion is transgressive. Largely nonmarine deposits at
the base grade upward into transitional deltaic sedi-
ments, which in turn give way to increasingly more
marine/shelfal deposits at the top (Figure 3). Final pas-
sage into the overlying Batu Raja carbonates appears
to reflect the local cessation in deltaic supply and, con-
sequently, is interpreted as a diachronous contact
throughout the region (Figure 3, lower left). Most
hydrocarbon accumulations to date have been discov-
ered in the marine and deltaic Talang Akar. Conse-
quently, all the available conventional cores upon
which the study is based have been obtained from
these two members.
Sedimentological studies, in combination with inter-
pretations based upon wireline log shape, reveal that
the marine and deltaic Talang Akar successions com-
prise an interbedded sequence of sandstones, shales,
siltstones, coals, and thin limestones (Figure 4). Adopt-
ing the present-day Mahakam Delta of eastern Kali-
mantan as a depositional analog (Allen et al., 1979;
Allen, 1987), the sandstones are interpreted as the
deposits of both deltaic distributary channels and
coarsening-upward, delta-front/tidal bars. The lime-
stones are of shallow marine origin and, when present
in the deltaic member, signify the temporary abandon-
ment of the delta during periods of either reduced or
no clastic sediment supply. At least two coal types are
recognized: “in-situ” coals associated with an underly-
ing sear earth, or paleosol (fossil soil), and “drifted”
coals resulting from the accumulation of large amounts
of plant debris in a waterlain environment. The loss of
coals upward through the succession generally marks
the transition from deltaic to marine Talang Akar.
Shales and siltstones comprise the dominant lithologies
of the succession and have been interpreted to repre-
sent a variety of subenvironments. Channel abandon-
ment siltstones typically occur at the top of most
distributary channel fills. If regression occurred, these
siltstones commonly grade upward into paleosol-
modified delta-plain shales. In contrast, where aban-
donment was associated with transgression, delta-
front, drifted coals, thin prodelta shales, and limestones
may have developed above the siltstones.
Reservoir Lithofacies
Two main reservoir rock units occur within the
Talang Akar succession: distributary channel and
delta-front distributary mouth/tidal bar sandstones.
Distributary Channel Sandstones
These sandstone bodies range from 10 to 27 m
(30–90 ft) in thickness and are common throughout the
deltaic Talang Akar succession. In core (Figure 5B),
they possess either fining-upward or uniform, vertical
grainsize profiles which, on wireline logs, are reflected
by either bell-shaped or blocky log-curves. Both single
and multistory bodies have been recognized, the latter
of which tend to have thicknesses >12 m (35 ft). The
sandstones are fine to coarse grained, and in places
may be locally conglomeratic. Thin shale beds are
common within the bodies, especially toward the tops
of the fills (Figure 4). The dominant sedimentary struc-
ture is small- to medium-scale trough cross-stratifica-
tion, the foresets of which (in some of the more tidally
influenced channels) are often highlighted by thin clay
and organic-rich drapes.
Based upon detailed correlations in the BZZ field
and comparison to the present-day Mahakam Delta,
the channel sandstones appear to comprise elongate,
 Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the Talang Akar Formation
elliptical-shaped bodies ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 km
(1500 ft–1 mi) in width and ≥1 km (≥1.7 mi) long. The
sandstones represent former side, median, and lateral
bar deposits within the distributaries and, as such,
often exhibit complex lateral geometries. This is espe-
cially the case in those bodies characterized by pro-
nounced multistory stacking, where several channel
units can be juxtaposed, producing a thicker and more
areally extensive sandstone accumulation. Sample 4
typifies the distributary channel sandstones of the
BZZ area.
Delta-Front Distributary Mouth/Tidal Bar
Sandstones
In comparison to the distributary channel sandstones,
these bodies are less numerous and more difficult to
89
Figure 2. Generalized
stratigraphy of offshore
northwest Java, with
eustatic sea level variation
over the Late Paleogene and
Neogene (modified from
Haq et al., 1987). Note
overall eustatic sea level
rise during upper Talang
Akar–lower Batu Raja depo-
sition (30–25 Ma), which
results in a generally trans-
gressive vertical
succession through the
sequence.
interpret in the subsurface. They comprise 1–5-m- (3–15-
ft) thick coarsening- and thickening-upward packages of
very fine to fine grained sandstones, siltstones, and
shales (Figure 5C). On wireline logs, they are character-
ized by funnel-shaped curves. Internally, the sandstones
commonly show intense bioturbation and exhibit vari-
able degrees of calcite cementation. In many cases, the
uppermost part of the body is overprinted by later soil
formation (rootlet traces, etc.) and is capped by a thin
coal (Figure 4). Because of the disruption caused by the
burrows and rootlets, physically produced sedimentary
structures are rare. However, where they are present,
small-scale ripple lamination is dominant, with subordi-
nate amounts of plane-bed, horizontal lamination.
In the present-day Mahakam Delta, such bodies
possess at least two types of geometry, depending
90 Kaldi and Atkinson

Figure 3. Schematic representation of Talang Akar sequence development. Each

sequence represents a pulse of deltaic progradation into an essentially shallow
marine transgression. Following delta lobe abandonment, relative sea level rise
initiates transgression. Inset (lower left) demonstrates diachronous nature of
Talang Akar and Batu Raja contact in the region. Larger part of the figure is
detail of inset. Note overall upward decrease in delta-plain and delta-front
muds and silts (stippled pattern) and increase in marine shales (unornamented
area) and carbonates (brick pattern). Coarse dots are distributary channel sand-
stones; dark lines are in-situ coals.

upon their depositional origin. In the lower, tidally
influenced parts of some distributaries, tidal bars
develop in median locations within the flared channel
mouth. They are laterally restricted, because of the
channelized nature of the distributary mouth, and
tend to range from 0.5 to 1.5 km (1500 ft–1 mi) in width
and ≤3 km (≤2 mi) long. In contrast, where the distrib-
utaries open onto the delta front, flow deceleration
promotes the accumulation of tidal/mouth-bar sand-
stones with far greater lateral extents. In some places
on the Mahakam Delta, such bodies can have areal
dimensions in excess of several square kilometers. Lat-
eral juxtapositioning of both types of bar sandstone is
expected, given the shifting nature of these deposi-
tional environments. Thus, in the subsurface, the
resulting sandstone bodies may be even more exten-
sive than those observed in the present-day delta.
Potential Sealing Lithofacies
Five potential sealing lithofacies have been recog-
nized and are displayed in Figure 5: channel abandon-
ment siltstones, delta-plain shales, delta-front shales,
prodelta shales, and shelfal carbonates.
Channel Abandonment Siltstones
As the name implies, this lithofacies occurs exclu-
sively in association with distributary channel com-
plexes. It consists of siltstones and shales with varying
proportions of interbedded, thin, very fine grained
sandstones (Figure 5A). The thickness of this lithofacies
is inversely proportional to the thickness of the under-
lying channel sandstone, thin (<3 m; 10 ft) where the
sandstone is thick, and thick (≤16 m; ≤50 ft) where the
sandstone is thin. Since it represents the abandonment
deposits of the former channel course, this lithofacies
is expected to possess a relatively narrow, elongate,
sinuous geometry. Based on the dimensions of the
associated channel sandstone, such geometries will be
laterally restricted, ranging from hundreds to thou-
sands of square meters wide.
Delta-Plain Shales
This seal lithofacies is common within the deltaic
member of the TAF, but is rare, if not absent, in the
upper marine member. It is made up of mottled, gray-
green-purple–colored shales and minor siltstones with
obvious carbonized rootlet traces (Figure 5D). Inter-
nally, it often displays distinctive slicken-sided frac-
tures, which are interpreted to represent former soil
“ped” textures (“ped” is a soil-science term that
describes the tendency of a soil to develop an internal
blocky fabric that is produced through alternate
swelling and contracting due to repeated wetting and
drying). The delta-plain shales tend to develop above
the channel abandonment siltstones, and are often
associated with in-situ coal development. Where
observed in core, the shales tend to range from 3 to 15
m (10–50 ft) in thickness. Based upon correlations in
the BZZ field, lateral extents are expected to be in the
range of 1 to 10 km2 (<10 mi2).
 Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the Talang Akar Formation
Delta-Front Shales
Delta-front shales occur in both the deltaic and
marine members of the TAF, but are especially common
and more numerous in the latter. The shales are dark
gray to black and often contain admixtures of organic
matter (Figure 5E). Siltstones and thin interbeds of very
fine grained sandstone occur locally. Bioturbation is
ubiquitous and becomes more apparent the higher the
91
Figure 4. Generalized
interpretation of Talang
Akar depositional environ-
ments from BZZ cores. Note
isolated reservoir sand bod-
ies encased in shales of vari-
ous origins.
silt-sand content of the shales. In many cases, the sandier
intervals are characterized by extensive calcite and/or
dolomite cementation. The shales often tend to grade
vertically upward into either delta-front/tidal-bar sand-
stones or, in some cases, into thin, in-situ, or drifted coals.
In core, the shales range from 3 to 15 m (10–50 ft) in thick-
ness and, based upon the modern Mahakam Delta ana-
log, are interpreted to possess lateral extents of 1–10 km2.
92 Kaldi and Atkinson
Figure 5. Examples of various reservoir and seal lithofacies in core from the BZZ area.
Prodelta Shales
Shales of this type are relatively rare in the TAF
sequences. They are intergradational with the associ-
ated delta-front shales, but are distinguished by their
darker color, lower silt content, absence of sandstone,
and presence of siderite nodules or bands (Figure 5F).
Where developed, they are frequently quite thin (<3
m; 10 ft) and sometimes contain concentrations of
drifted coal. By analogy to the modern-day Mahakam
Delta, such shales are expected to be quite laterally
extensive and to cover areas of 1 to 10 km2.
Shelfal Carbonates
Shelfal carbonate lithologies develop preferentially
in the upper part of the deltaic TAF member, but reach
their optimum development in the overlying marine
member. The carbonates vary from very fine grained,
argillaceous, dolomite mudstones (Figure 5G) to skele-
tal lime wackestones. In the more lime-rich wacke-
stones, allochems comprising fragments of coral,
echinoderms, bivalves, and larger foram tests also
occur within an argillaceous matrix. The abundant
clay content of these carbonates may provide a degree
of ductility to this lithofacies not commonly associated
with carbonates. In the lower deltaic member, this litho-
facies is quite thin (<3 m; 10 ft), whereas in the upper
marine interval, such carbonates can range up to 15 m
(50 ft) in thickness. From correlations in the BS-BTS-
BZZ region, the carbonates tend to be locally extensive
and to cover areas in excess of several 10 × km2.
SEAL GEOMETRY RESULTS
In terms of geometry, the shelfal carbonates and
delta-front shales of the marine and upper deltaic TAF
and the delta-plain shales of the lower deltaic TAF are
the thickest (3–15 m; 10–50 ft) and most extensive (sev-
eral km2) of the various seal lithofacies. The shelfal car-
bonates associated with the lower deltaic TAF and the
prodelta shales are both quite extensive (several km2),
but probably have reduced seal effectiveness due to
their relatively thin nature (<3 m; 10 ft). In contrast, the
 Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the Talang Akar Formation
Figure 5. Continued.
channel abandonment siltstones, although relatively
thick (1.5–15 m; 5–50 ft), are laterally very restricted
(100s m–1 km; 100s ft–0.6 mi) and, consequently, their
seal effectiveness is likely to be limited. These results
are summarized in Figure 6 and Table 2.
Seal Capacity
Evaluation of seal capacity was done by performing
MICP analysis on each sample (both reservoirs and
seals) up to an injection pressure of 30,000 psia mer-
cury (Figure 7). Since the capillary pressure data were
measured in the air/mercury system, it was necessary
to convert to the brine/hydrocarbon system of the
reservoir using the equation:
σ b / hc Cosθ b / hc
Pc b/hc = Pc a/m ×
σ a / m Cosθ a / m (1)
where P cb/hc = the capillary pressure in the brine-
hydrocarbon system of the reservoir; Pca/m = the capil-
lary pressure in the air-mercury system; σb/hc and σa/m =
the interfacial tensions of the brine-hydrocarbon and
air-mercury systems, respectively; θb/hc and θa/m = the
93
contact angles of the brine-hydrocarbon-solid and air-
mercury-solid systems, respectively (Vavra et al., 1992).
Next, the relationship between the brine/hydrocar-
bon capillary pressure and the height above the free
water level (FWL) was calculated using the equation:
Pc b/hc = h( ρ w – ρ hc ) × 0.433 (2)
Seal capacity (the maximum hydrocarbon column
the seal can hold before it begins to leak) was calcu-
lated by:
Pds – Pdr
H max = (3)
0.433( ρ w – ρ hc )
For equations 2 and 3, h = height above FWL; Hmax
= maximum height of the hydrocarbon column held
(in feet); Pds and Pdr = the brine/hydrocarbon displace-
ment pressures of the seal and reservoir rock (in psi);
ρw and ρhc = the densities of the reservoir fluids (water
and hydrocarbon) in grams per cubic centimeter. PVT
analyses indicate ρw and ρhc to be 1.01 and 0.85 (34.6°
API), respectively.
94 Kaldi and Atkinson

Figure 6. Geometries of
potential seal facies in the
BZZ area. Data from BZZ
area core, Mahakam Delta
analog, and literature.

Values for interfacial tension (s) and contact angle
(q) in the air-mercury system are 480 dynes/cm and
140° API, respectively (Core Laboratories, 1982; Snei-
der, 1987; Vavra et al., 1992). For the Talang Akar fluid
system, laboratory-determined values were obtained
from R.M. Sneider (personal communication, 1990).
The results for the reservoir brine/hydrocarbon sys-
tem are: contact angle (θb/hc) = 10° API and interfacial
tension (σb/hc) = 30 dynes/cm. Even with the best labo-
ratory data, however, calculations of Hmax are, at best,
close approximations. Accuracy is limited by uncer-
tainty in sample representativeness and in the deter-
mination of actual subsurface rock and fluid proper-
ties. To account for some of these variables, sensitivi-
ties were tested for different brine/hydrocarbon
contact angles, interfacial tensions, and displacement
pressures. Thus, seal capacity was evaluated by using
θb/hc 0°–45° API and σb/hc from 20 to 35 dynes/cm, with
weighting toward the laboratory-determined most
likely values (MLV).
The critical parameter in the calculations is the
determination of displacement pressures. In the reser-
voir, this is the buoyancy pressure required to over-
come capillary pressure, and thus allow hydrocarbon

Table 2. Seal Facies Geometries.

Facies Thickness (m)* Lateral Extent**

Channel
Abandonment 2–16 *100’s m2–1 km2
Siltstones
Delta-Plain 3–15 1–10 km2
Shale
Delta-Front 3–15 1–10’s km2
Shale
Prodelta Shale <3 1–10’s km2
Shelfal Carbonates 3–15 (Upper TAF) 1–10’s km2
<3 (Lower TAF)

*Data from BZZ area.

**Data from modern-day Mahakam Delta and literature analogs.
 Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the Talang Akar Formation
(the nonwetting phase) to displace water (the wetting
phase) from the largest pore throats. In the laboratory,
displacement pressure is the pressure at which mer-
cury (the nonwetting phase) first enters the pore sys-
tem of the rock. In most reservoir rocks, this is easily
determined as the pressure at which the wetting phase
saturation first deviates from 100%. However, closure
problems are inherent to low-porosity, fracture-prone
samples typical of seal lithologies. Closure (also
known as conformance) is an artifact of the MICP
experiment wherein mercury tends to fill irregularities
(nicks or fractures) in the sample at low injection pres-
sures. Since porosities in most seal rocks are com-
monly <2%, very small fractures or nicks can
constitute significant proportions of the measured
pore volume. However, these irregularities constitute
only a small fraction of the sample’s bulk volume, and
the volume of mercury entering them is not represen-
tative of matrix pore-throat size distribution. Simi-
larly, the point at which mercury first enters the
irregularities does not represent the actual displace-
ment (entry) pressure of the matrix (true Pds).
In this study, potential variations in closure were
accounted for by testing the sensitivities of selected
different displacement pressures. These ranged from
0.5 to 5% nonwetting-phase (mercury) saturation (Fig-
ure 8). Another method to account for closure is to
examine the shape of the logarithmically plotted MICP
curve and pick the injection pressure of the first major
inflection (FMI) of the curve. If the FMI falls some-
where between the 0.5%–5% saturation values, there is
greater confidence that pressure represents actual rock
matrix Pds , and that point is considered the MLV dis-
placement pressure.
Allowing for the wide range of variables detailed
above, the hydrocarbon column height (H max) that
each potential seal lithology could hold was calculated
on a sample-by-sample basis. Based on equations 1–3,
95
Figure 7. Mercury
injection capillary
pressure curves plot-
ted by facies. Note
reservoir facies in
green.
1 psi in the air/mercury system equals 1.15 ft above
FWL. The displacement pressure of the reservoir rocks
(Pdr ) was similar for all samples, varying between 6.0
and 6.5 psi air/mercury. The results of MLV seal
capacity measurements for each sample and their cal-
culated range of sensitivities are provided in Figure 9.
In addition, results of all MLVs plotted by lithofacies
are shown in Figure 10.
Seal Capacity Results
In terms of seal capacity (as determined by MICP
measurements), the highest displacement pressures
(Pd ) are associated with shelf carbonates (Pd 2300–9000
psi mercury). This corresponds to a calculated seal
capacity (Hmax) of 2600–10,000 ft. The next highest Pd
occurs in the delta-front shales (1000–1400 psi) and
corresponds to Hmax of 1150–1600 psi); this calculates
to H max of 310–2000 ft. The lowest Pd are associated
with delta-plain shales (80–90 psi) and channel aban-
donment siltstones (90–300 psi), which equate to Hmax
of 90–100 ft and 100–350 ft, respectively. These results
are summarized in Table 3.
DISCUSSION
Combining all the variables affecting seal potential
is difficult even when all of these variables are known.
When many of the intrinsic rock and fluid properties
are unknown, the results are that much less reliable.
To account for some of these potential inaccuracies, a
range of values, rather than exact values, is presented
for the seal potential in the Talang Akar. The sensitivi-
ties discussed account for the possible spectrum of
variation in measured rock and fluid properties in the
analysis of seal capacity. Proper sampling and sample
handling are critical issues: do the samples analyzed
represent the full extent of potential reservoir and
96 Kaldi and Atkinson

Figure 8. Effect of varying

closure (conformance) on
the selection of displace-
ment (energy) pressure.
Note that displacement
pressure varies from <1 psi
at the point of first diver-
gence from 0% nonwetting-
phase saturation (NWPS), to
1.5 psi at 0.5% NWPS, to 6
psi at 5% NWPS. The rec-
ommended point for selec-
tion of displacement
pressure for most samples is
usually between 0.5% to 5%
NWPS or at the first major
inflection (FMI), which in
this example occurs at 4 psi.

potential seal lithologies? What are the effects of the
removal of overburden stress and of drying out on the
samples? How consistent are hydrocarbon and brine
densities throughout the region?
Within the limits of these caveats, it was possible to
apply a seal potential (SP) ranking of the seal potential
of the various fine-grained lithologies in the Talang
Akar of the BZZ area. This semiquantitative ranking
system is derived as a product of the individual actual
or estimated values of seal capacity, seal geometry, and
seal integrity of each lithology on a scale based on field-
and formation-specific constraints. For instance, the seal
capacity was evaluated relative to the actual structure
in the field (400 ft in the BZZ area). Thus, the rocks hav-
ing seal capacity ≥400 ft can hold a column of hydrocar-
bon equal to or greater than the structural spillpoint;
these lithologies have an SP for capacity of 1.0. Rocks
with capacities <400 ft have SPs proportional to their

Figure 9. Range of sensitivities of maximum hydrocarbon column heights (Hmax) supported

by each sampled potential sealing lithology. The key to samples is in Table 1.
 Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the Talang Akar Formation 97

Figure 10. Range of maxi-

mum hydrocarbon column
heights (Hmax) held by each
potential sealing facies
sampled in this study.

measured value (e.g., in this area, rocks able to hold a
column of 200 ft would have an SP of 0.50).
For seal geometry, the depositional characteristics of
the rocks in question, and the general structural frame-
work in which they occur, can be fairly accurately
deduced from core studies, well-logs, and regional
seismic data. The lateral extents and thicknesses of
potential seal lithologies were interpreted from the
examination of a relatively limited number of cores and
logs and from comparisons to modern analogs. The
maximum ranking for thickness (SP 1.0) was a 50-ft cut-
off. This figure is based on the work of Sluijk and Ned-
erlof (1984) and Sluijk and Parker (1986), who used an
empirical approach to equate increasing thickness with
decreasing likelihood of through-going fractures. Their
conclusions were that thicknesses >50 ft were generally
required for effective seals. They equated this to the
general limits of seismic resolution: fault offsets >50 ft
can be distinguished seismically (and thus used to iden-
tify breached seals), while smaller offsets are not visible.
The SP for area of the potential seal was determined rel-
ative to the area needed to entirely drape closure over
the specific BZZ structure.
For seal integrity, rock mechanical properties were
qualitatively determined based on petrographic criteria
and the presence or absence of visible fractures in core
and plugs. It is well understood that the presence of
fractures within any lithology diminishes its seal poten-
tial, and that certain rock types are more susceptible to
fracturing than others (Landes, 1959). In general, salt,
sulfates, and organic shales have low fracture potential
or heal fractures rapidly under geological conditions. In
contrast, shaly siltstones, tight limestones, and fine-
grained lithic sandstones have a propensity to fracture
at geological strain rates, and fine-grained lithologies
such as tight dolostones or well-cemented quartz sand-
stones, due to their very brittle nature, are rarely found
unfractured (Stearns and Friedman, 1972). In this
respect, the less-brittle, organic-rich, silt-free shaly
lithologies of the TAF, such as the delta-front, prodelta,

Table 3. Seal Capacity Results from MICP.

Displacement Seal Capacity

Facies Pressure (Pd in psi) (Hmax in ft)
Delta-Plain Shale 80–90 90–100
Channel Abandonment Siltstones 90–300 100–350
Prodelta Shale 1000–1400 1150–1600
Delta-Front Shale 1000–1400 1150–1600
Shelf Carbonates
Upper TAF 2300–9000 2600–10,000
Lower TAF 2300–9000 2600–1000
98 Kaldi and Atkinson

Figure 11. Individual component and total seal potential (SP) of all Talang Akar lithofacies. Seal potential is
boldface number at base of each histogram, and is derived as a product of individual components.

and delta-plain shales, have SPs for seal integrity ~1.0.
In contrast, more brittle lithologies, including the shelfal
carbonates and channel abandonment silts, have their
ranking for integrity downgraded due to the potential
for fracturing. The summary of the seal potential rank-
ing is displayed in Figure 11.
On the basis of the criteria presented above and in
Figure 11, the best sealing potentials within the TAF
exist within the more marine, transgressive units that
occur preferentially in the upper TAF. This concept is
supported by the fact that most hydrocarbon discover-
ies to date occur in the uppermost TAF. The rocks with
best seal potential are the delta-front shales (SP .95).
This seal lithofacies is relatively thick, laterally exten-
sive, and exhibits measured seal capacities >400 ft
required to fill the structure to spillpoint. In addition,
the shales are relatively homogeneous (silt-free) in
thin section and ductile (probably due to their high
organic content) in core.
Although of similar lateral extent and having even
higher seal capacity than the delta-front shales, the
upper shelfal carbonates have a lower sealing poten-
tial (SP .50). This is due to their poor seal integrity
(high potential to fracture). Several long (>10 cm),
open (aperture of >1 cm) fractures were observed in
at least one shelfal carbonate unit in the BTS-4 well
 Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the Talang Akar Formation 99

Figure 12. Open fractures

result in poor seal potential
of a transgressive shelfal
carbonate unit in the lower
TAF. Circumferential bore-
hole induction log image of
BTS-4 well clearly shows
the SE-dipping open frac-
tures at depths X962 and
X975 ft. This zone tested
1100 BOPD. Note that
zones of higher porosity
(X965–X971) are not frac-
tured.

(Figure 12), indicating that these fractures are open in
the subsurface.
Prodelta shales have even lower seal potential (SP .18).
These sediments are of similar lateral extent as the
delta-front shales and have good seal integrity (low
fracture potential), but have relatively lower measured
seal capacities and are thin. This thin geometry increases
the risk of faults breaching the unit, thus juxtaposing
nonsealing lithologies. Delta-plain shales (SP .18) and
channel abandonment siltstones (SP .15) also have
low seal potential. In the case of the delta-plain
shales, this is a result of their relatively low mea-
sured seal capacities. In contrast, channel abandon-
ment siltstones exhibit higher measured seal
capacities, but form poor seals because of their lim-
ited lateral extent. The poorest seal potential in the
TAF occurs within the lower shelfal carbonates (SP .10).
Like the upper shelf carbonates, these rocks have the
100 Kaldi and Atkinson
risk of fractures, but also have additional risks due to
their relatively thin nature. Prodelta shales are of
similar lateral extent as the shelf carbonates and
delta-front shales, but have relatively lower mea-
sured seal capacities and are thin. This thin geome-
try increases the risk of subseismic (<50 ft) faults or
fractures breaching the unit, thus lowering the seal
potential.
Some of the regional exploration implications of
these results are that the more marine influenced
delta-front shales in the TAF comprise the rocks with
the most favorable seal potential. The transgressive
nature of the TAF succession results in such seals
being better developed toward the top of the forma-
tion. Unless additional seal lithologies (with high seal
potential) are encountered in the lower TAF, seals in
this less marine influenced interval are likely to have
only poor-to-moderate seal potential, therefore limit-
ing the chances of major hydrocarbon discoveries.
Another aspect of the evaluation of seals is the
potential for reservoirs updip of rocks with poor seal
capacity to be charged. In other words, if the hydrocar-
bon column thickness exceeds the seal capacity of a
lithology, that lithology will be able to transmit hydro-
carbons to overlying rocks. If these overlying rocks are
reservoir quality and are effectively sealed, accumula-
tions can be expected. A case in point is the delta-plain
shale lithofacies. This rock type has a seal capacity of
<100 ft (Figure 9). Since known hydrocarbon columns
in the TAF are typically >100 ft, the shale should be oil-
saturated (“waste zone” of Downey, 1984) and, of
more significance to explorationists, reservoirs updip
of delta-plain shales should be hydrocarbon bearing.
A method to test for the hydrocarbon saturation of the
seal as a test for column exceeding seal capacity is dis-
cussed by Noble et al. (1993). Reservoir-quality rocks
that occur updip from good seals (delta-front shales or
the thicker shelf carbonates) are not as likely to have
economic hydrocarbon accumulations.
CONCLUSIONS
Seal potential in the Talang Akar Formation (TAF)
can be evaluated in terms of seal capacity
(MICP–derived membrane seal properties), seal geom-
etry (lateral and vertical continuity), and seal integrity
(rock mechanical properties). The various seals were
ranked using a semiquantitative seal potential (SP)
model. The best sealing potential within the TAF exists
within delta-front shales (SP. 95). This seal lithofacies
is thick and laterally extensive, and exhibits high mea-
sured seal capacities. In addition, delta-front shales
appear relatively homogeneous (silt-free) and ductile.
Although of similar lateral extent and relatively high
seal capacity, the upper shelfal carbonates have a
lower sealing potential (SP .50) because of their
propensity to be fractured. Prodelta shales have even
lower seal potential (SP .18). These sediments are of
similar lateral extent as the delta-front shales and have
good seal integrity (low fracture potential), but have
relatively lower measured seal capacities and are thin.
This thin geometry increases the risk of faults breach-
ing the unit, thus juxtaposing nonsealing lithologies.
Delta-plain shales (SP. 18) and channel abandonment
siltstones (SP .15) also have low seal potential. In the
case of the delta-plain shales, this is a result of their
relatively low measured seal capacities. In contrast,
channel abandonment siltstones exhibit higher mea-
sured seal capacities, but form poor seals because of
their limited lateral extent. The poorest seal potential
in the TAF occurs within the lower shelfal carbonates
(SP .10). Like the upper shelf carbonates, these rocks
have the risk of fractures, but also have additional risk
due to their relatively thin nature.
Because the transgressive nature of the TAF succes-
sion results in seals being better developed toward the
top of the formation, the rocks with the best seal
potential in the TAF are the more marine influenced,
upper shelfal carbonates and shales. This concept is
supported by the fact that most hydrocarbon discover-
ies to date occur in the uppermost TAF. Unless addi-
tional seal lithologies (with high seal potential) are
encountered in the lower TAF, seals in this less marine
influenced interval are likely to have only poor-to-
moderate seal potential, therefore limiting the chances
of major hydrocarbon discoveries.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank a number of individuals for
their contributions to this study. Bob Sneider (R.M.
Sneider Exploration Inc.) provided critical fluids data
and introduced us to the basic premise of seal studies.
Tom Shackleton (ARCO International Oil & Gas Co.)
provided the introduction to the geology of the area.
Eric Frodesen, Alan Hart, and Firman Yaman (ARCO
Indonesia) supported the conduction of the study and
facilitated its go-ahead; Chandra Suria (ARCO Indone-
sia) provided helpful discussions on correlations in the
BZZ field. Bambang Wiradi and Simon-Robertson’s
Indonesia helped sample the cores. Discussions with
Chuck Vavra, Mark Scheihing, Phil Lowry, and Jim
Lorsong (ARCO Exploration & Production Technol-
ogy) helped crystallize some of the concepts on seal
capacity and depositional settings. Vavra and Schei-
hing’s review of earlier versions of the manuscript
improved it considerably.
REFERENCES CITED
Allen, G.P., 1987, Deltaic sediments in the modern and
ancient Miocene Mahakam Delta: Jakarta, India,
Indonesian Petroleum Association/Total Exploration
Laboratory Field Trip Guide, February 1987, 59 p.
Allen, G.P., D. Laurier, and J. Thouvenin, 1979, Étude
sedimentologique du delta de la Mahakam: Notes
et Memoires 15, Paris, Compagnie Française des
Petroles, 156 p.
Core Laboratories, 1982, A course in special core
analysis: CoreLab Report, Dallas, Texas, 210 p.
Downey, M.W., 1984, Evaluating seals for hydrocarbon
accumulations: AAPG Bulletin, v. 68, p. 1742–1763.
 Evaluating Seal Potential: Example from the Talang Akar Formation
Haq, B.U., J. Hardenbol, and P.R. Vail, 1987, Chronol-
ogy of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic:
Science, v. 235, p. 1156–1167.
Landes, K.K., 1959, Petroleum Geology, 2nd ed: New
York, John Wiley, 357 p.
Murris, R.J., 1980, Middle East: stratigraphic evolution
and oil habitat: AAPG Bulletin, v. 64, p. 597–618.
Noble, R.A., J.G. Kaldi, and C.D. Atkinson, 1997, Oil
saturation in shales: applications in seal evaluation,
in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum
system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 13–29.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–776.
Sluijk, D., and M.H. Nederlof, 1984, Worldwide geo-
logical experience as a systematic basis for prospect
appraisal, in G. Demaison and R.J. Murris, eds.,
Petroleum geochemistry and basin evaluation:
AAPG Memoir 35, p. 15–26.
Sluijk, D., and J.R. Parker, 1986, Comparison of
predrilling predictions with postdrilling outcomes,
using Shell’s Prospect Appraisal System, in D.D.
Rice and W.R. James, eds., Oil and gas assessment—
101
methods and applications: AAPG Studies in Geol-
ogy, v. 21, p. 55–58.
Sneider, R.M., 1987, Practical petrophysics for explo-
ration and development; AAPG Education Depart-
ment Short Course Notes.
Stearns, D.W., and M. Friedman, 1972, Reservoirs in
fractured rocks, in R.E. King, ed., Stratigraphic oil
and gas fields—classification, exploration methods
and case histories: AAPG Memoir 10, p. 82–106.
Suria, C., 1991, Development strategy in the BZZ
field and the importance of detailed depositional
model studies in the reservoir characterization of
Talang Akar channel sandstones: 20th Annual
Indonesian Petroleum Association Convention,
Jakarta, October 1991, v. 1, p. 419–452.
Vavra, C.L., J.G. Kaldi, and R.M. Sneider, 1992, Geo-
logical applications of capillary pressure: a review:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, p. 840–850.
Young, R., G. Juniarto, and B. Thomas, 1991, Widuri
Field, offshore southeast Sumatra: sandbody geome-
tries and the reservoir model: 20th Annual Indone-
sian Petroleum Associaton Convention, Jakarta,
October 1991, v. 1, p. 385–418.
 Hippler, S.J., 1997, Microstructures and diagenesis in North
Sea fault zones: implications for fault-seal potential and
fault-migration rates, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps,
and the petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 85–101.

Chapter 7
◆

Microstructures and Diagenesis in North Sea

Fault Zones: Implications for Fault-Seal
Potential and Fault-Migration Rates
S.J. Hippler1
Exxon Production Research Company
Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
The deformation mechanisms and diagenetic events that determine the
fluid-flow properties of North Sea faults have been established by characteri-
zation of faults in core and thin section. The results of this study have impli-
cations for predicting fault-seal potential and fault-migration rates.
In the northern North Sea, faulting of weakly lithified sand and shale
units was accomplished via independent particulate flow, in which grains
are disaggregated and reoriented without grain fracture. In the southern
North Sea, faulting of lithified sandstone units was dominated by grain frac-
ture and grain size reduction. Capillary pressure measurements of the
deformed samples indicate that both independent particulate flow and cata-
clastic deformation mechanisms result in relatively low permeability fault
zones in comparison to the surrounding reservoir rocks. Cements are com-
monly observed within the North Sea fault zones and also contribute to the
permeability reduction. Simple calculations using the fluid-flow measure-
ments suggest, however, that faults with good sealing potential can allow
hydrocarbon migration over geologic time scales.

INTRODUCTION relatively small throw faults in sandstone (Pittman,

Much progress has been made in identifying the
deformation mechanisms and diagenetic events that
cause faults to seal (Knipe, 1992; Hippler, 1993;
Antonellini and Aydin, 1994). However, while a fault’s
fluid-flow properties determine its sealing or migration
potential, such data are generally limited to permeabil-
ity measurements from outcrop exposures of either
1981; Antonellini and Aydin, 1994), or large throw
thrust faults in crystalline rocks (Forster et al., 1993). In
this study, fluid-flow property measurements were
obtained from cored faults with a range of throws (mil-
limeters to ~1 km) from a well-explored hydrocarbon
province. The fluid-flow property measurements are
used to estimate fault-seal potential and calculate fault-
migration rates. A simple model developed from the

1
Now with Exxon Exploration Company, Houston, Texas

103
104 Hippler
Cormorant Field Brent
Field Norway
Northern North Sea
Southern North Sea
North
Valiant
Field
Great
Britain
Amsterdam
London
100 miles
Figure 1. Location map of the North Sea hydrocar-
bon fields that contain the faulted cores discussed in
this paper.
results of the calculations explains one mechanism by
which faults may allow hydrocarbon migration over
geologic time scales while also sealing significant
hydrocarbon columns.
FAULT ZONE CHARACTERIZATION
Samples and Analyses
The fault-zone cores studied are from hydrocarbon
fields in the northern North Sea and the southern
North Sea, and contain numerous minor faults (with
throws <10 m) and several major faults (with throws
≥10 m) that affect clastic facies sandstones and shales.
Three examples that are representative of the range of
faults observed in the suite of cores are discussed in
detail in this paper (Figure 1).
The fault zones were characterized by micro-
structural analysis from optical transmission elec-
tron (Barber, 1985), scanning electron (Lloyd, 1985),
and cathodoluminescence (Marshall, 1988) micro-
scopy. The microstructural observations were used
to determine the deformation mechanisms and dia-
genetic processes that contribute to each fault’s
fluid-flow properties. The fluid-flow properties
were measured with mercury intrusion capillary
JURASSIC CRETACEOUS P EO O MIO
0
Rifting Event
2,000
Burial Depth (Feet)
4,000
6,000
8,000
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Ma
Figure 2. Schematic burial-history plot of the Brent
Group reservoir in the North Sea. The extensional
faults in the Brent and Cormorant fields were active
during a Late Jurassic rifting event, and are cross-cut
at the crest of the structures by the Base Cretaceous
erosional event. The burial history indicates that the
Brent Group was buried to depths of ≤2000 ft (≤500 m)
at the time of faulting.
pressure tests (Vavra et al., 1992), from which fault-
seal potential and fault-migration rates were calcu-
lated.
Northern North Sea Examples
Cores from the Brent and Cormorant fields contain
faults formed during a Jurassic rifting event. Large
normal faults of the same age set up the tilted normal
fault blocks that are characteristic of the hydrocarbon
traps in the northern North Sea. The cored faults inter-
sect the sand-dominated deltaic sequence of the Brent
Group, the major reservoir in this area, which was
deposited during the rifting event. The crests of the
tilted fault blocks were eroded by the Base Cretaceous
unconformity, which marks the end of the major rift-
ing event. Burial-history analysis and seismic data
indicate that the faults were active when the reservoir
was buried to depths ≤2000 ft (≤500 m) (Figure 2).
A deviated well at the crest of the Brent Field inter-
sects listric faults that are imaged on seismic data
(Figure 3) and other minor fault zones that are below
seismic resolution. Small throw (≤1 m) shale and sand
fault zones are common throughout the cored interval
where thin shale beds are present in the Brent Group
(Figure 4). The fault zones are characterized by the
intercalation of sand and shale clasts that are smeared
into parallelism with the fault planes. Optical
microscopy indicates that the sand clasts are
deformed via independent particulate flow, because
fractured grains and grain size reduction are not
observed (Figure 5).
Fault-zone samples from the Cormorant Field are
from a deviated well that intersects the crest of Block
 Microstructures and Diagenesis in North Sea Fault Zones 105

Brent Field Figure 3. Schematic cross

section based on an east-
west seismic line through
the Brent Field, North Sea,
W E
showing location of the
WELL WITH CORED FAULTS well with the cored faults.
y
nformit
eous Unco
Base Cretac
roup
rent G
Top B
rou p
un lin G
Top D

1 Km

IV (Figure 6), one of the field’s four discrete oil accu-

mulations in the Brent Group. Syndepositional faults
within Block IV have further segmented the reser-
voir and have created at least four compartments
with different original oil-water contacts. A west-
dipping antithetic fault with ~60 m of throw at the
core location juxtaposes Dunlin Group shale in the
footwall with the Brent Group reservoir in the hang-
ing wall. The cored fault separates two subblocks
with different original oil-water contacts.
Excellent core recovery indicates that fault-zone
deformation is localized to ~2 m on either side of the
fault plane. The Dunlin Group contains a penetrative
scaly fabric, a common deformation feature in fine-
grained sediments (Moore et al., 1986). Deformation
in the Brent Group is characterized by lozenges of
sediment bounded by pyrite-filled shear planes ori-
ented subparallel to the fault plane (Figure 7). A thin
lozenge of the coarse-grained Broom Formation of
the Brent Group is preserved directly adjacent to the
fault plane (Figure 7). Directly above, a shear zone
(several grain diameters in width) juxtaposes the
finer grained Rannoch Formation with the Broom
Formation.
Optical microscopy of the coarse-grained Broom
Formation directly adjacent to the fault zone reveals a
limited number of angular quartz grains, suggesting
minor grain breakage and grain size reduction (Fig-
ure 8). However, the extent of the cataclastic defor-
mation is limited. For example, at the Broom/
Rannoch shear-zone boundary, there are several
large quartz grains from the Broom Formation inter-
mixed with the finer grained Rannoch Formation. Figure 4. Core sample of a minor fault in the Brent
The dominance of unfractured grains in the fault Field (viewed approximately perpendicular to the
zone suggests that slip has taken place via grain dis- fault plane). Undeformed Brent Group sandstone is
aggregation and independent particulate flow. The on the left, bounded by a narrow, shale-rich fault
particulate flow has resulted in the repacking of zone on the right. Note the elongated lenses of sand
grains and, in combination with pyrite cement, has intermixed with the shale.
significantly reduced the pore space and size in the
reservoir sediments in the fault zone. which the Rotliegende Group, the primary reservoir,
was laid unconformably on eroded Carboniferous sedi-
Southern North Sea Example
ments. The Rotliegende Group is a primarily aeolian
Fields in the southern North Sea are characterized sandstone deposited in a continental desert environ-
by a northwest-southeast structural trend that was ini- ment. During early Cretaceous and mid-Tertiary inver-
tially set up by a Permian-Triassic rifting event, during sion events, many of the Permian-Triassic extensional
106 Hippler

Figure 5. Optical photomontage through the fault zone shown in Figure 4. Undeformed Brent sandstone is
on the left, the sand/shale fault zone is on the right. The sand-rich portion of the fault zone is one of the
lenses of sandstone seen in Figure 4. Note that the shale fabric has been smeared into parallelism with the
fault plane. Also note the loss of porosity from left to right, and the absence of grain size reduction in the
sandstone.

faults were reactivated in a reverse or strike-slip sense
(Farmer and Hillier, 1992). Reservoir quality is gener-
ally poor, due to the compaction and diagenesis that
accompanied deep burial of the sediments prior to the
early Cretaceous inversion event (Figure 9).
The North Valiant Field contains multiple faults that
separate the field into two compartments with differing
gas-water contacts. Cores from the reservoir rock inter-
sect numerous minor fault zones, indicating both
reverse and normal offsets ≥10 cm. The fault zones are
altered to pale green or white and thus stand out in com-
parison to the red-stained reservoir rock (Figure 10).
Optical microscopy indicates that the fault zones
are characterized by grain size reduction and an
increase in matrix material in comparison to the unde-
formed rock (Figure 11). High-resolution scanning
electron microscopy indicates that the matrix material
consists of illite and fine-grained quartz (Figure 12a).

Figure 6. Schematic cross

Cormorant Block IV
section based on an east-
west seismic line through
Cormorant Block IV, North
W E Sea, showing the location of
WELL WITH CORED FAULT
the well with the cored
fault.
it y
form
c on
Base Cretace ous Un
up
T o p B r en t G r o Bren
t

Top Dunlin Gro up

1 Km
 Microstructures and Diagenesis in North Sea Fault Zones
Figure 7. Core sample of a major fault from
Cormorant Block IV, North Sea (viewed approxi-
mately perpendicular to the fault plane). The fault
plane is indicated; the footwall shales lie below
and out of picture. In the hanging wall, a sliver of
coarse-grained Broom Formation is smeared direct-
ly adjacent to the fault plane and is juxtaposed
against the fine-grained Rannoch Formation
(Figure 8). The Rannoch Formation contains
numerous black, anastomosing shear planes orient-
ed subparallel to the fault plane. The black shear
planes are filled with pyrite.
Cathodoluminescence, in combination with the scan-
ning electron microscopy (SEM), indicates that even the
large quartz grains have been fractured and cemented
by quartz (Figure 12b). The grain fracture and grain size
reduction indicate that cataclasis was the dominant
deformation mechanism during faulting.
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
MEASUREMENTS
Mercury injection capillary pressure measure-
ments are now used almost routinely to quantify the
107
hydrocarbon column heights that can be held by capil-
lary top seals (Vavra et al., 1992). This work has shown
that capillary pressure measurements on a few repre-
sentative samples may give a good approximation of
seal capacity in stratigraphic units with great lateral
continuity and vertical homogeneity.
In contrast, field observations indicate that fault
zones are often composed of a complex and heteroge-
neous distribution of deformed rocks, the origins of
which are often difficult to determine. This suggests
not only that fluid-flow properties of fault zones are
potentially extremely variable, but that to begin pre-
dicting this variability, the fault-zone properties must
first be placed in the context of the fluid-flow proper-
ties of the rocks from which they formed. Thus, the
approach taken in this study was to define the contrast
in fluid-flow properties between the deformed sam-
ples in the fault zone and their undeformed counter-
parts outside the fault zone with capillary pressure
testing on a range of faulted lithologies.
Compilation of the capillary pressure test data from
all of the North Sea cores (Figure 13) indicates that the
capillary entry pressures of deformed samples from
the fault zone are generally higher than the capillary
entry pressures of undeformed counterparts outside
the fault zone. This is consistent with fault-zone char-
acterization observations that indicate that the pore
size and space in North Sea fault zones are reduced
through disaggregation and repacking of grains, grain
size reduction, and cementation. This is particularly
noticeable in the reservoir-quality rocks, as their
mercury-air capillary entry pressures are increased by
more than an order of magnitude, to the 200–300 psi
range (Figure 13). A capillary pressure seal of this
quality can support a 30–55-m oil column or a 15–30-m
gas column, depending on hydrocarbon density
(Schowalter, 1979).
ESTIMATING PERMEABILITY FROM
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
MEASUREMENTS
Thompson et al. (1987) discuss in detail how the
dynamic transport properties of porous rocks, such as
absolute permeability, can be approximated from the
results of static mercury injection capillary pressure
measurements by applying percolation theory. For
example, by using the following relationship, we can
calculate the absolute permeability (K) reduction that
corresponds to the capillary pressure increase in the
fault zones (Thompson et al., 1987):
( )
K = ( c) lc 2 (σ / σ o )
(1)
where K = permeability (darcies); c = a constant that
connects the conductivity of the capillary structure of
equivalent size lc to the permeability of the same path
[the work of Thompson et al. (1987) indicates that c ≈
1/226]; l c = the capillary diameter (in micrometers)
108 Hippler

Figure 8. Optical photo-

montage through the fault
zone shown in Figure 7. The
coarse-grained Broom
Formation lies directly
adjacent to the fault plane
(bottom) and is smeared
against the fine-grained
Rannoch Formation (above).
The black cement is pyrite.
Note only minor grain
fracturing and lack of
grain size reduction in the
fault zone.

associated with the first connected path in a mercury MIGRATION-RATE CALCULATION

intrusion test (= the pore throat diameter, d, deter-
mined by the Washburn equation); σ = electrical con-
ductivity of the rock saturated in brine solution; and
σo = brine conductivity [(σ/σo) can be approximated
by φ2, where φ is porosity].
Figure 14 shows that while the calculated perme-
abilities of undeformed silts and silty shales were
decreased only slightly as a result of the faulting, the
permeabilities of some undeformed reservoir-quality
rocks were reduced by three orders of magnitude, in
some cases to the 10–4–10–5 d range.
The fluid-flow property measurements can pro-
vide a general understanding of fault-migration
rates if the fault-zone properties are assumed to be
homogeneous and isotropic; the following equa-
tion is used to estimate the average velocity (V) of
an oil layer behaving as a thin film in the fault
zone:
V = K / µ × g × ∆ρ × sin (Θ ) (2)

CAR PERM TRIAS JURASSIC
0
2,000
Burial Depth (Feet)
4,000 Inversion Events
Rifting Event
6,000
8,000
10,000
300 250 200
Figure 9. Schematic burial-history plot of the
Rotliegende Group, southern North Sea. The exten-
sional faults observed in the seismic data from the
southern North Sea were active in an extensional
sense during the Permian rifting event, and reacti-
vated in a reverse or strike-slip sense during inver-
sion events in the Late Cretaceous and mid-Tertiary.
The burial history indicates that the Rotliegende
Group was buried to depths of ~6000–8000 ft (~2–3
km) at the time of the fault reactivation.
where V = average oil velocity (m/sec); K = k/φ, the
ratio of effective permeability to porosity; K = perme-
ability (in square meters); φ = porosity; µ = viscosity (in
kilograms per meter per second); g = gravitational
acceleration (9.8 m/sec2); Θ = average dip of the fault
Microstructures and Diagenesis in North Sea Fault Zones 109
CRET P EO O MIO
150 100 50 0
Ma
Figure 10. Core sample of a minor fault in the
Rotliegende Group, North Valiant Field, southern
North Sea (viewed approximately perpendicular to
the fault plane). The undeformed reservoir is stained
red due to iron-oxide grain coatings. Bedding is
subhorizontal, and the fault zone (pale green/white)
trends from the top left to the bottom right.
(in degrees); and ∆ρ = density contrast of water and oil
(in grams per cubic centimeter).
This calculation considers only the movement of
a single drop of oil along the fault pathway, and
therefore the calculated rates are independent of
Figure 11. Optical micrograph through
the fault zone shown in Figure 10.
The fault zone (trending from top
left to bottom right) is dominated by
fine-grained matrix material (brown),
while the undeformed reservoir rock
(top right) has visible porosity and
limited grain fracture.
110 Hippler

Figure 12. (a) Back-

scattered, scanning
electron micrograph
(SEM) of the fault zone
shown in Figure 11.
Quartz grains (gray)
appear relatively unde-
formed. (b) Combined
back-scattered, scan-
ning electron and
cathodoluminescence
micrograph of same
area of fault zone
shown in (a).
Cathodoluminescence
reveals that the quartz
grains are extensively
fractured and contain
quartz cement (slightly
darker gray material
between lighter gray
quartz clasts).

fault thickness (width) and strike length. The calcu- caused by the density contrast between the oil and
lation assumes: (1) that oil travels as a separate the water; and (3) Darcy’s Law applies.
phase in a thin layer within the fault zone; (2) the Figure 15 shows the rate of hydrocarbon migration as
resistance to flow is equal to the buoyancy force a function of fault-zone permeability for oil and gas
 Microstructures and Diagenesis in North Sea Fault Zones 111

Figure 13. Comparison of

capillary entry pressures of
undeformed and deformed
samples. Each data point
represents the results of the
capillary pressure measure-
ments on a set of paired
samples, one undeformed
and one deformed. The
heavy line on the graph
represents a one-to-one
relationship of the capillary
entry pressure between
undeformed and deformed
samples; the thin line
indicates one order of
magnitude increase in
capillary entry pressure
from undeformed to
deformed samples. For
consistency, entry pressure
was picked at 5% mercury
saturation in each sample.

migrating through a fault dipping 70° API. For a fault- DISCUSSION

zone permeability in the 10–4 to 10–5 d range, similar to
that observed in this study, oil migrates at a rate of 1
km/100,000–1 m.y., while gas migrates at a rate of
1 km/1000–10,000 yr. In other words, the calculation sug-
gests that fault-migration rates are geologically instanta-
neous for oil when fault-zone permeability is >10–5 d,
and for gas when fault zone permeability is >10–7 d.
Although limited, the fluid-flow property measure-
ments suggest that the deformation mechanisms that
operate in a sand-shale sequence can result in fault-zone
material with an intermediate mercury-air capillary
entry pressure (200–300 psi), and a correspondingly low
permeability (10–4 to 10–5 d) relative to an undeformed

Figure 14. Comparison

of calculated absolute
permeabilities between
undeformed and deformed
samples. The permeabilities
were calculated from the
capillary entry pressure data
shown in Figure 13. The
heavy line on the graph
represents a one-to-one
relationship between the
undeformed and deformed
samples; the thin lines
represent one, two, and
three orders of magnitude
decrease in permeability
from undeformed to
deformed samples.
112 Hippler

Figure 15. Graph showing

the rate of hydrocarbon
migration (years per
kilometer) as a function of
fault-zone permeability if φ
= 0.10; µ = 0.003 kg/m/sec
for oil and 0.001 kg/m/sec
for gas; g = 9.8 m/sec2; Θ =
70° API; and ∆ρ = 100 kg/m3
for 26° API oil and 1000
kg/m3 for 45° API gas.

Figure 16. A simple conceptual model of fault migration in an interbedded sand-shale sequence. Three gently
dipping beds are reservoir-quality rocks connected via a fault zone (indicated). The reservoirs and fault zone
are surrounded by shale with high seal capacity. The capillary entry pressure of the fault zone is intermediate
between the reservoir and the shale. The gray scale is a schematic representation of the location of the hydro-
carbons in the hypothetical system. A = Hydrocarbons enter the fault and reservoir system via the lower reser-
voirs and the hydrocarbons flow up toward the fault due to buoyancy. B = Hydrocarbon column accumulates
at the reservoir–fault interface. C = Hydrocarbons enter the fault zone when the buoyant force of the growing
hydrocarbon column exceeds the capillary entry pressure of the fault zone, and migrate upward.
 Microstructures and Diagenesis in North Sea Fault Zones
reservoir rock. The simple calculations suggest that
faults with such fluid-flow properties can allow
hydrocarbon migration over geologic time scales,
while simultaneously sealing significant hydrocarbon
columns.
These results can be used to develop a simple
model that explains one mechanism by which hydro-
carbon migration can take place in faulted, interbed-
ded sand-shale sequence (Figure 16). If hydrocarbons
enter a hypothetical fault and reservoir system via
the lower reservoirs, the hydrocarbons flow up
toward the fault due to buoyancy. When hydrocar-
bon columns accumulate at the reservoir–fault inter-
face, the buoyant force of the growing hydrocarbon
column may ultimately exceed the capillary entry
pressure of the fault zone, and hydrocarbons begin
to enter the fault and migrate upward at the rate
corresponding to the permeability of the fault-zone
material. In this manner, the fault acts as both a trap
seal and a migration pathway to shallower reser-
voirs. This model assumes that there is immediate
imbibition of the wetting phase (water) back into the
fault zone once the buoyancy of the hydrocarbons
drops below the initial capillary entry pressure of
the rocks.
CONCLUSIONS
The fault-migration calculations presented in this
paper assume a simple fault-permeability structure in
which fluids flow through homogeneous, isotropic,
porous media. Characterization of fault zones in core
and outcrop indicates that fault-zone permeability
structures are commonly more complex and are likely
to be influenced by the presence of a fault-related frac-
ture network. This study represents only a first step
toward understanding fluid flow in more complicated
fault-permeability structures.
In addition, the calculations assume that fault-
zone permeability is static. Current research is
focused on determining the relative timing of fault-
ing and cementation to better understand whether
the cements precipitate geologically instantaneously
as a result of focused fluid flow during fault activity,
or over longer geologic time scales as a result of
posttectonic fluid flow.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to several collegues at Exxon Produc-
tion Research Company: A.E. Bence and K.E. Green
for providing the migration-rate calculation, and G.G.
Gray for a thorough review. O. Poix is also thanked for
a constructive review that much improved the clarity
of this paper.
113
REFERENCES CITED
Antonellini, M., and A. Aydin, 1994, Effect of faulting
on fluid flow in porous sandstones: petrophysical
properties: AAPG Bulletin, v. 78, p. 355–377.
Barber, D.J., 1985, Dislocations and microstructures, in
H.-R. Wenk, ed., Preferred orientation in deformed
metals and rocks: an introduction to modern tex-
ture analysis: London, Academic Press, p. 149–182.
Farmer, R.T., and A.P. Hillier, 1992, The Barque Field
Blocks 48/13a, 48/14, UK North Sea, in I.L. Abbotts,
ed., United Kingdom oil and gas fields, 25 years
commemorative volume: U.S. Geological Society
Memoir 14, p. 395–400.
Forster, C.B., J.V. Goddard, and J.P. Evans, 1993, Per-
meability structure of a thrust fault, in S. Hickman,
R. Sibson, and R. Bruhn, eds., U.S. Geological Soci-
ety Proceedings of Workshop LXIII, The mechanical
involvement of fluids in faulting: U.S. Geological
Society Open-File Report 94–228, p. 216–223.
Hippler, S.J., 1993, Deformation microstructures and
diagenesis in sandstone adjacent to an extensional
fault: implications for the flow and entrapment of
hydrocarbons: AAPG Bulletin, v. 77, p. 625–637.
Knipe, R.J., 1992, Faulting processes and fault seal, in
R.M. Larsen, H. Brekke, B.T. Larsen, and E. Taller-
aas, eds., Structural and tectonic modelling and its
application to petroleum geology: Norwegian
Petroleum Society Special Publication 1, p. 325–342.
Lloyd, G.E., 1985, Review of instrumentation, tech-
niques, and applications of SEM in mineralogy, in
J.C. White, ed., Applications of electron microscopy
in the earth sciences: Mineralogical Society of
Canada Short Course, v. 11, p. 151–188.
Marshall, D.J., 1988, Cathodoluminescence of geologic
materials: London, Unwin Hyman, 146 p.
Moore, J.C., S. Roeske, N. Lundberg, J. Schoonmaker,
D.S. Cowan, E. Gonzales, and S.E. Lucas, 1986,
Scaly fabrics from Deep Sea Drilling Project cores
from forearcs, in J.C. Moore, ed., Structural fabrics
in Deep Sea Drilling Project cores from forearcs:
Geological Society of America Memoir 166,
p. 55–73.
Pittman, E.D., 1981, Effect of fault-related granulation
on porosity and permeability of quartz sandstones,
Simpson Group (Ordovician), Oklahoma: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 65, p. 2381–2387.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–760.
Thompson, A.H., A.J. Katz, and C.E. Krohn, 1987,
The microgeometry and transport properties of
sedimentary rock: Advances in Physics, v. 36,
p. 625–694.
Vavra, C.L., J.G. Kaldi, and R.M. Sneider, 1992, Geo-
logical applications of capillary pressure: a review:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, p. 840–850.
 Leith, T.L., and A.E. Fallick, 1997, Organic geochemistry
of cap-rock hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian
North Sea, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the
petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 115–134.

Chapter 8
◆

Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock

Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian
North Sea
T.L. Leith
IKU Petroleum Research
Trondheim, Norway

A.E. Fallick
Scottish Universities Research and Reactor Centre
East Kilbride, Glasgow, Scotland

ABSTRACT
This study investigates the organic geochemistry of the cap-rock succes-
sion overlying the Triassic–early Jurassic sandstone reservoir of the Snorre
Field in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. Understanding the relation-
ships between hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs and their cap rocks is of fun-
damental importance to prospect generation and reservoir studies.
The results confirm that vertical leakage of oil from the reservoir of the
Snorre Field into overlying claystones and marls of the Late Cretaceous
Shetland Group has occurred. The relatively high concentrations of residual
oil present in the cap rock are compositionally related to the reservoired
Snorre oil, but are enriched in asphaltenes and polar compounds. The con-
centration of the residual oil gradually decreases toward the top of the cap-
rock unit. Molecular biomarker data allowed monitoring of mixing between
leaked residual oil and traces of immature indigenous bitumen in the gener-
ally organic-lean cap rock.
Residual oil in the cap rocks overlying the Snorre Field must have been
emplaced directly from the reservoir by bulk-flow processes. Although the
occurrence of a fracture zone in the cap rock may lead to locally high resid-
ual oil concentrations, there is no evidence that major fracture systems are
responsible for emplacing the oil found in the cap rock. The sealing capacity
of the cap rock is therefore suggested as being related to a combination of
lithological variation in the cap rock, microfracturing, and hydraulic equilib-
rium with the reservoir. The occurrence of calcareous cements with a partial-
ly organic carbon isotope signature suggests that the transit of oil through a
cap rock succession may enhance the sealing capacity of that cap rock under
certain circumstances.

115
116 Leith and Fallick

(a) Figure 1. (a) Summary of

published data on leakage
No Report in reservoir cap rocks in
46%
Yes
some Norwegian oil fields.
37% (b) Summary of published
data on reservoir cap-rock
leakage on the Norwegian
Shelf organized by play
type. [All data primarily
summarized from
references in Spencer et al.
(1987).]

Possible
17%

(b)

100%

80%

60% No report
Possible
Yes
40%

20%

0%
K-T Chalk Paleogene L. Cret. U. Jur. L.-M. Jur.
Sst. Sst. Sst. Sst.
Play

INTRODUCTION accumulations known to date, and are usually consid-

Evidence for the leakage of hydrocarbons is a com-
mon feature of many oil fields in the Norwegian sector
of the North Sea (Figure 1). This evidence may take the
form of seismic “bright spots” where gas has accumu-
lated in a porous horizon, such as Albuskjell (D’Heur,
1987), or a seismic “gas chimney” where the succession
above the reservoir contains gas, such as Ekofisk (Pekot
and Gersib, 1987); Valhall (Leonard and Munns, 1987);
and Hild (Rønning et al., 1987). In addition, oil shows
have been reported from strata of Cretaceous and Ter-
tiary age overlying the Valhall (Leonard and Munns,
1987), Gullfaks (Irwin, 1989), and Oseberg fields (Dahl
and Speers, 1985, 1986; Nipen, 1987). More recently,
Leith et al. (1993) described significant concentrations of
“wet” cuttings gas and oil shows from Cretaceous and
Tertiary strata overlying the Snorre Field (Figure 2).
A “cap rock” or “seal” may be defined as a “layered
geologic unit capable of impeding hydrocarbon move-
ment” (Downey, 1984). Such geologic units are integral
parts of the vast majority of commercial hydrocarbon
ered a prerequisite in evaluating a prospect. However,
in spite of their importance to reservoir systems, cap
rocks are usually only rather cursorily evaluated dur-
ing an exploration or appraisal program and are rarely
cored. In this paper, “cap rock” will be applied as
referring to the physical position of a rock succession
in relation to a reservoir horizon. Consequently, “seal”
will be used to refer to the ability of a horizon to
impede the passage of hydrocarbons. Therefore, a
fine-grained horizon overlying a reservoir can be a cap
rock without being a seal to that reservoir.
The capacity of a cap rock to seal a hydrocarbon
accumulation is determined by the capillary pressure
in the cap rock (Berg, 1975; Schowalter, 1979; Downey,
1984; Davis, 1987). This capillary pressure is deter-
mined by the radius of the largest interconnected pore
throats in the cap rock, the interfacial tension between
the trapped/migrating oil/gas and pore water, and the
wettability of the rock in question. The role of wetta-
bility in hydrocarbon reservoir systems is poorly
understood in relation to the interactions between
 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea 117

Figure 2. Map showing

location of Snorre Field and
wells included in this study.

A 2
34/4
4 9
Snorre
1

BERGEN A1

NORWAY

STAVANGER
Vigdis

Inner Snorre Fault

ABERDEEN

Tordis

34/7

hydrocarbons and rock. The presence of significant
amounts of oil-like hydrocarbons in cap-rock succes-
sions above economically important oil fields suggests
that the relationship between a reservoir and its seal
may be more dynamic than previously thought
(Roberts, 1980; Welte et al., 1984).
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
The cuttings samples were washed and reverse-
picked for contaminants. The pulverized samples were
extracted using Soxhlet apparatus with boiling
dichloromethane containing 7% (v/v) methanol as a sol-
vent for ~18 h. After extraction, the solvent was evapo-
rated by using a Büchi Rotavapor. The asphaltene
fraction of the extractable organic matter (EOM) was
precipitated out using excess n-pentane. The remaining
maltenes were separated into saturated, aromatic, and
nonhydrocarbon fractions using a standard medium
pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC) system (after
Radke et al., 1980), with n-hexane as an eluant.
The saturated hydrocarbon fraction was further ana-
lyzed by using a Hewlett-Packard 5730A gas chromato-
graph with a 15 m DB-1 capillary column. Hydrogen

Table 1. Stable Isotope Data from Carbonate Cements at the Base and Top of the
Shetland Group: Well 34/7-1.*

Depth δ13C δ18O δ18O

(m) (‰ PDB) (‰ PDB) (‰ SMOW)
1840 –4.96 –5.46 25.29
–4.95 –5.50 25.24
2381 –3.54 –5.40 25.34
–3.82 –5.80 24.93

* Including duplicate analyses.

118 Leith and Fallick

(a) Figure 3. (a) Lithostratigraphy of the

Snorre Field area (Hollander, 1987).

Formation
(b) Schematic geologic cross section

System

Group
through the Snorre Field showing
the relative positions and structural
context of the study wells.
0 Legend

Claystone

Shale
Nordland

Sandstone

Marl

Volcanics
Tertiary

Utsira
1000
Hordaland
Depth (m)

W E
Jorsal-
fare
Rogaland

Balder
Lista /
Sele
Kyrre
Cretaceous

2000
Shetland

Trygg-
vason

Blodøks
Cromer Knoll
Dunlin
Jurassic
Svarte

Statfjord
Triassic

Lunde
Lunde

3000

was used as a carrier gas, with a flow rate of ~1.5 mL/min.
Injections were performed in splitless mode. A temper-
ature program of 80°–280°C at 4°C/min. was used.
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS)
was performed on a VG TRIO 1 GC-MS system. A
Hewlett-Packard 5890 Series II gas chromatograph
was fitted with a fused-silica DB-5 capillary column
with helium as a carrier gas. Injections were carried
out in splitless mode. The temperature program used
went from 120° to 280°C at a rate of 4°C/min. The
 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea
(b)
34/4-2 34/7-4
Nordland Group
Hordaland Group
Rogaland Group
Shetland Group ?
?
on
Statfjord Formati
Figure 3. Continued.
saturated hydrocarbon fraction was analyzed in multi-
ple ion mode (MID) with a scan cycle time ~2 s. The
mass spectrometer operated at 70 eV electron energy
with an ion source temperature of 200°C.
Total organic carbon (TOC) determinations were
carried out by using a Leco CS 244 carbon/sulfur ana-
lyzer. Rock-Eval pyrolysis measurements were per-
formed on whole-rock samples by using a Rock-Eval II
instrument at standard conditions.
Samples for stable isotopic analysis were plasma-
ashed to remove organic contaminants (Hogg et al.,
1993). Carbon dioxide was released by reaction with
phosphoric acid for 3 hr at 25°C (McCrea, 1950; Wachter
and Hayes, 1985) and the carbon and oxygen isotopic
compositions determined on a VG SIRA 10 mass spec-
trometer calibrated against international reference mate-
rials [i.e., precision is ± 0.1‰ (1σ) or better and NBS19
gives δ13C = 1.92‰ and δ18O = –2.19‰, both relative to
PDB]. A carbon dioxide–carbonate oxygen isotope frac-
tionation factor of 1.01025 at 25°C was assumed (Rosen-
baum and Sheppard, 1986). The data are given in Table
1, where the δ18O values are listed for both the PDB and
SMOW scales.
GEOLOGY OF THE CAP-ROCK
SUCCESSION
Erosion associated with the Cimmerian tectonic
phase has led to the complete removal of Middle and
119
34/7-9 34/7-1
Inner Snorre Formation
Jorsalfare Formation
?
Kyrre Formation
? ?
Hegre Group Approximate
OWC
Upper Jurassic rocks over the Snorre structure (Fig-
ure 3). The present geometry of the area is related to
Cretaceous differential subsidence but does not cor-
respond to pre-Cretaceous relief (Karlsson, 1986).
Karlsson (1986) also suggests that faults developed
during the Middle Jurassic–Early Cretaceous tec-
tonic phase may have had surface expression, at
least during Early Cretaceous times. Caillet (1993)
showed that a number of faults penetrate Creta-
ceous/Tertiary strata, particularly around well
34/7-1.
The Triassic–early Jurassic reservoir rocks of the
Snorre Field (Figure 3) are usually overlain by a con-
densed succession that rarely exceeds 20 m in thick-
ness, representing the Lower Cretaceous Cromer
Knoll Group. In the Snorre area, this unit is organic
lean (TOC ~0.3%) and grades upward from a calcite-
cemented sandstone or siltstone lithology at the base
to a marl at the top of the unit.
The rocks of the Cromer Knoll Group are uncon-
formably overlain by the predominantly argillaceous
succession of the Shetland Group, which varies in
thickness from 400 to 700 m over the Snorre Field. Of
the five formations recognized by Hole et al. (1989)
and Nybakken and Bäckstrøm (1989), only two, the
Kyrre and Jorsalfare, are presently recognized over the
Snorre Field (Figure 3). In addition, the upper half of
the Kyrre Formation appears to be represented by only
the upper half of the formation over the Snorre Field
(34/7-1 and 34/7-4).
120 Leith and Fallick
(a)
22
20
18
16
Number of Samples
14
12
10
8
6
4 200
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Total Organic Carbon (%)
Figure 4. Summary of organic richness, maturity, and kerogen type from rocks of the Shetland Group over the
Snorre Field.
The claystones of the Kyrre Formation are typically
more organic rich (0.7–1.0%) than those of the more
calcareous Jorsalfare Formation (0.5–0.7%). In addi-
tion, the rocks of the Shetland Group show a slight
westward enrichment in organic carbon content
(0.5–0.8%). Rock-Eval Tmax data suggest that thermally
immature, type III/IV kerogen is typical of all the
rocks analyzed from the Shetland Group (Figure 4).
The rocks of the Shetland Group are further overlain
by ~1800 m of largely argillaceous strata representing
the Rogaland (Lista/Sele and Balder formations) and
Hordaland groups. Total organic carbon contents in the
Hordaland Group show an upward increase from 0.3%
to 0.5% to 1.0% to 1.7% in 34/7-1 and 1.0% to 2.0% in
34/7-4. Thin limestone or dolomite beds may be recog-
nized at the base of the Lista/Sele Formation, particu-
larly in well 34/7-1. In well 34/7-4, the lower 60 m of the
Hordaland Group is represented by interbedded clay-
stones and fine to medium-grained sandstones (Figure
3). The Hordaland Group is overlain by mid-Miocene to
Recent claystones and sand of the Nordland Group.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Composition of Reservoir Hydrocarbons and
Relation to the OWC
Although the filling history of the Snorre Field is
not the main object of this study, some control on the
reservoir hydrocarbons is required if the significance
of the oil shows in the overlying mud rocks is to be
properly investigated. It has been demonstrated else-
where that the molecular composition of reservoir oil
in a field may vary according to the filling history of
(b)
1000
Type I
Hordaland (34/7-4)
800
Rock-Eval Hydrogen Index (mg/gTOC)
Hordaland (34/7-1)
Rogaland (34/7-4)
Rogaland (34/7-1) Type II
600
Jorsalfare (34/7-4)
Jorsalfare (34/7-1)
Kyrre (34/7-4) 400
Kyrre (34/7-1)
Type III
1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 400 420 440 460 480 500
Rock-Eval Tmax (°C)
the field and the postfilling equilibration processes that
affect the oil (England et al., 1987; Karlsen and Larter,
1989; Horstad et al., 1990; Larter et al., 1990). The reser-
voir horizons in the Snorre Field are lithologically hetero-
geneous and typically consist of oil-bearing sandstone
horizons, which are typically only a few meters thick.
These horizons are separated by mudstones, siltstones,
and fine-grained, well-cemented sandstones.
The lithological heterogeneity of the Snorre reservoir
is reflected in the composition of the extractable organic
matter (EOM) isolated from the rocks. Regardless of
reservoir age, the highest EOM concentrations occur in
coarse-grained, poorly cemented sandstones. This
EOM, from wells 34/7-1 and 34/7-4 (Figures 5, 6), is
usually rich in hydrocarbons (>80%) with a high satu-
rate/aromatic ratio (2–3) and a low asphaltene content
(<5%), similar to the drill-stem test (DST) oils. Gas chro-
matography data from these extracts are characterized
by C15+ n-alkane compositions, which are almost identi-
cal to those of the DST oil; that is, a smooth, unimodal
distribution with a steady decrease in peak height from
a maximum around C15 or C16 (Figure 7).
In contrast, finer grained reservoir lithologies tend to
contain much lower concentrations of more asphaltene-
rich (i.e., ~20%) EOM. In general, the composition of the
hydrocarbon fraction of the EOM from these lithologies
is similar to that observed in the more porous reservoir
lithologies (e.g., generally similar saturate/aromatic
ratios). Leythaeuser and Rückheim (1989) reported that
the n-alkane composition of finer-grained arenaceous
lithologies is often biased toward the lower-molecular-
weight compounds than are the n-alkanes in the coarse-
grained lithologies. A similar bias was observed in
some of the samples from the study wells, and was
 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea
Figure 5. Summary diagram showing variation in extractable organic matter concentration and composition,
and organic carbon content in well 34/7-1. (Depth axis is not to scale.)
most pronounced in a siltstone from 34/7-4 (e.g.,
2538.50 m) and well-cemented, fine-grained sandstones
in 34/7-1 (e.g., 2580.45 m) and 34/4-1 (e.g., 2560.95 m).
This bias was least well developed in the EOM from the
two lowermost samples in well 34/7-4, both of which
show evidence of degradation attributable to water-
washing (Figure 7).
This trend in n-alkane composition does not, how-
ever, hold for mudstones within the reservoir. Within
the mudstones, the n-alkane composition varies
widely from a low-molecular-weight n-alkane bias
(Figure 7) to a high-molecular-weight n-alkane bias. It
is therefore obvious that the distribution of oil-derived
EOM within the heterogeneous reservoir rocks of the
Snorre Field is more complex than described by
Leythaeuser and Rückheim (1989).
The C 27, C 28, C 29 ααα-sterane composition of the
extracts shows no significant variation within the
reservoir samples, suggesting that the EOM shares a
common source similar to what produced the DST oils
(Figure 8). In well 34/7-4, the highest oil saturation
occurs above 2560 m, below which there is a tendency
for the Tm/Ts ratio and the relative abundance of tri-
cyclic diterpanes to increase with depth (Figure 9).
These contradictory indications of thermal maturity
coincide with a decrease in EOM concentration and an
increase in the degradation of the EOM with depth
121
below the interval of highest oil saturation. Taken with
the lack of variation in other maturation parameters
(e.g., %C29 20S steranes and %C32 22S hopanes), these
variations appear to reflect the increasing alteration of
the oil rather than variations in maturation. Care is
therefore needed in the interpretation of biomarker
data from reservoir intervals. The pattern is not as well
displayed in well 34/7-1 due to the occurrence of a sig-
nificant concentration (3500 ppm) of undegraded, oil-
like EOM in sandstone ~5 m below the oil-water
contact (OWC).
As mentioned previously, significant concentra-
tions of apparently undegraded EOM are present
below the OWC in wells 34/7-1 and 34/4-1. The n-
alkane composition of this material is similar to that of
the DST oils, while the biomarker composition of the
sample from 34/7-1 (2590.55 m) is identical to that of
the DST oils and of EOM from the rich, coarse-grained
lithologies above the OWC. These data may suggest
that either the OWC has moved upward or that the
OWC has been wrongly calculated in these two wells.
Composition of Hydrocarbons in the
Cretaceous–Tertiary Succession
The presence of significant (780–1850 ppm) EOM
concentrations in claystones of the Shetland Group
was demonstrated in the “dry” well 34/7-2 to the
122 Leith and Fallick

Percent Composition EOM Fraction (ppm) TOC (%)

0% 50 % 100 % 0 4000 8000 12000 16000 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
1270.00
Hordaland
1570.00
Gp.
1720.00
1830.00 Rogaland Gp.
1865.00
1922.00
1982.00
2090.00
2180.00
Shetland
2252.00
Gp.
Depth (m)

2324.00
2396.00
2432.00
2486.00
2533.05
Dunlin Gp.
2538.50
2545.00 Oil Column
Statfjord Fm.

2548.50
2555.05
2562.00
2573.00
2621.00
2689.00
Lunde Fm.

ASPH (%) Polar (%) HC (%) ASPH (ppm) EOM (ppm)

Figure 6. Summary diagram showing variation in extractable organic matter concentration and composition,
and organic carbon content in well 34/7-4. (Depth axis is not to scale.)

south of the main Snorre Field (Leith et al., 1993). Vari-
ations in EOM content were accompanied by changes
in the n-alkane composition of the EOM. This changed
from a bimodal pattern in the upper half of the Dunlin
Group to a more oil-like unimodal pattern at the base
of the Shetland Group (Figure 10). The observed
decrease in EOM concentration in the Shetland Group
was accompanied by an increase in the prominence of
the low-molecular-weight n-alkanes on the saturated
hydrocarbon gas chromatograms.
Equally surprising after analysis of samples from
the Cretaceous–Tertiary succession in wells 34/7-1
and 34/7-4 was the similarity in the pattern of EOM
concentration in these two wells and in 34/7-2. In all
three cases, EOM concentrations ≤2000–3000 ppm
occur in claystones of the Shetland Group. The clay-
stones of the Shetland Group are too immature and
contain too little generation potential to account for
such high concentrations of EOM (Figure 4). Given the
lack of any other obvious source horizons, the most
obvious origin for these hydrocarbons is within the
reservoir interval.
Similar isoprenoid (Figure 11) and C 27 , C 28 , C 29
ααα-sterane (Figure 8) compositions from the Shet-
land Group in all three wells suggest a common source
for the EOM. The similarity between the EOM and the
Snorre DST oils suggests that the source for the EOM
in the Shetland Group and the DST oils was the same.
Additional evidence for a nonindigenous source for
the EOM in the Cretaceous–Tertiary succession lies in
the relatively mature sterane signature of the EOM.
The maturities implied by these data [i.e., similar to
that of the DST oils (Figure 9)] are clearly inconsistent
with the maturity of the kerogen.
With the exception of the uppermost and lower-
most samples from the Shetland Group in 34/7-1 and
34/7-4, the EOM concentration shows relatively little
variation (Figure 5). The extractability of the calcare-
ous rocks at the base of the Shetland Group is similar
to that found in marls of the Cromer Knoll Group (823
ppm). The marked decrease in EOM concentration
between the two uppermost samples from the Shet-
land Group, (that is, from ~300° ppm at 1920–1930 m
to ~500–800 ppm at 1840–1860 m) in both study wells
coincides with a change to the more calcareous lithol-
ogy of the upper Jorsalfare Formation. Extractable
organic matter (EOM) concentrations in the overlying
Tertiary Rogaland and Hordaland groups show a
more gradual decrease from the levels observed at the
top of the Shetland Group.
The carbonate content of the claystones in the
Shetland Group appears to play a significant role in
determining EOM content. This is not unexpected,
since calcareous claystones tend to be less porous than
noncalcareous claystones. This is supported by the
occurrence of another EOM-poor interval at 2292–2201
m in 34/7-1, which coincides with a more calcareous
interval evident on the resistivity and sonic logs (Fig-
ure 12). It might be suggested, based on the above
observations, that the 50–80- m- thick calcareous
 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea 123

35 Figure 7. N-alkane profiles

from reservoir intervals in
Reservoir (Triassic Lunde Fm.) wells 34/7-1 and 34/7-4.
30
Well 34/7-1 Profiles from typical Snorre
percent composition

25
2397.40 DST oils are shown for
2575.65 comparison.
20 2580.45
2585.55
15 2590.55
2595.05
10 2612.95

0
nC15
nC16
nC17
nC18
nC19
nC20
nC21
nC22
nC23
nC24
nC25
nC26
nC27
nC28
nC29
nC30
nC31
nC32
nC33
nC34
n-alkane carbon number

25

Reservoir (Lower Jurassic Statfjord Fm.)

20 Well 34/7-4
percent composition

2538.5
15 2548.5
2555.05
2562
10 2621
2689

0
nC15
nC16
nC17
nC18
nC19
nC20
nC21
nC22
nC23
nC24
nC25
nC26
nC27
nC28
nC29
nC30
nC31
nC32
nC33
nC34

n-alkane carbon number

10

Typical DST oils

8 (Lunde & Statfjord Reservoirs)
Percent composition

0
nC15
nC16
nC17
nC18
nC19
nC20
nC21
nC22
nC23
nC24
nC25
nC26
nC27
nC28
nC29
nC30
nC31
nC32
nC33
nC34

n-alkane carbon number

124 Leith and Fallick
interval at the top of the Jorsalfare Formation plays an
important role in determining the EOM content of the
overlying Tertiary succession.
Carbon isotope data from carbonate cements at the
top and base of the Shetland Group show clear indica-
tions of a significant contribution from organic carbon
(Table 1). A marine (bi)carbonate source would have
δ 13C ~0‰, whereas organic-derived carbon would
likely have δ13C between –15 and –25‰. The carbon-
ate cements from the top of the Shetland Group appear
to be slightly more depleted in 13C than do those at the
base of the unit, whereas the oxygen isotope composi-
tions are broadly similar. The significance of this is
currently unclear, although a more detailed carbonate
cement isotopic study could elucidate the role of
hydrocarbon leakage.
The indication of an organic carbon contribution to
carbonate cements at what may have been the sedi-
ment–water interface when filling of the Snorre Field
started (Leith et al., 1993) may suggest that the leakage
of hydrocarbons through a poorly compacted argilla-
ceous cap rock could have contributed to the sealing
capacity of the cap-rock succession (i.e., the develop-
ment of a largely impermeable layer at the paleo-
sediment/water interface). Such a situation would be
consistent with the lack of evidence for an input of
mature oil to the Tertiary succession, which overlies
the Shetland Group.
One obvious feature of the EOM in the Creta-
ceous/Tertiary rocks that overlie the two study wells
(Figure 5) is the increased asphaltene content
(>30%–50%) relative to that in the reservoir EOM
(<5%). This high relative asphaltene content appears
Figure 8. C27, C28, C29 ααα-
sterane composition of
extractable organic matter
compared to DST oils from
the Snorre Field.
to remain relatively constant throughout the Cretaceous–
Tertiary succession. Asphaltene-rich EOM might be
expected to block up pore throats, thereby restricting
porosity and permeability in otherwise undercom-
pacted mudrocks (Dahl and Speers, 1986; Larter et al.,
1990). A decrease in porosity due to the filling of pore
space by asphaltene-rich EOM would not necessarily be
evident from well-log data, as is evidenced by the prob-
lems encountered in successfully predicting tar-mat
occurrence (Dahl and Speers, 1986).
The similarity in the composition of the EOM in the
Cretaceous–Tertiary succession of wells 34/7-1, 34/7-4,
and 34/7-2 is not reflected in the much more variable n-
alkane and biomarker compositions of the EOM.
In well 34/7-4, a marked change in n-alkane dis-
tribution toward a low-molecular-weight–biased
distribution occurs from the Cromer Knoll Group
and upward into the Shetland Group (Figure 13).
This trend in the 34/7-4 succession is accompanied
by the appearance of ββ-hopane and hopene peaks
in samples from the Shetland groups (Figure 14). The
proportion of these compounds steadily increases
upward through the Cretaceous–Tertiary succession
and reaches a maximum in samples from the Roga-
land and Hordaland groups. Saturated-hydrocarbon
gas chromatograms from Tertiary samples are typi-
cally distinguished from samples in the Shetland
Group by a nearly bimodal n-alkane distribution and a
marked odd-carbon number preference (Figure 13).
There is a tendency for the relative abundance of
the ββ-hopane and hopene compounds to increase
with distance from the top of the reservoir interval and
with the organic richness of the enclosing rocks. The
 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea 125

(a) Figure 9. Maturation-

7 0.0 0 dependent biomarker ratios
illustrating similarity in
maturity of extractable
6 0.0 0
% C 3 1 + exte nd e d h op a n es

organic matter from wells

34/7-1 and 34/7-4, and DST
5 0.0 0 oils from the Snorre Field.
(See Table 2 for definition
of the biomarker ratios.)
4 0.0 0

3 0.0 0

Tertiary Mudstones
2 0.0 0
Cretaceous Mudstones

Reservoir Rocks
1 0.0 0
DST Oils

0.00

20 .0 0 40 .0 0 60 .0 0 80 .0 0
% C 2 9 2 0 S ste ra n es
(b)
1 .00
Tertiary M u dstones
R e l ab u n re arran g e d ste ran e s

C re taceous M udsto nes

0 .80
R es ervoir R ocks

D ST O ils

0 .60

0 .40

0 .20

0 .00

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
% C 2 9 ββ ste ra ne s

extreme immaturity associated with these com- The hypothesis that the EOM in the Cretaceous–
pounds (Simoneit, 1986) makes it unlikely that their Tertiary succession represents a mixture of leaked oil
relative contribution could be enhanced by migra- and indigenous EOM is supported by the generally
tion. Most experimental (Zhao-an and Philp, 1987; mature sterane composition of the EOM (Figure 10).
Bonilla and Engel, 1988) and natural (Seifert and The relatively minor variation in sterane composition
Moldowan, 1978; Seifert et al., 1979) observations through the Cretaceous–Tertiary succession suggests
indicate preferential enrichment of more thermally that the input of immature contaminant is biased
stable biomarkers with migration. It therefore seems toward the hopanes. This is emphasized by the rapid
likely that the presence of these compounds repre- increase in Tm/Ts ratio up the succession (Figures 15,
sents a contribution from traces of indigenous imma- 16), and by the increasing divergence of the C 31
ture EOM in the enclosing rocks. 22S:22R ratio and the C 32 22S:22R ratio. The latter
126 Leith and Fallick
Table 2. Biomarker Ratios Used in This Study.
Biomarker Ratio
%C31 extended hopanes
%C29 20S steranes
Relative abundance of rearranged steranes
%C29 ββ steranes
[C29ααS + C29ααR + 2(C29ββR + C29ββS)] in m/z 217
Tricyclic Terpanes
Tm/Ts
Bisnorhopane/hopane
C31 22S Ratio
C32 22S Ratio
observation reflects input of a compound that coelutes
with the C31 22R peak, possibly gammacerane.
The n-alkane composition of samples from the
Cretaceous–Tertiary succession in well 34/7-1 shows a
more complex pattern of variation than that observed
in 34/7-4. This might be expected given that the evi-
dence from cuttings gas and oil shows suggests that
more leakage occurred from the 34/7-1 reservoir inter-
val (Leith et al., 1993). In well 34/7-1, the change to a
consistently low-molecular-weight n-alkane distribu-
tion only occurs across the boundary between the
Shetland and Rogaland groups. Although samples
from 2030–2039 m and 2156–2165 m in the Shetland
Group also show similar n-alkane distributions, the
reason remains unclear.
Samples from the Shetland Group in well 34/7-1
are typically characterized by a bimodal or high-
molecular-weight–biased n-alkane distribution similar
to that observed in the Dunlin Group in well 34/7-2
(Leith et al., 1993). No systematic change in n-alkane
composition can be recognized in the samples from
the Shetland Group. Nevertheless, there is a tendency
for the higher-molecular-weight compounds to
become more prominent toward the top of the Shet-
land Group (Figure 13).
Ratio Definition
100 × average of C31αβS
(C31αβS + C31αβR)
…C34αβS
(C34αβS + C34αβR) in m/z 191
100 × C29ααS
(C29ααS + C29ααR) in m/z 217
100 × C27δβS
(C27δβS + C27ααR) in m/z 217
100×2 × (C29ββR + C29ββS)
C24 tricyclic/hopane in m/z 191
C27Tm/C27Ts in m/z 191
C28 28,30-bisnorhopane/C30 hopane in m/z 191
100 × average of C31αβS
(C31αβS + C31αβR) in m/z 191
100 × average of C32αβS
(C32αβS + C31αβR) in m/z 191
The biomarker composition of the EOM from the
Shetland Group in well 34/7-1 shows more similarity
with that observed in well 34/7-4. As in 34/7-4, peaks
representing ββ-hopanes and hopene compounds
begin to appear in the mass fragmentograms of the
lowermost Shetland Group. These compounds show a
tendency to increase in relative abundance toward the
top of the Shetland Group and into the Tertiary succes-
sion, although the content of these compounds is not as
pronounced in the 34/7-1 well. This may reflect the
generally lower organic richness of the Cretaceous/Ter-
tiary succession in 34/7-1. The gradual increase in the
relative abundance of ββ-hopanes and hopenes is
punctuated in 34/7-1 by intervals with a more conven-
tional hopane/moretane–dominated terpanoid com-
position (e.g., 2066–2075 m, 2120–2129 m, and
1830–1840 m).
The more mature biomarker distributions found in
the Shetland Group coincide with either an organic-
lean enclosing rock (1830–1840 m) or an interval con-
taining intervals of anomalously high interval transit
time (2066–2075 m and 2120–2029 m). Since there is
no obvious evidence available to this study of prob-
lems encountered during logging of the lower two
intervals, the increased interval transit time may be
 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea 127

35 Figure 10. Variation in

n-alkane profile through
Tertiary Mudstones the Cretaceous–Tertiary
30
Well 34/7-1 succession in well 34/7-1.
percent composition

25
1440
20 1600
1660
15 1760
1820
10

0
nC15
nC16
nC17
nC18
nC19
nC20
nC21
nC22
nC23
nC24
nC25
nC26
nC27
nC28
nC29
nC30
nC31
nC32
nC33
nC34
n-alkane carbon number

18

16 Cretaceous Mudstones (Jorsalfare Fm.)

Well 34/7-1
14
percent composition

12 1840

10 1931
1967
8 1985
2039
6

0
nC15
nC16
nC17
nC18
nC19
nC20
nC21
nC22
nC23
nC24
nC25
nC26
nC27
nC28
nC29
nC30
nC31
nC32
nC33
nC34

n-alkane carbon number

12

Cretaceous Mudstones (Kyrre Fm.)

10 Well 34/7-1 2075
percent composition

2093
8 2129
2165

6 2201
2237
2273
4
2309
2345
2

0
nC15
nC16
nC17
nC18
nC19
nC20
nC21
nC22
nC23
nC24
nC25
nC26
nC27
nC28
nC29
nC30
nC31
nC32
nC33
nC34

n-alkane carbon number

128 Leith and Fallick
cautiously interpreted as indicating increased poros-
ity (Figure 12). In the absence of any indications for
abrupt changes in lithology, it can be tentatively sug-
gested that these intervals represent fracturing in the
drilled section. This is not unreasonable, since 34/7-1
is located close to the heavily faulted area associated
with the Snorre Escarpment/Inner Snorre Fault. As
was noted in well 34/7-4, the intervals showing a sig-
nificant content of ββ-hopanes and hopenes coincide
with anomalously high Tm/Ts ratios and divergence
of the 22S:22R ratios for the C31 and C32 αβ-hopanes
(Figures 15, 16).
The content of tricyclic diterpanes is relatively con-
stant throughout the Shetland Group in 34/7-1 (Figure
10), only increasing in the uppermost Tertiary sample.
In contrast, in 34/7-4, the relative abundance of tri-
cyclic diterpanes increases across the boundary
between the Dunlin and Cromer Knoll groups, and
decreases only gradually up the Shetland Group to
reach a minimum in the Tertiary samples. In these two
wells, a high relative abundance of tricyclic diterpanes
coincides with the change to an n-alkane distribution
dominated by low-molecular-weight compounds. The
occurrence of this change at a lower interval in 34/7-4
would be consistent with the less extensive leakage
suggested by cuttings gas data.
Given the sample spacing used in this study, it is dif-
ficult to reach any definite conclusions regarding the
role of fracturing in the distribution of EOM derived
from the reservoir oil. However, the similarity of the
trends in EOM concentration and composition in the
Cretaceous–Tertiary succession of the study wells
tends to argue against an important role for fracturing
in these wells. The succession penetrated by wells
34/7-2 and 34/7-4 shows no evidence of fracturing,
Figure 11. Isoprenoid
composition of extractable
organic matter and DST
oils from the Snorre Field.
and the wells are relatively remote from any major
fracture systems. If fracturing were responsible for the
distribution of EOM in the Shetland Group, then dif-
ferent EOM concentration patterns would be expected
in the three wells. It seems more likely that the pres-
ence of fracturing in the Cretaceous–Tertiary succes-
sion merely modifies the composition of the EOM by
creating intervals of variable porosity.
The evidence discussed in this section suggests
that leakage of hydrocarbons from the reservoir into
the overlying succession has occurred. Biomarker
data indicate that contamination of the leaked
hydrocarbons by trace amounts of immature indige-
nous EOM has also occurred. The degree of contami-
nation increases away from the top of the reservoir
interval, except where intervals of increased porosity
or reduced organic matter content allow accumula-
tion of uncontaminated leaked oil. Consistent varia-
tions in the concentration and composition of EOM
in the suprareservoir succession of a number of wells
suggest that it is difficult to propose fracturing as the
main leakage mechanism. Rather, movement and sub-
sequent fractionation of oil through an undercom-
pacted succession seems to be more consistent with
the analytical data obtained during this study.
Relationship Between EOM Occurrence and
Composition and Variation in Cuttings Gas- and
Oil-Show Records
The distribution of EOM suggests a division of the
Shetland Group into an approximately 400-m- thick
interval characterized by relatively high EOM concen-
trations (2000–4000 ppm) and bounded by more calcare-
ous intervals at top and bottom. EOM concentrations in
these calcareous intervals are ~1 order of magnitude
 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea 129

Figure 12. Selected

log curves through
the Cretaceous–
Tertiary succession
in well 34/7-1.
The solid lines are,
from left to right:
gamma, sonic (dT),
and density
(RHOB). The bro-
ken lines are, from
left to right: caliper,
resistivity (Rild),
and calculated shale
porosity (after
Magara, 1978).

lower than is observed in the intervening less calcareous be correlated with any variations in either EOM concen-
interval. This contrasts with the absence of visible oil- tration or composition.
show records above ~2070–2090 m across the Snorre The generally decreasing concentration of C2–C 4
Field (Table 3). This absence of visible oil shows cannot and C5+ hydrocarbons in the cuttings gas above the

30 Figure 13. Variation in

n-alkane profile through
Tertiary/Cretaceous Mudstones: the Cretaceous–Tertiary
25
Well 34/7-4 succession in well 34/7-4.
percent composition

1270
20 1830
1865
15 1982
2180
2396
10
2522

0
nC15
nC16
nC17
nC18
nC19
nC20
nC21
nC22
nC23
nC24
nC25
nC26
nC27
nC28
nC29
nC30
nC31
nC32
nC33
nC34

n-alkane carbon number

130 Leith and Fallick

Composition Composition
0% 50 % 100 % 0% 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 %
1600.00 1270.00
Hordaland Hordaland
Gp. Gp.
1820.00
Rogaland 1830.00 Rogaland
Gp. Gp.
1840.00

Jorsalfare
1865.00

Fm.
1931.00

Jorsalfare Fm.

Shetland Gp.
2180.00
1967.00

Kyrre Fm.
2039.00

Shetland Gp.
2396.00

2075.00
2522.00
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Dunlin Gp.
2129.00
Kyrre Fm.

2533.05
2201.00

Oil Column
2345.00 2548.50

2397.40

Statfjord Fm.
D 2555.05
Oil Column

2580.45
Lunde Fm.

2562.00
2585.55
E 34/7-4
34/7-1 2621.00
2590.55

Hegre Gp.
2595.05 2689.00

Tricyclic ββ-hopanes

αβ-hopanes Hopenes

Moretanes
Figure 14. Terpanoid composition summary diagram for wells 34/7-1 and 34/7-4. Compound group percentages
are based on peaks identified on m/z 191 mass fragmentograms. (Depth axis is not to scale.)

reservoir interval describes a curve similar to what
might be expected from diffusion as described by
Leythaeuser et al. (1982), Krooss and Leythaeuser
(1988), and Krooss et al. (1988). This gradual decrease
in the C2+ cuttings gas components is punctuated in
wells 34/7-1 and 34/7-4 by rapid changes over short
intervals at different levels in the Shetland Group. The
occurrence of these events can be related to the height
of the reservoir oil column (Leith et al., 1993), suggest-
ing that modification of an otherwise normal diffusion
pattern has occurred, probably reflecting the pressure
system associated with the underlying oil column.
The distribution of gaseous and extractable hydro-
carbons in the Cretaceous/Tertiary strata of the study
wells seems to reflect two different processes. England
and Mackenzie (1988) have illustrated the different
time spans required for changes in different oil fractions
to occur. The apparent relationship between cuttings gas
and the oil column may suggest that the cuttings gas dis-
tribution more directly reflects the situation in the oil
 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea 131

Ratio Value Ratio Value

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 20 40 60 80 100

1600.00

1820.00

1840.00

1931.00

1967.00

2039.00

2075.00
Depth (m)

2129.00

2201.00

2345.00

2397.40

2580.45

2585.55

2590.55

2595.05

Tricyclic terpanes Tm/Ts C31 22S Ratio C32 22S Ratio

Bisnorhopane/hopane abun C27 diasteranes %C29 20S steranes %C29 ββ steranes

Figure 15. Summary diagram showing vertical variation in selected biomarker ratios calculated from m/z 191
and m/z 217 mass fragmentograms for well 34/7-1. The position of the reservoir oil column is indicated by the
shaded box. (Depth axis is not to scale. See Table 2 for definition of the biomarker ratios.)

column. In contrast, the generally even distribution of
EOM through undercompacted strata of relatively
constant porosity appears to reflect a more gradual
process analogous to the filling of a reservoir horizon,
albeit of very poor quality.
CONCLUSIONS
The results obtained during this study indicate that
the relationships among a reservoir horizon, the reser-
voir oil, and the overlying sealing cap-rock horizon
may be complex. In the Snorre Field, this complexity is
evident in the relatively even distribution of signifi-
cant concentrations of oil-derived EOM throughout
undercompacted mud rocks of Late Cretaceous age.
The absence of the lower three formations of the
Shetland Group may have influenced the poor sealing
capacity of the Shetland Group over the Snorre Field,
especially since the lowest unit, the Svarte Formation, is
typically composed of marls and interbedded lime-
stones (Nybakken and Bäckstrøm, 1989). The calcareous
content of the Shetland Group appears to represent a
strong control on the distribution of EOM. Isotopic evi-
dence suggests that migrating hydrocarbons have prob-
ably contributed to the development of at least those
carbonate cements at the top of the Shetland Group.
This opens the possibility that vertical cap-rock leakage
may, in fact, enhance the sealing capacity of a structure
under certain conditions. The timing and distribution of
these calcareous cements in the Shetland Group and
their significance to the sealing capacity of the Creta-
ceous succession have important implications to the
development of more subtle prospects.
Differences in the variation of gaseous hydrocar-
bons and liquid hydrocarbons in the Cretaceous–
Tertiary strata overlying the Snorre Field suggest that
two processes may be controlling these fractions. Dif-
fusion appears to be important in controlling the vari-
ation of the gaseous hydrocarbons, although the
concentration of C2+ hydrocarbons may be modified
by other factors, either lithological or pressure-related.
In contrast, the EOM concentration appears to be con-
trolled by the carbonate content of the Cretaceous
mudstones, sufficient time having passed to permit
132 Leith and Fallick

Ratio Value Ratio Value

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 20 40 60 80 100

1270.00

1830.00

1865.00

2180.00

2396.00
Depth (m)

2522.00

2533.05

2548.50

2555.05

2562.00

2621.00

2689.00

Tricyclic terpanes Tm/Ts C31 22S Ratio C32 22S Ratio

Bisnorhopane/hopane abun C27 diasteranes %C29 20S steranes %C29 ββ steranes

Figure 16. Summary diagram showing vertical variation in selected biomarker ratios calculated from m/z 191
and m/z 217 mass fragmentograms for well 34/7-4. The position of the reservoir oil column is indicated by the
shaded box. (Depth axis is not to scale. See Table 2 for definition of the biomarker ratios.)

some degree of homogenization to occur. The leak-
age of hydrocarbons to the Shetland Group may
therefore involve a rapid diffusive process affecting
the gaseous hydrocarbons, and a slower mass trans-
port process affecting the EOM, possibly related to
microfracturing.
If the EOM in the Shetland Group is considered an
extension of the reservoir oil column, then the accompa-
nying attenuation of the oil column may permit the
uppermost calcareous interval of the Shetland Group to
act as a seal. This is supported by the high proportion of
indigenous input to the EOM in the Tertiary strata.

Table 3. Summary of Cuttings Gas and Oil Shows in the Study Wells.*

NOCS** NOCS NOCS

34/7-1 34/7-4 34/4-1
Gas Wetness >50% 2066 2396 ?
Gas Wetness >5% 1790 1937 ?
C5+ = 0 1430 2135 ?
C5+ > 5000 µl/kg 2066 2995 ?
C5+ >10000 µl/kg 2084 2995 ?
Uppermost oil show 2093 2078 2050

*Depths given in meters.

**NOCS = Norwegian Continental Shelf.
 Organic Geochemistry of Cap-Rock Hydrocarbons, Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Elf Aquitaine Norge A/S is gratefully acknowl-
edged for funding most of the work reported in this
chapter. The license committee for the Snorre Field is
acknowledged for permission to publish these results.
The Scottish Universities Research and Reactor Centre
is supported by Natural Environmental Research
Council (N.E.R.C.) and the Consortium of Scottish
Universities. I would also like to thank D.A. Leith,
D.K. Baskin, and an anonymous reviewer for their
assistance in improving this manuscript.
REFERENCES CITED
Berg, R.R., 1975, Capillary pressures in stratigraphic
traps: AAPG Bulletin, v. 59, p. 939–956.
Bonilla, J.V., and M.H. Engel, 1988, Chemical alter-
ation of crude oils during simulated migration
through quartz and clay minerals:. Organic Geo-
chemistry, v. 13, p. 503–512.
Caillet, G., 1993, The cap-rock of the Snorre Field (Nor-
way): possible leakage by hydraulic fracturing:
Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 10, p. 42–50.
Dahl, B., and G.C. Speers, 1985, Organic geochemistry
of the Oseberg Field (I), in B.M. Thomas, A.G. Doré,
S.S. Eggen, P.C. Home, and R.M. Larsen, eds.,
Petroleum geochemistry in exploration of the Nor-
wegian Shelf, Norwegian Petroleum Society: Lon-
don, Graham & Trotman, p. 185–195.
Dahl, B., and G.C. Speers, 1986, Geochemical charac-
terization of a tar-mat in the Oseberg Field, Norwe-
gian Sector, North Sea: Organic Geochemistry,
v. 10, p. 547–558.
Davis, R.W., 1987, Analysis of hydrodynamic factors
in petroleum migration and entrapment: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 71, p. 643–649.
D’Heur, M., 1987, Albuskjell, in A.M. Spencer, E. Holter,
C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien, P.H.H. Nelson, E.
Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen, eds., Geology of the
Norwegian oil and gas fields, Norwegian Petroleum
Society: London, Graham & Trotman, p. 51–62.
Downey, M.W., 1984, Evaluating seals for hydrocarbon
accumulations: AAPG Bulletin, v. 68, p. 1752–1763.
England, W.A., and A.S. Mackenzie, 1989, Some
aspects of the organic geochemistry of petroleum
fluids in the subsurface: Geologische Rundschau,
v. 78, p. 291–303.
England, W.A., D.M. Mann, and T.M. Quigley, 1987,
The movement and entrapment of petroleum fluids
in the subsurface: Journal of the Geological Society
of London, v. 144, p. 327–347.
Hogg, A.J.C., M.J. Pearson, and A.E. Fallick, 1993, Pre-
treatment of Fithian illite for oxygen isotope analy-
sis: Clay Minerals, v. 28, p. 149–152.
Hole, P.A., E. Holter, K.S. Isaksen, K.S. Lervik, T. Monsen,
S. Nybakken, J.E. Tellefsen, K. Tonstad, and B.T.G.
Wandas, 1989, Revised Cretaceous lithostratigraphy
of the Norwegian North Sea, in D. Isaksen and K.
Tonstad, eds., A revised Cretaceous and Tertiary
lithostratigraphic nomenclature for the Norwegian
North Sea: Oljedirektoratet Bulletin, no. 5, p. 16–35.
133
Hollander, N.B., 1987, Snorre, in A.M. Spencer,
E. Holter, C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien, P.H.H.
Nelson, E. Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen, eds., Geol-
ogy of the Norwegian oil and gas fields: London,
Graham & Trotman, p. 307–318.
Horstad, I., S.R. Larter, H. Dypvik, P. Aagard, A.M.
Bjornvik, P.E. Johansen, and S. Eriksen, 1990,
Degradation and maturity controls on oil field
petroleum column heterogeneity in the Gullfaks
Field, Norwegian North Sea: Organic Geochem-
istry, v. 16, p. 497–510.
Irwin, H., 1989, Hydrocarbon leakage, biodegradation
and the occurrence of shallow gas and carbonate
cement (abs.): Norwegian Petroleum Society (NPF),
Shallow Gas and Leaky Reservoirs Conference,
Stavanger, p. 21.
Karlsen, D.A., and S.R. Larter, 1989, A rapid correla-
tion method for petroleum mapping within indi-
vidual petroleum reservoirs: applications to
petroleum reservoir description, in J.D. Collinson,
ed., Correlation in petroleum exploration: London,
Graham & Trotman, p. 77–85.
Karlsson, W., 1986, The Snorre, Statfjord and Gullfaks
oilfields and the habitat of hydrocarbons on the
Tampen Spur, offshore Norway, in A.M. Spencer, E.
Holter, C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien, P.H.H. Nelson,
E. Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen, eds., Habitat of
hydrocarbons on the Norwegian Continental Shelf:
London, Graham & Trotman, p. 181–197.
Krooss, B.M., and D. Leythaeuser, 1988, Experimental
measurements of the diffusion parameters of
hydrocarbons in water-saturated sedimentary
rocks—II: Results and geochemical significance:
Organic Geochemistry, v. 12, p. 91–108.
Krooss, B.M., D. Leythaeuser, and R.G. Schaeffer,
1988, Light hydrocarbon diffusion in a cap-rock:
Chemical Geology, v. 71, p. 65–76.
Larter, S.R., K.O. Bjørlykke, D.A. Karlsen, T. Nedkvitne,
T. Eglinton, P.E. Johansen, D. Leythaeuser, P.C.
Mason, A.W. Mitchell, and G.A. Newcombe, 1990,
Determination of petroleum accumulation histories:
examples from the Ula Field, Central Graben, Nor-
wegian North Sea, in A.T. Buller, E. Berg, O. Hjelme-
land, J. Kleppe, O. Torsæter, and J.O. Aasen, eds.,
North Sea oil and gas reservoirs—II: London,
Graham & Trotman, p. 319–330.
Leith, T.L., I. Kaarstad, J. Connan, J. Pierron, and G.
Caillet, 1993, Recognition of cap-rock leakage in the
Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea: Marine and
Petroleum Geology, v. 10, p. 29–41.
Leonard, R.C., and J.W. Munns, 1987, Valhall, in A.M.
Spencer, E. Holter, C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien,
P.H.H. Nelson, E. Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen, eds.,
Geology of the Norwegian oil and gas fields, Nor-
wegian Petroleum Society: London, Graham &
Trotman, p. 153–164.
Leythaeuser, D., and J. Rückheim, 1989, Heterogeneity
of oil composition within a reservoir as a reflection
of accumulation history: Geochimica et Cos-
mochimica Acta, v. 53, p. 2119–2123.
Leythaeuser, D., R.G. Schaeffer, and A. Yukler, 1982, Role
of diffusion in primary migration of hydrocarbons:
134 Leith and Fallick
AAPG Bulletin, v. 66, p. 408–429.
Magara, K., 1978, Compaction and fluid migration:
Practical petroleum geology: Amsterdam, Elsevier,
319 p.
McCrea, J.M., 1950, On the isotopic geochemistry of
carbonates and a paleotemperature scale: Journal of
Chemistry and Physics, v. 18, p. 849–857.
Nipen, O., 1987, Oseberg, in A.M. Spencer, E. Holter,
C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien, P.H.H. Nelson,
E. Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen, eds., Geology of
the Norwegian oil and gas fields, Norwegian
Petroleum Society: London, Graham & Trotman,
p. 379–388.
Nybakken, S., and S.A. Bäckstrøm, 1989, Shetland
Group: stratigraphic subdivision and regional corre-
lation in the Norwegian North Sea, in J.D. Collinson,
ed., Correlation in petroleum exploration: London,
Graham & Trotman, p. 253–269.
Pekot, L.J., and G.A. Gersib, 1987, Ekofisk, in A.M.
Spencer, E. Holter, C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien,
P.H.H. Nelson, E. Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen, eds.,
Geology of the Norwegian oil and gas fields, Nor-
wegian Petroleum Society: London, Graham &
Trotman, p. 73–88.
Radke, M., H. Willsch, and D.H. Welte, 1980, Prepara-
tive hydrocarbon group type determination by
automated medium pressure liquid chromatogra-
phy: Analytical Chemistry, v. 52, p. 406–411.
Roberts, W.H., 1980, Design and function of oil and
gas traps, in W.H. Roberts and R.J. Cordell, eds.,
Problems of petroleum migration: AAPG Studies in
Geology 10, p. 217–240.
Rosenbaum, J., and S.M.F. Sheppard, 1986, An isotopic
study of siderites, dolomites, and ankerites at high
temperatures: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,
v. 50, p. 1147–1150.
Rønning, K., C.D. Johnston, S.E. Johnstad, and
P. Songstad, 1987, Hild, in A.M. Spencer, E. Holter,
C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien, P.H.H. Nelson, E.
Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen, eds., Geology of the
Norwegian oil and gas fields, Norwegian Petroleum
Society: London, Graham & Trotman, p. 287–294.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–760.
Seifert, W.K., and J.M. Moldowan, 1978, Applications
of steranes, terpanes and mono-aromatics to the
maturation, migration and source of crude oils:
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 42, p. 77–95.
Seifert, W.K., J.M. Moldowan, and R.W. Jones, 1979,
Application of biological marker chemistry to
petroleum exploration: Proceedings of the 10th
World Petroleum Congress, Paper SP8, p. 425–440.
Simoneit, B.R.T., 1986, Cyclic terpenoids of the
geosphere, in R.B. Johns, ed., Biological markers in
the sedimentary record: Amsterdam, Elsevier,
p. 43–100.
Spencer, A.M., E. Holter, C.J. Campbell, S. Hanslien,
P.H.H. Nelson, E. Nysæther, and E. Ormaasen,
1987, Geology of the Norwegian oil and gas fields,
Norwegian Petroleum Society: London, Graham &
Trotman, 493 p.
Wachter, E.A., and J.M. Hayes, 1985, Exchange of oxy-
gen isotopes in carbon dioxide phosphoric acid sys-
tems: Chemical Geology (Isotope Geosciences
Section), v. 52, p. 365–374.
Welte, D.H., W. Stoessinger, R.G. Schaeffer, and M.
Radke, 1984, Gas generation and migration in the
Deep Basin of western Canada, in J.A. Masters, ed.,
Elmworth: case study of a deep gas basin: AAPG
Memoir 38, p. 35–47.
Zhao-an, F., and R.P. Philp, 1987, Laboratory biomarker
fractionations and implications for migration studies:
Organic Geochemistry, v. 11, p. 169–176.
 Allard, D.M., 1997, Fault leak controlled trap fill: rift basin
examples, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the
petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 135–142.

Chapter 9
◆

Fault Leak Controlled Trap Fill:

Rift Basin Examples
D.M. Allard
Exxon Ventures (CIS) Inc.
Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Interpretation of fault leak and seal enhances the understanding of hydro-
carbon reservoir systems. Useful applications exist for both field develop-
ment and seal risk evaluation for undrilled exploration prospects.
Basic fault seal data (e.g., logs, lithology from wells, stratigraphic models
of lithology variation away from well control, interpretations of bed juxtapo-
sitions across the fault plane, and basic well test results) are needed for the
interpreter to resolve the puzzle of trap fill limits and possible different
reservoir systems within the same faulted field. Interpretation of both pro-
ductive and tested wet structures allows for the development of conclusions
that may be applicable to different proven or potential traps across the basin.
A refined understanding of trap fill limits and hydrocarbon distribution
within a field may be gained by interpretation and calibration of fault gouge
as a seal on a basinwide basis. Evaluation of fault gouge as a seal with the
displaced section analysis methodology is labor intensive and may not
always be an effective exploration tool, considering the data control needed
to develop reliable results.
In exploration, the quality of fault seal interpretation for an undrilled
structure is dependent on map quality, well control, and the ability to predict
stratigraphic facies changes away from wells. The minimum calibration
requirement for exploration applications of a fault seal interpretation of an
undrilled structure is to have completed interpretations of bed juxtapositions
across the fault plane(s) for both productive and nonproductive structures
elsewhere in the basin.

INTRODUCTION and top seal information. Fault gouge or displaced sec-

Seal interpretation of a particular feature is an inte-
grated assessment of trap fill levels (hydrocarbon-
water contacts) based on fault plane profiles (Smith,
1980; Allen, 1989) and well data, including test results
tion analysis (DSA) (Bouvier et al., 1989) may be
applied to refine the interpretation of trap fill levels, if
a basin-specific calibration has been completed. An
understanding of geologic influence on top seal qual-
ity may be developed from mercury injection-capillary

135
136 Allard
Figure 1. A generalized fault seal model given to
explain fault seal terms.
pressure analysis of seal rock samples (Pittman, 1992;
Vavra et al., 1992). In typical exploration applications,
data control limits fault seal interpretation to fault
plane profile (FPP) analysis of bed juxtapositions and
does not support application of DSA or capillary pres-
sure concepts. Figure 1 is a general model for graphic
definition of cross seal/crossleak, which is interpreted
with FPPs, and dip seal/dipleak, which is interpreted
with DSA.
An overview of the elements of a seal study method
is shown in Figure 2 in order to explain various
aspects that may be studied to better understand trap
seal. The “refine analogs” step (Figure 2) refers to
understanding what seal factors are attributable to
either fields or dry holes, given the resolution of a par-
ticular data set. This results in a seal evaluation cali-
bration to a specific basin or area.
DISCUSSION OF EXAMPLES
The examples used here are from rift basin fields cut
by normal faults within an overall extensional struc-
tural style. The implication for seal interpretation is
that the structural configuration is not reactivated from
a previous one, and the normal fault throws observed
today are the maximum throws attained. Structural
complexity may be a more important issue in basins
with multiple episodes of structuring, especially when
the different structural episodes overlap with the
migration of hydrocarbons (Schowalter, 1979).
Clastic sand reservoirs and lacustrine shale seals
make up the main lithologies of the example fields
Figure 2. A seal analysis
method focused on
improving prediction
of seal integrity in an
exploration project.
 Fault Leak Controlled Trap Fill: Rift Basin Examples 137

Figure 3. Field X structure map. The faulted anticline has a structural spillpoint in the southwest, and
the only well drilled to date is located in the northeast fault block.
138 Allard
Figure 4. SW-NE schematic structural cross section depicting the fieldwide reservoir systems as interpreted
from fault seal analysis.
discussed below. Reservoir deposition occurred prior
to the extensional structuring that created the present-
day trap configuration. Well-log correlations and
depositional models suggest that reservoir sand conti-
nuity is good, and sands consistently occur in specific
stratigraphic intervals.
Figure 3 shows Field X in map view. Only the high-
est fault block was drilled at the time of the fault seal
study. Leak points were interpreted for both the east
fault (bounding the west side of the drilled fault block)
and for the west fault of this faulted anticline. Oil/water
contacts for the entire structure were interpreted under
the assumption that the trap fill is not migration-charge
limited for the drilled and undrilled blocks. Key aspects
to the Field X fault seal interpretation are the cross-leak
points depicted in Figure 4 and the structural spillpoint
(–5540; Figure 3) for the top of the C1 sandstone. These
ultimately control the majority of the hydrocarbon vol-
ume trapped in the C reservoirs.
The well drilled in the east fault block of Field X
tested oil in each of the C1, C2, and C3 sand zones. The
C1, C2, and C3 zones are interpreted as separate reser-
voir systems in the east fault block. The fault leak-
point interpretation, depicted in Figure 4, indicates the
C2 and C3 in the east fault block are in pressure com-
munication over the entire field area. If an appraisal
well is drilled in the central fault block, it will be
important to acquire good pressure information for
each of the three C zones to evaluate the current inter-
pretation.
There is no Field X repeat formation test (RFT)
pressure survey or pressure-volume-temperature
(PVT) data to aid in the interpretation of this field’s
oil/water contacts. Good seismic coverage, good
seismic resolution, and seismic well ties at Field X
allow direct comparison of mapped structure depths
(in FPP) with well test depths. The fault’s throws are
mapped consistently with the seismic interpretation
and, in addition, the fault throw vs. fault length
(Walsh and Watterson, 1988) and the lateral varia-
tion of mapped fault throw are reasonable for this
rift basin structural setting. The interpretation of
 Fault Leak Controlled Trap Fill: Rift Basin Examples
hydrocarbon distribution is presented as a simple
undersaturated oil/water system.
A second example, Field Z, has well control, selec-
tive production tests, and pressure data, which allow a
more refined application of fault seal techniques from
that used for Field X. In Field Z, the oil column heights
trapped in specific reservoirs are apparently con-
trolled both by leak points of highside-to-lowside jux-
taposed sand beds and by fault gouge lithology.
A Field Z structure map (Figure 5) shows the clo-
sure to be a faulted anticline, based on mapping a sur-
face located immediately above the M1 pay zone. The
field stratigraphy has been simplified for use in the
FPP interpretation, as shown on the log in Figure 6.
Reservoirs M2 and M3 have been simplified as shown
on the left edge of Figure 6, to show gross sand-prone
zones to help simulate the stratigraphic observation
that sand content may vary within the sand-prone
zone over the distance or area covered by each fault.
Figure 7 is an example of an interpreted FPP from
Field Z, fault 3. Similar FPP interpretation details are
completed for each fault in the field to support the
overall trap fill conclusions. Inspection of Figure 7
shows the field’s M1 oil/water contact occurs deeper
than the M1 cross-leak point. The interpretation for the
M1 reservoir accumulation is that the trapped hydro-
carbon volume is controlled not by the fault leak
points in the productive area, but by other leak points
elsewhere on the structural trend. An alternative
139
Figure 5. The Field Z struc-
ture map depicts a large
faulted anticline. The map
surface is the flooding sur-
face (FS) identified at 5844
ft on the log in Figure 6.
explanation may involve complicated hydrocarbon
migration and structural timing analysis that are
beyond the scope of this paper.
Hydrocarbon volumes in the M2 and M3 reservoirs
are dependent in part on the fault seal concepts as
depicted in Figure 8, which requires cross seal and dip
seal to honor the structure map and well data. Fault
gouge dip seal is interpreted to cause the M2 oil/water
contact to occur deeper on the southwest side of the
fault than on the northeast side of the fault, based on
DSA results.
An important conclusion from study of Field Z, and
many other drilled structures in this basin, is that
sand-on-sand juxtapositions will leak across faults. The
observation of fault gouge seal control on trapped
hydrocarbon volumes was rare, possibly due to the
sparse well control in the exploration study area. Assess-
ment of fault-dependent exploration prospect trap fill in
this basin may use this sand juxtaposition concept.
CONCLUSIONS
An improved understanding of basin-specific seal
integrity is obtainable from application of the fault seal
evaluation techniques on drilled structures as
described above. The process of seal interpretation of
productive structures may result in an improved
understanding of field hydrocarbon distribution. With
140 Allard

Figure 6. Simplified Field

Z well log. Oil-water
contacts have been
confirmed with
production tests. The
sand zones are topped
by flooding surfaces (FS),
and sequence boundaries
(SB) are interpreted to
occur at the base of some
sand beds. This figure
is shown to demonstrate
a simplication of the
stratigraphy for use in
the fault plane profile
(FPP). The yellow bars on
the left edge of the figure
depict the sand intervals
as applied in the FPP in
Figure 7, which are, in
concept, sand-prone
stratigraphic intervals.
 Fault Leak Controlled Trap Fill: Rift Basin Examples 141

Figure 7. Example of a major interval fault plane profile that represents the stratigraphic juxtapositions at
Fault 3 in Field Z.

Figure 8. Field Z schematic

cross section display of
reservoir-specific hydro-
carbon distribution as
interpreted at specific
faults in Field Z, based
on fault seal concepts
and well test results.

seal analysis and calibration complete, the basin explo-
ration strategy, including a fault-dependent trap seri-
atim, may be improved.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the following co-
workers, whose contributions include discussions of
the subject matter and/or suggestions for presentation
of figures and text: R.G. Bellis, C.B. Boutte, C.D.
Brotherhood, F.W. Haueter, G.P. Nakayama, J.R.
Schwalbach, W.T. Shea, P.O. Yilmaz, and K. Zaud-
erer. In addition to discussions of the subject matter
and suggestions for presentation, the following indi-
viduals have published Exxon proprietary research
documents that were significant in the impact to the
142 Allard
final results published in this paper: L.H. Fairchild,
D.W. Phelps, and A.C. Tuminas.
Thanks to Exxon Ventures (CIS) Inc. and Exxon
Exploration Company, for whom I worked during the
creation of this document, for support to allow devel-
opment of the concepts and publication of the results.
REFERENCES CITED
Allen, U.S., 1989, Model for hydrocarbon migration
and entrapment within faulted structures: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 73, p. 803–811.
Bouvier, J.D., C.H. Kaars-Sijpesteijn, D.F. Kluesner,
C.C. Onyejekwe, and R.C. Van Der Pal, 1989, Three-
dimensional seismic interpretation and fault sealing
investigations, Nun River Field, Nigeria: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 73, p. 1397–1414.
Pittman, E.D., 1992, Relationship of porosity and perme-
ability to various parameters derived from mercury
injection-capillary pressure curves for sandstone:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, p. 191–198.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–760.
Smith, D.A., 1980, Sealing and nonsealing faults in
Louisiana Gulf Coast Salt Basin: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 64, p. 145–172.
Vavra, C.A., J.G. Kaldi, and R.M. Sneider, 1992, Geo-
logical applications of capillary pressure: a review:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, p. 840–850.
Walsh, J.J., and J. Watterson, 1988, Analysis of the
relationship between displacement and dimensions
of faults: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 9,
p. 1039–1046.
 Boult, P.J., P.N. Theologou, and J. Foden, 1997, Capillary seals
within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: implications for
exploration and production, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps,
and the petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 143–167.

Chapter 10
◆

Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin,

Australia: Implications for Exploration
and Production
P.J. Boult
P.N. Theologou
Gartrell School of Mining Metallurgy and Applied Geology, University of South Australia
Pooraka, South Australia, Australia

J. Foden
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Adelaide University
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

ABSTRACT
Studies of producing oil pools of the predominantly fluvial to shallow-
lacustrine Eromanga Basin in central Australia indicate that capillary seals
have a significant control on hydrocarbon occurrence and production. Oil
pools sealed by the Callovian Birkhead Formation at the Bodalla South,
Jackson, and Gidgealpa fields, and by the Berriasian Murta Formation at the
Murteree Ridge fields, are filled to capillary seal capacity. Resultant upward
leakage has taken place, filling oil pools higher up.
The major producing reservoir of the Eromanga Basin is the braided flu-
vial Hutton Sandstone. The transition from this to the Birkhead Formation
seal is marked by two features: (1) a change from braided fluvial to mean-
dering fluvial and (2) a change from craton-derived (CD) sediment to
volcanic-arc-derived (VAD) sediment. The CD and VAD sediments have
Sm/Nd model ages of ~1500 and 800 m.y., respectively, suggesting a major
provenance change. In the most prospective part of the basin, this prove-
nance change and the resultant switch from quartz to lithic arenites control
the location of the effective intra-Birkhead Formation seal. These lithic aren-
ites are the same grain size as the underlying reservoir-quality quartz
arenites; however, their pore-throat sizes have been reduced by diagenesis
and the precipitation of pore-filling authigenic clays.
In the Murteree Ridge area, a lacustrine, upper shoreface, intra-Murta
Formation reservoir is the primary producer. The reservoir that occurs beneath
the Murta Formation is the McKinlay Member. Between the McKinlay Member
reservoir and the intra-Murta Formation, reservoir vertical stacking of thin,
fine-grained, shallow-lacustrine, quartz arenites occurs. This has produced tor-
tuous vertical flow paths, or conduits, which have lower displacement pres-
sures and higher permeabilities than the intervening siltstone layers. These
143
144 Boult et al.
paths have allowed upward migration of oil, by capillary leakage, beyond the
McKinlay Member into the intra-Murta Formation reservoir over geologi-
cal time. These paths have recently allowed the leakage of brine through
this interpool seal during production, providing pressure maintenance to
the otherwise confined higher oil pool from the very strong water drive
of the lower pool.
INTRODUCTION
Fluvial/lacustrine sequences are known to be
extremely heterogeneous and difficult depositional
environments to find and produce hydrocarbons
from. Three-dimensional seismic has recently enabled
some advances to be made in delineating sand body
geometry, and repeat formation testers have enabled
an assessment of connectivity of reservoirs within
such sequences. However, the sealing/barrier-to-flow
mechanisms that occur between and within reservoirs
remain largely an underresearched area, requiring a
multidisciplinary understanding of geology, engineer-
ing, the physics of fluids, and seismic interpretation. In
this paper we emphasize the multidisciplinary
approach as a method for understanding oil entrap-
ment and solving production optimization problems.
The increased knowledge gained about migration
pathways through complicated stacked, sand-rich flu-
vial/lacustrine sequences should lead to better discov-
ery rates within such sequences.
Hydrocarbon migration pathways are predomi-
nantly vertical within fluvial/lacustrine sequences
due to the lack of lateral continuity of individual litho-
facies. This may be due to either local or small-scale
unconformities, dewatering structures, or faulting.
The key to understanding the migration of hydrocar-
bons within fluvial/lacustrine sequences is a detailed
study of facies geometry and the capillary pressures
generated by key lithofacies involved. Also, water
drives to otherwise confined oil pools may take the
same pathways as previous oil migration. An under-
standing of such a water drive within a semiconfined
reservoir may significantly alter production strategies.
In this paper we discuss capillary leakage of oil over
geological time from several oil pools within the Ero-
manga Basin, and the subsequent triggering of a prob-
lem water drive in a very thin reservoir on the
Murteree Ridge.
The major geological hypotheses presented are that:
• Shales that occur within sand-rich fluvial/shal-
low-lacustrine depositional environments are not
effective seals due to their lack of lateral continu-
ity. The sandstones that they are included in are
the effective seals, but only if their displacement
pressures are less than the reservoir and they
have sufficient thickness.
•Effective seals within the fluvio/lacustrine
sequences of the epicratonic Eromanga Basin are
diagenetically altered lithic arenites. The repeated
influx of these sediments is predominantly con-
trolled by the uplift of a sediment source area
along a volcanic arc to the east, and associated tec-
tonic warping within the basin. This volcanic
activity has been documented (Veevers, 1984;
Watts, 1987; Wiltshire, 1989; Hawlader, 1990; He
and Conaghan, 1994; Whitford, 1994) to have
repeatedly provided the source material for vol-
canic-arc-derived (VAD) lithic arenites that occur
across the foreland Surat Basin and eastern part of
the epicratonic Eromanga Basin. This paper
extends the area of deposition of these VAD lithic
arenites further west across the Eromanga Basin
than previously documented.
•Where VAD lithic arenites have sufficient thick-
ness, diagenesis creates the effective seal in the
examples discussed. The diagenesis of VAD sedi-
ments involves the blocking of pore throats by
authigenic clays. This process creates the
increased capillary pressures, which are gener-
ated within this rock type, that are responsible for
the trapping of hydrocarbons beneath them.
• Where shallow-lacustrine facies are well devel-
oped, fine quartz arenites are the effective seal.
The eastern part of the Jurassic/Cretaceous
Eromanga Basin, together with the underlying Per-
mian/Triassic Cooper Basin, comprises the largest
and most prolific onshore hydrocarbon province in
Australia (Hollingsworth, 1989). Production in 1994
averaged 50,000 bbl of oil per day and 500 mmcf of
gas per day (Hird, 1995). The Eromanga Basin con-
tains common multiple stacked oil pools. Oil pools
sealed by the Callovian Birkhead Formation at the
Bodalla South, Jackson, and Gidgealpa fields, and by
the Berriasian Murta Formation at the Murteree Ridge
fields, are indicated as being full to capillary seal
capacity, and resultant vertical leakage has filled oil
pools higher up.
This paper presents some new data on seals
within the Jurassic/Cretaceous Eromanga Basin and
briefly discusses migration pathways from the
underlying Permian/Triassic Cooper Basin into Ero-
manga Basin accumulations. It also discusses other
associated eastern Australian basins, putting the
Cooper/Eromanga Basin into an overall eastern
Australian context. The locations of all the basins
discussed are shown in Figure 1. The Eromanga,
Surat, and Carpentaria basins together are often
 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production 145

Carpentaria Mesozoic Basin Cooper/

Basin Late Paleozoic Age Ma Eromanga Surat
Basin
Winton Formation
Cenomanian

L
20
NT 500 km 100
Mackunda Formation
Griman Creek Formation
Albian
Wallumbilla Formation

Cretaceous
Surat Siltstone
Bowen 106 Coorikiana Sandstone
QLD Basin Aptian
Simpson Wallumbilla Formation
Desert EROMANGA 112 Wyandra Sandstone

Early
Pedirka Basin Barremian Member

Ridge
Basin BASIN 118
A Cooper SURAT Hauterivian
Cadna-owie Formation Bungil Formation
Basin 124
Nebine BASIN Valanginian
B 130
30
Berriasian Murta Formation
SA 136 McKinlay Member Mooga Sandstone
Tithonian Orallo Formation
Namur Sandstone
NSW Gubberamunda
SYDNEY

Late
146 Westbourne Sandstone
VIC Kimmeridgian Formation Westbourne Formation
140 150
150
Adori Sandstone Springbok Sandstone

Jurassic
Oxfordian
Figure 1. A location map of the Mesozoic, epicraton- 157 Birkhead Formation Walloon Coal Measures
ic Eromanga Basin, and foreland Surat Basin, show-
ing the underlying late Paleozoic basins in eastern Early-mid Eurombah Formation
Hutton Sandstone
Australia. Hutton Sandstone
Evergreen Formation
Poolowanna Formation
190 Precipice Sandstone
referred to as the Great Artesian Basin (Habermehl, Cuddapan Formation
1980) or the Great Australian Basin. The Eromanga Bowen Basin
Basin has very similar stratigraphy to the Surat Basin Sequence
Triassic

Early - Late Tinchoo Formation

to its east (Figure 2).

Arrabury Formation
EROMANGA BASIN: OVERVIEW OF
225
RESERVOIRS, SEALS, AND PETROLEUM Late Toolachee Formation
OCCURRENCE 240
Daralingie Beds
The major aquifers/reservoirs of Late Paleozoic to
Permian

Mesozoic basins of eastern Australia are quartz-rich Roseneath Shale

craton-derived (CD) fluvial sediments. Formations Epsilon Formation
containing significant reservoir potential within the Early
Eromanga Basin sequence are the Hutton, Adori, and Murteree Shale
Namur sandstones (Figure 2).
Patchawarra Formation
The uncommon occurrence of source rocks in the
Eromanga Basin has led many workers to attribute Tirrawarra Sandstone
most of the oil located within it to be sourced from the 280
underlying late Paleozoic, fluvio-lacustrine, source Pre-Permian
Pre-Permian

rock-rich Cooper Basin (Heath et al., 1989), as shown Basement

in Figure 3. The major regional seal to the Permian
section of the Cooper Basin is a thick sequence of Tri- Westphalian
310 SEALING
assic red beds, at the base of which is the Arrabury HORIZONS
Formation (Powis, 1989). This formation appears to
have had a profound effect on the distribution of
hydrocarbons in the overlying Eromanga Basin Figure 2. A stratigraphic correlation diagram for the
because where its thickness is >76 m (250 ft), very few Eromanga and Surat basins, northeastern Australia,
hydrocarbons have been discovered above it (Figure including detail of the Permian/Triassic Cooper
4). Many of the oil accumulations of the Eromanga Basin.
Basin occur in the vicinity of the underlying Cooper
Basin Permian and Triassic zero edges. Petroleum has
been produced from most reservoir horizons within Merrimelia Formation through to the Early Creta-
the Cooper/Eromanga Basin, from the Early Permian ceous Cadna-owie Formation (Figure 2). Fields within
146 Boult et al.
STACKED
OIL POOLS
JURASSIC
EROMANGA
BASIN SEALS
EROMANGA
BASIN
TRIA
BASEMENT SSIC SEAL
oil migration
pathway COOPER BASIN
PERMIAN COOPER
aquifer BASIN SEALS source
flow
Figure 3. A simplified oil migration model for the
Cooper/Eromanga Basin. Much of the oil found
within the Eromanga Basin is thought to have
been sourced from the Cooper Basin via vertical
migration near the Permian and Triassic zero edges.
Much of the oil that was originally trapped beneath
the Triassic and Permian Cooper Basin seals
has subsequently been flushed by gas. Oil
predominantly occurs in the Eromanga Basin
because most gas has been stripped by flowing
groundwater in the aquifers (Heath et al., 1989).
the Eromanga Basin are characterized by multiple,
vertically stacked pools contained within domes. Typ-
ical oil columns are <20 m (65 ft), irrespective of ver-
tical structural closure (Heath et al., 1989). The bulk
of producible hydrocarbons within the Eromanga
Basin are crude oils with high API, pour points
between –10° and 40°C, and low gas-to-oil ratios,
typically 50 ft 3 /bbl. Stacked oil pools tend to be
more geochemically related than laterally equivalent
oil fields. Heath et al. (1989) stated that this was
probably due to predominantly vertical migration.
They explained that the trend to higher API, lower
pour points, and fractionation of geochemical mark-
ers in shallower accumulations was due to the strip-
ping of water-soluble components from the oils by
groundwater flow.
The effective regional seals (type D/E; Sneider
and Stolper, 1991) within the fluvio/lacustrine Juras-
sic section of the Eromanga Basin contain significant
quantities of labile, VAD rock fragments with abun-
dant pore-filling authigenic clays (He and
Conaghan, 1994). Major regional seals of this type in
the Eromanga Basin are the Birkhead and West-
bourne formations. During the Middle to Late Juras-
sic, tectonic activity within a major volcanic arc to
the east shed volcanogenic-rich, labile sandstone
wedges across the Mesozoic basins of northeastern
Australia (Figures 5, 6). The distance they travelled
depended, to some extent, on a balance between the
supply of sediment from a cratonic and uplifted rifting
Arrabury Formation
141° E
100 km
zero edge
24° S
= Eromanga Basin
oil production
Permian
zero edge
Bodalla
South
Naccowlah 26° S
Moorari South
Jackson
South Australia
Gidgealpa
Queensland
28° S
Arrabury Formation
approximate 250ft
Limestone Creek, Dullingari isopach
Jena & Biala
Figure 4. A location map of fields in the Eromanga
Basin showing the location of all gazetted oil
discoveries, the underlying Permian and Triassic
Arrabury Formation zero edges, and an ~250 ft
Arrabury Formation isopach.
margin to the southwest and an uplifted volcanic arc
to the northeast (Figure 7). The Birkhead Formation
is the most extensive example of this repetitive
influx of VAD material in the area. Neodymium
model ages (Table 1a) have helped in correlation
across the basin, with the VAD sediments giving
consistently younger model ages than CD sediments.
The integrity of the Birkhead Formation seal is
generally very good, with minimal faulting visible
on seismic at this horizon. A large unconformity
over the Nebine Ridge at the base of the Namur
Sandstone (Power and Devine, 1970) (Figure 5),
which cuts down as far as mid-Birkhead Formation,
is probably the most extreme example of repeated
movement that has occurred at a small scale many
times in that and other ridge locations, within both
the epicratonic Eromanga and foreland Surat basins.
Intra- and interbasin tectonics would also have had
considerable influence on the distribution of the
VAD material.
The interpreted shallow-lacustrine Murta and mar-
ginal marine Cadna-owie formations are also major
seals within the Eromanga Basin. Net sand that does
occur within the Murta Formation has been docu-
mented (Ambrose et al., 1986; Theologou, 1995) to
increase eastward, where large sublacustrine channels
have been interpreted (Zoellner, 1988); it is likely that
it is derived from the east. But neodymium model ages
(Table 1b) indicate that its provenance is not the same
as for the Birkhead Formation seal.
 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production 147

CRATON DERIVED VOLCANIC ARC DERIVED OTHER SEALS OF

SEDIMENTS/ SEDIMENTS (SEALS) NON VOLCANIC OR
POTENTIAL RESERVOIRS UNCERTAIN ORIGIN
Surat Basin

yyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,
Eromanga Basin
HooraySandstone Wallumbilla Formation

West Orallo Formation East

Cretaceous marine sediments Gumberamund
a Sandstone

Sp
r in

,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyy
tion
A ur Sandston e
Cad n
na-owie For m atio a For
M ur
t
ma gb
W o k Sst.
a ll
o on
Nam n n C o a l M e a s ures
atio io
W orm at
est b r n e F r m
A ou
Fo Eastern

,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyy
Hu
or e ad Nebine Ridge o ne
d
iS t on he
tt o n
S a n d st Highlands
a n ds rk
Bi Ev
e r gre on
Po H e n Fo r m a t i
Pedirka o lo w
ma
tion tt o ne
s to
u

Basin a n na For n S a nd

,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyy
Bowen Basin
Simpson Desert
Basin Cooper Basin
Pre-Permian Basement

Figure 5. A diagrammatic cross section of line AB (Figure 1) showing the interleaving of VAD (seal) and CD
(reservoir) sediments.

(a) Present Shoreline

(b)
Hutton Time Early Birkhead
Mesozoic Basin
Time
Vo

20 Low energy 20
l ca

500 km Birkhead/Hutton
ni
c
Ar
c

Braided Hutton

yyyy yyyy
,,,, ,,,,
J
G

30 30

,,,, yyyy
yyyy ,,,,
Labile sandstone
Sydney Braided wedge (mostly
Hutton low energy)
G = Gidgealpa
J = Jackson
Cratonic source Cratonic source
area 140
150
40
area 140 150

Figure 6. A paleogeography map showing (a) the probable drainage pattern at Hutton Sandstone time
and (b) the extent of the VAD labile sandstone wedge at the Hutton Sandstone/Birkhead Formation transition
to low-energy time.
148 Boult et al.
Low-energy
fluvial facies
,,yyy
yy,,, ,,,
yyy
High-energy
braided fluvial
facies
s
hland
Hig
,,,yy
yyy
,,,,,
yyyyy ,,
rn
u the
So
Rifti
ng o
f An
,,,,,yy
yyyyy ,,
tarct
ica
N Craton derived
quartz arenites.
Pre-Jurassic
Figure 7. A 3-D diagram of the paleogeography during the deposition of the Westbourne Formation, showing
the interleaving of VAD seals and CD reservoir-type sediments.
A marine transgression occurred at the beginning of
the Albian (106 m.y.), resulting in the deposition of the
offshore marine shales of the Wallumbilla Formation
and equivalents. This forms the youngest and most
widespread seal (Sneider seal type A/B) of all the east-
ern Australian basins and, to date, no hydrocarbon accu-
mulations have been discovered above this horizon.
CASE STUDIES
Specific new data are presented on the Jackson,
Gidgealpa, and Moorari fields of the Eromanga Basin.
Bodalla South and Limestone Creek/Biala case studies
have been published by Boult (1993) and Williams et
al. (1994), respectively, and will be discussed briefly,
except where new data have become available since
publication. A summary of the findings of mercury
injection capillary pressure (MICP) studies on individ-
ual fields in this paper is presented in Table 2. In order
to display the sensitivity of the calculated oil column
heights to controlling parameters, the maximum and
minimum values for each parameter are used. From
these, a maximum and minimum oil column height
has been calculated. The development of the seal
capacity equation and the determination of displace-
ment pressure are presented in the Appendix. It
should, however, be noted that minimum values
would be more likely to occur in nature because: (a) a
migrating oil column will always take the path of least
resistance, “weak link,” or lowest displacement pres-
sure accessible in any sequence; and (b) the laboratory
interfacial tension (Core Lab, 1982) value of 30
dynes/cm is based on measurements in the United
States, and Eromanga Basin oils may contain natural
surfactants.
Vo
lc
an
ic
Ar
c
n
Subductio
Oceanic crust
Volcanic arc derived
lithic arenites.
Birkhead
Formation
WESTBOURNE TIME
The Hutton Sandstone/Birkhead Formation
Reservoir Seal Couplet
The Hutton Sandstone and lower Birkhead Forma-
tion produce the bulk of the oil within the Eromanga
Basin; the main seal occurs within the Birkhead For-
mation. Production mainly comes from domal struc-
tures. Variable stratigraphic influence on reservoir
geometry and quality is caused by the transitional
nature of the Hutton Sandstone to Birkhead Formation
contact. The Hutton Sandstone is a CD braided fluvial
deposit and is regionally consistent in terms of its
reservoir quality. The sediments of the Birkhead For-
mation were deposited within a lower-energy mean-
dering fluvial, swampy to lacustrine environment.
Table 3 and Figure 8 display a comparison of the aren-
ites discussed in this section. While the Birkhead For-
mation is generally conformable over the Hutton
Sandstone, some erosion of the Hutton Sandstone by
“Birkhead” channels has been interpreted at the Jack-
son, Bodalla South (Boult and Theologou, 1993), and
Naccowlah South (Hill, 1985) oil fields, indicating that
small-scale tectonic uplift and incision of meanders
has occurred in the east of the basin toward the Nebine
Ridge (Figures 1, 5).
The transition from Hutton Sandstone to Birkhead
Formation is accompanied by a provenance switch
from quartz arenite to a lithic arenite (Watts, 1987).
Petrological data (Green and Thomas, 1993; McPhie et
al., 1993) indicate that the lithic arenite is a sediment
with a significant volcanogenic content at Gidgealpa.
This may be the same as the one documented by Watts
(1987) and Whitford et al. (1994) at Bodalla South;
thus, to our knowledge, Gidgealpa represents the fur-
thest west this VAD sediment has been documented.
An investigation using initial neodymium-isotopic
 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production 149

Table 1a. Sm and Nd Isotope Results and Calculated Model Ages for the Hutton Sandstone/Birkhead
Formation Transition in Gidgealpa 32.*

Formation

VAD VAD CD CD CD CD
Birkhead Birkhead Birkhead Birkhead Hutton Hutton
Fm. Fm. Fm. Fm. Sst. Sst.
Sample type Shale Sand Sand Shale Shale Sand
Depth (ft) 5974.5 5989 5997 6005 6012 6020
Nd (ppm) 31.5 35 30.47 41.15 43.55 9.6
Sm (ppm) 6.37 6.95 5.43 9.48 8.26 1.81
143Nd/144Nd 0.512521 0.512502 0.511915 0.51238 0.512019 0.51177
Epsilon Nd –2.3 –2.7 –14.1 –5 –12.1 –16.9
Sm/Nd 0.2022 0.1987 0.1782 0.2304 0.1897 0.188
147Sm/144Nd 0.1223 0.1202 0.1078 0.1394 0.1148 0.1137
Initial 143Nd/144Nd 0.512393 0.512376 0.511802 0.512234 0.511899 0.511651
Initial epsilon Nd –0.8 –1.1 –12.3 –3.9 –10.4 –15.2
Model age (Ga) 0.95 0.96 1.62 1.39 1.58 1.9

*All analyses performed at the University of Adelaide. Model age calculations based on 143Nd/144Nd of present-day depleted mantle =
0.513108, and 146Sm/144Nd = 0.2157. Present-day CHUR = 0.512638, with 147Sm/144Nd = 0.1967. Initial ratios and epsilon values calculated at
0.16 Ma. Analytical techniques are like those described in Foden et al. (1995).

TABLE 1b. Sm and Nd Isotope Results and Calculated Model Ages for the Namur Sandstone and Murta
Formation in the Dullingari Field.*

Formation

Namur Sst.* Murta Fm.* Murta Fm.* Murta Fm.*

Sample type Sand Shale Sand Silt/Sand
Well no. D29 D46 D46 D46
Depth (ft) 4959 4828.8 4828.9 4842
Nd (ppm) 3.69 43.43 8.03 32.03
Sm (ppm) 0.68 7.87 1.82 5.96
143Nd/144Nd 0.511796 0.511859 0.511845 0.511796
Epsilon Nd –16.4 –15.2 –15.5 –16.4
Sm/Nd 0.1844 0.1811 0.2266 0.186
147Sm/144Nd 0.1115 0.1095 0.1371 0.1125
Initial 143Nd/144Nd 0.511679 0.511744 0.511701 0.511678
Initial epsilon Nd –14.7 –13.4 –14.3 –14.7
Model age (Ga) 1.83 1.72 2.27 1.85

*All analyses performed at the University of Adelaide . Model age calculations based on 143Nd/144Nd of present-day depleted mantle =
0.513108, and 147Sm/144Nd = 0.2157. Present-day CHUR = 0.512638, with 147Sm/144Nd = 0.1967. Initial ratios and epsilon values calculated at
0.16 Ma. Analytical techniques are like those described in Foden et al. (1995).

compositions was able to discriminate separate distinc-
tive sediment provenances. At Bodalla South, Whitford
et al. (1994) assigned neodymium model ages of
800–1000 m.y. to the VAD arenite and 1100–1600 m.y.
to the CD arenite, reflecting a fundamental change in
provenance with an influx of relatively younger crustal
material derived from the northeast. At Gidgealpa,
neodymium model ages vs. depth are shown in Figure
9, with the lithic arenite having a value of 950 m.y. and
the underlying quartz arenite sediments between 1400
and 1900 m.y. The postprovenance-change lithic aren-
ite has a considerably younger model age than either
the high- or low-energy quartz arenite sediments.
Neodymium model ages in clastic sediments date
the mean separation of crustal material from the
mantle. The stratigraphic age of the volcanic arc is
probably much younger than the model age
assigned to the VAD arenite of the Birkhead Forma-
tion because of a dilution effect in transit from the
inclusion of older crustal, including older CD, sedi-
ments (Miller et al., 1986).
The provenance change and energy change at the
Hutton Sandstone/Birkhead Formation transition
are rarely synchronous, and both are probably
150 Boult et al.

Table 2. Comparison of Actual and Calculated Oil Column Heights with Controlling Parameters.

Field
Bodalla Sth Jackson Gidgealpa Moorari Limestone Ck.
Formation Birkhead Birkhead Birkhead Birkhead Murta
Oil Column Height Sensitivity Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.
Calculated oil density (gm/cc)* 0.75 0.75 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.78 0.78 0.76 0.76
Calculated water density (gm/cc)* 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.96 1 1
Oil/water interfacial 11.3 7 21.9 21.9 30 21.9 30 21.9 30 21.9
tension (dynes)**
Seal mercury capillary 200 150 250 200 150 100 300 150 125 90
displacement pressure (psi)†
Reservoir mercury capillary 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5
displacement pressure (psi)††
Calculated oil column height (ft)‡ 64 29 171 134 140 65 311 110 99 49
Calculated oil column height (m)‡ 19.6 8.8 52.2 40.7 42.7 19.7 94.9 33.5 30 14.9
Actual oil column (m)‡‡ 11.2 36 20 13.7 17
Structural closure height (m)§ 40 30 50 36 53 45 >60 >60 58 34

* Oil and water densities are calculated using standard reservoir engineering principles.
** A value of 21.9 dynes/cm was obtained using the pendant drop method at reservoir conditions on oil from the Jackson field and a syn-
thetic brine. This is used in the minimum case for all other fields except Bodalla South. The values for Bodalla South were obtained using the
Wilhemy plate method on oil and formation brine at laboratory pressure for varying temperatures. Obtained values were then extrapolated to
reservoir temperature for the minimum case and the measurement at the highest temperature, 37°C, is used for the maximum case. Thirty
dynes/cm is used in the maximum case for all other fields where laboratory measurements have not been conducted. It is a commonly used
value by the industry in the absence of any other data. The seal is assumed to be totally water-wet with a contact angle of zero for all cases.
†The displacement pressure for each MICP curve is calculated by extrapolating the curve plateaus back to the pressure axis and taking into

account a closure correction.

††The reservoir mercury displacement pressures in many cases are not measurable and seldom above 5 psi.
‡The interfacial tension and contact angle of mercury are assumed to be 484 dynes/cm and 140° API, respectively (Rootare, 1970)
‡‡Actual oil column heights are the maximum determined from log analysis and may be slightly low if the well used is not at the top of structure.
§Structural closure takes into account any seismic uncertainty due to velocity variations.

diachronous. There is thus some confusion in the liter-
ature as to exactly where the base of the Birkhead For-
mation is. In some areas, the transition from Hutton
Sandstone to Birkhead Formation is predominantly a
provenance change, with similar-size “Birkhead”
channels replacing “Hutton” channels. In other areas,
the Hutton Sandstone is conformably overlain by
lower-energy overbank siltstone and shales. For exam-
ple, (Figure 10) at Gidgealpa (McIntyre et al., 1989)
and Moorari (Ties, 1983, personal communication), the
boundary is taken as the change between high- and
low-energy deposits, and the provenance change
occurs above this (Figure 10). At Jackson (Dodman
and Rodriques, 1989), the boundary between higher-
and lower-energy channels is used to divide between
the lower and upper Hutton Sandstone reservoirs; the
boundary between the Hutton Sandstone and the
Birkhead Formation is taken as the provenance change
where recognized. In the Surat Basin, the transition is
known as the separate Eurombah Formation. In this
paper we do not intend to redefine the base of the
Birkhead Formation, although it is recognized that the
problem should be addressed.
Of the fields studied and described below, Jackson
and Bodalla South are more proximal to the volcanic
source area. The Gidgealpa and Moorari fields repre-
sent a more distal position, with Moorari being closer
to the Eromanga Basin depocenter than Gidgealpa.
The Bodalla South Oil Field
The Bodalla South oil field (Figure 4) was discov-
ered in 1984 (Dolan et al., 1988) and comprises two
main reservoirs: the Hutton Sandstone and the Basal
Jurassic Sandstone. It is primarily a structural trap
occurring in the northeast of the Eromanga Basin near
the edge of the underlying Triassic regional seal, the
Arrabury Formation. Original oil in place for the Hut-
ton Sandstone reservoir was proven at 0.47 × 106 m3
(3 million bbl). Structural closure at Bodalla South is
estimated to be 30–40 m (100–130 ft). The maximum oil
column encountered in the field is 11.2 m (37 ft) (Table
2), which indicates that the reservoir is not full to its
structural spillpoint.
The weak link in the seal, or “automatic valve”
(Schowalter, 1979), is a VAD, lithic-rich arenite, at the
base of the Birkhead Formation, which has a sharp
contact with underlying CD quartz-rich Hutton Sand-
stone. Analysis of MICP curves of the VAD lithic aren-
ite and underlying CD quartz-rich reservoir, which
took into account subsurface fluid parameters (Table
2), suggests that the maximum size of oil column that
will accumulate beneath this cap rock is 8.8–19.6 m
(29–64 ft). The minimum value is similar to the maxi-
mum oil column encountered in the field at 11.2 m
(37 ft) in Bodalla South 2. The VAD lithic arenite that
occurs at the base of the Birkhead Formation therefore
appears to be a good candidate for a leaky seal and an
 1 2

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

Figure 8. Thin-section photomicrographs of the CD coarse-grained arenite (A1 and A2), CD fine-grained arenite
(B1 and B2), and VAD arenites (C1, C2, D1, and D2). Photomicrographs on the right were taken by using plane-
polarized light and on the left by using crossed-polarized light. (A1 and A2 field of view (FOV) 4 mm): Gidgealpa
32, 6019.3 ft CD, coarse-grained, well-sorted Hutton Sandstone showing the predominance of monocrystalline
quartz crystals (q) with uniaxial extinction and syntaxial quartz overgrowths (o). Occasional pore-blocking kaolin-
ite (k) secondary porosity (s), caused by grain dissolution, and possible metamorphic rock fragments (m) are evi-
dent. (B1 and B2 FOV 2 mm): Gidgealpa 32, 5990.6 ft. CD, fine-grained, well-sorted lower Birkhead Formation
showing quartz and mica grains enclosed authigenic clay (illite?) (C1 FOV 2 mm; C2 FOV 1 mm ): Gidgealpa 32,
5969.3 ft. VAD, postprovenance-change Birkhead Formation. Medium-grained, poorly sorted lithic arenite/wacke-
stone containing common grains that display volcanic textures. Many grains have a possible micropoikilitic,
devitrification texture that is commonly seen in acid volcanics. This consists of a patchy or zoned quartz ground
mass enclosing feldspar crystals (McPhie et al., 1993). The grain at the center of the picture shows two separate
zones (a and b) of optically continuous quartz that go into extinction at different orientations. Also shown are
grains of biotite (bi), yellow-stained potassium feldspar (Fk), quartz (q) with secondary calcite (c), pore-filling
kaolinite (k), and abundant authigenic quartz occurring as fine-grained aggregates (aq) and syntaxial quartz over-
growths (o). (D1 FOV 2 mm and D2 FOV 1 mm): Jackson 40, 4760 ft 6 in. VAD, postprovenance-change Birkhead
Formation. Medium-grained, poorly sorted lithic arenite/wackestone with highly altered sericitic grains (S), very
fine grained authigenic quartz (aq), pore-filling kaolinite (k), and calcite (c). In the center of the photo are two
basalt grains (b) showing plagioclase laths enclosed in opaque to semi-opaque basaltic glass. The quartz grain (q)
content of this rock is very low, <30%.
152 Boult et al.

DEPTH MODEL AGE (m.y.) explanation for the significant shows encountered
(ft)
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
higher up in the section (see Boult, 1993).
5970
LITHIC ARENITE The Jackson Oil Field
The Jackson oil field in the southwestern Queens-
5975 land section of the Eromanga Basin contained about
111 million bbl in three reservoirs at the time of dis-
5980 covery in 1981 (Dodman and Rodriques, 1989): the
Hutton Sandstone with 14.8 × 10 6 m 3 (94.5 million
bbl), the Westbourne Formation with 2.4 × 10 6 m 3
5985 (14.6 million bbl), and the Murta Formation with 0.3 ×
LOW ENERGY

106 m3 (2 million bbl). It is located near the Triassic

PROVENANCE CHANGE Arrabury Formation subcrop limit (Figure 4), and
5990 charge is thought to have come from the Cooper
Basin depocenter to the west (Heath et al., 1989).
5995 A schematic cross section of the Jackson oil field
is presented in Figure 11, and reservoir boundaries
are shown in Figure 12. The lower Hutton Sand-
6000 stone is interpreted to have a mainly vertical water
QUARTZ ARENITE

drive, with coning occurring within two months of

production and requiring the installation of electric
6005
submersible pumps on seven wells. The upper Hut-
ton Sandstone is generally less permeable and more
6010 heterogeneous than the lower Hutton Sandstone.
HIGH ENERGY

The upper Hutton Sandstone shows evidence of an

edge water drive and is not in vertical pressure
6015 communication with the lower Hutton Sandstone
reservoir.
The Jackson top Hutton Sandstone horizon has a
6020
structural closure of ≤50 m (175 ft) (Altman, 1993, per-
Figure 9. Neodymium model ages vs. depth for sonal communication), and the maximum oil column
Gidgealpa 32. The lithic arenite (VAD sediment) encountered is 36 m (120 ft). A cross section of the Hut-
shows significantly lower model ages than the ton Sandstone (Figure 13) shows that the Birkhead For-
quartz arenite (CD sediment), indicating a probable mation is stratigraphically low in Jackson 40 by 11 m
provenance change. (36 ft). A core in Jackson 40 revealed a massive VAD,

Figure 10. The

SOUTH Hutton Sandstone/
QUEENSLAND Birkhead Formation
AUSTRALIA
transition detail
Jackson / Bodalla from across the
Gidgealpa Moorari Naccowlah South Eromanga Basin,
BIRKHEAD FORMATION

showing the varia-

tion in thickness of
the “low-energy
shallow
lacustrine channels
facies” beneath the
provenance change
PROVENANCE between VAD and
CHANGE
meandering
meandering
fluvial ENERGY
CD sediments.
fluvial CHANGE

meandering referred to
braided fluvial as upper
Hutton in
fluvial
SANDSTONE

braided Queensland
braided fluvial section of the
fluvial Eromanga Basin
HUTTON

braided
fluvial
 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production 153

1 4 2° 2 6 '
depth
subsea ft Sealing
horizons
-3000 NORTH SOUTH
1 km
o

MURTA FORMATION o
-3500 o oo
N
NAMUR SANDSTONE

UPPER WESTBOURNE FORMATION o o

o

-4000
LOWER WESTBOURNE FORMATION 27° 36' A2 1 o
o 27° 36'
BIRKHEAD FORMATION
o o
40 o
HUTTON SANDSTONE 3
-4500
15 o o
Figure 11. A simplified schematic cross section of o
the Jackson field (modified from Dodman and o oo o
13
Rodriques, 1989). o
o
lithic arenite channel (Figure 8D), with an average per- o
o
meability of <0.1 md. o
The lithic arenites at Jackson are very similar to
those at Bodalla South (Boult, 1993) and represent a 21
westward extension of the postprovenance-change
channels recognized there. A correlation based on Bo
o
wireline logs, cuttings, and production data suggests
that the effective seal at Jackson is an overbank facies
that is equivalent to the top of the lithic arenite channel o
cored in Jackson 40. This unit is ~15–18 m (50–60 ft)
thick across the field. It also extends as far as Nac- o
cowlah South oil field (Figure 4), where it has been
cored in Naccowlah South 4. 2 7° 3 8 ' 2 7° 3 8 '
Analysis of MICP curves of the lithic arenite from
the channel, which took into account subsurface fluid
parameters (Table 2), has revealed that the maximum
size of oil column that will accumulate beneath this o
cap rock is 40.7–52.2 m (134–171 ft) (Boult and Theolo- Murta Formation
gou, 1993). These values are similar to the maximum
oil column encountered in the field. They are also sim- Westbourne Formation
ilar to the structural closure of the field. The seal at
Jackson is a good candidate for consideration for being Hutton Sandstone
1 4 2° 2 6 '

leaky, given that the minimum calculated oil column

is less than the maximum and most likely structural
closure, and that chemically similar oil (Heath et al.,
1989) occurs higher up.
Above the overbank deposits of VAD lithic arenites Figure 12. Jackson field oil pool boundaries,
and siltstones, porosity occurs within the Birkhead showing the line of section for Figure 13 (modified
Formation, either as a result of secondary develop- from Dodman and Rodriques, 1989).
ment or, more likely, as a result of decrease in labile
grain content due to incorporation of more CD grains.
Water is the only indicated pore fluid in these sands, trace of oil was recovered. This could be close to the oil
except for Jackson 3, which is near the crest of the migration conduit leaking from the CD Hutton Sand-
structure. This horizon in Jackson 3 was tested, and a stone underneath. If this location does represent the
154 Boult et al.

JACKSON FIELD 21 40 3 15 13 2 0 WELL

380 m 350 m 320 m 400 m 920 m

35 km
A B
NACCOWLAH

Depths
subsea
feet
Westbourne Formation
SOUTH 4

4150

4250
Birkhead Formation
Lithic

pro
channel

ve
Upper

na
Hutton

nc
Oil Pools Lower

e
4350 Hutton

en

ch
Oil Pool

erg

an
ge
y

ch
an
ge
4400
Hutton Sandstone
CRATON-DERIVED VOLCANIC-ARC-DERIVED CORE
OIL POOLS
SEDIMENT SEDIMENT (SEAL) POSITIONS

Figure 13. Structural cross section across the Jackson field Hutton Sandstone oil pools, showing provenance
change (top dashed line) between CD and VAD sediments; energy change (bottom dashed line) between
braided fluvial and meandering fluvial/lacustrine depositional environments; and oil pools. A correlation
with Naccowlah South is also included (see Figures 4 and 12 for locations).

site of a leakage conduit, then the reason that oil is not
pooling downflank must be because of the lack of con-
nectivity between intra-Birkhead Formation sand bod-
ies that are diluted with CD quartz. This is as expected
within a meandering fluviatile system. There are also
common thinly bedded shales and siltstones within
the Birkhead Formation. These are not considered lat-
erally continuous enough to be effective as fieldwide
seals, but they may have local effects.
The Gidgealpa Oil and Gas Field
The first gas in the Cooper/Eromanga Basin was
discovered in Gidgealpa 2 in 1963 (Figure 4). The field
produces gas from the Permian Tirrawarra Sandstone,
Patchawarra and Toolachee formations of the Cooper
Basin, and oil from the Poolowanna Formation, Hut-
ton Sandstone, lower Birkhead Formation, and Namur
Sandstone in the Jurassic of the Eromanga Basin
(McIntyre et al., 1989). A schematic cross section is
shown in Figure 14, and reservoir boundaries are
shown in Figure 15. The hydrocarbons are located in
two domes. Gas is found only within the Permian
Cooper Basin, which onlaps onto a basement high,
with the major accumulation being 7070 × 106 m3 (250
billion ft3), occurring in the Toolachee Formation of
the north dome. This is sealed beneath the Arrabury
Formation at the base of the Triassic. A thin, 4-m (12-ft)
oil leg occurs beneath the gas accumulation in the Tir-
rawarra Sandstone of the southern dome.
The Triassic seal has been eroded away or was not
deposited over part of the southern dome; the gas
accumulation in the Toolachee Formation is limited
here by a stratigraphic spillpoint (Figure 14). Both oil
and gas have probably migrated up into the overlying
Eromanga Basin above the southern dome, but
because no gas occurs in the Jurassic at Gidgealpa and
the oils have very low gas-to-oil ratios, it is assumed
that water-washing has stripped all the gas away.
Most of the oil that leaked up into the Jurassic at the
crest of the southern dome has tended to migrate ver-
tically; 1.7 × 106 m3 (10.9 million bbl) of oil have been
trapped in the Hutton Sandstone and lower Birkhead
 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production 155

SW Wallumbilla Fm (marine)
Cadna-owie Fm NE
Depth Murta Fm
subsea
feet
-5000 Namur Sst

SEALS
Birkhead Fm

Hutton Sst
-6000

yyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,
c S e al
Poolowanna Fm a s s i
T r i l a c h e e F m
T o o

,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyy
-7000

Patchawarra Sst
Tirrawarra Sst 25
3Km PRE-PERMIAN
gas migration path oil migration path GAS OIL PERMIAN

CRATON-DERIVED VOLCANIC-ARC-DERIVED OTHER SEALS OF

SEDIMENTS (SEALS) NON VOLCANIC OR
SEDIMENTS UNCERTAIN ORIGIN

Figure 14. A schematic cross section of the Gidgealpa field, showing possible migration pathways and the con-
trol of the Triassic seal on migration pathways.

Formation by a VAD lithic arenite capillary seal within
the Birkhead Formation. About 0.6 × 106 m3 (4.0 mil-
lion bbl) of oil has leaked past the Birkhead Formation
up into the Namur Sandstone, where it is trapped
beneath a local mid-Namur Sandstone seal and at the
base of the Murta Formation.
The structural closure at the top Hutton Sandstone
horizon within the southern dome has been mapped to be
at least 53 m (175 ft) (Singh, 1990). The maximum oil col-
umn encountered to date is 20 m (66 ft) in Gidgealpa 25.
Two correlatable cores have been taken through the
base of the Birkhead Formation and into the Hutton
Sandstone in Gidgealpa 32 and 26. The arenites from
these have been extensively sampled. Thin-section and
MICP data from them are presented in Figure 16 and
plotted against the wireline depth for Gidgealpa 32.
None of the shales or siltstones within this sequence
are thicker than half a meter (1.5 ft). Many of the aren-
ites have erosive bases, and the shales contain arenite-
filled defects in the form of locally abundant
bioturbation and dewatering structures. The shales are
therefore not likely to be effective seals and have not
been included in the diagram. The arenites in this sec-
tion can be divided into three types, as described in
Table 3 and Figure 8.
(1) Hutton Sandstone reservoir: Base—1830.1 m
(6006 ft) (Figure 8 A1, A2). Braided fluvial, quartz
arenite in which most of the labile minerals such
as feldspar have been dissolved, creating sec-
ondary porosity.
(2) Lower Birkhead Formation reservoir: 1830.1–
1824.9 m (6006–5989 ft) (Figure 8 B1, B2). Mean-
dering fluvial, quartz arenite. This reservoir is
very poorly developed in Gidgealpa 32. Bioturba-
tion in the form of sand-filled burrows is com-
mon, and there is evidence of rapid deposition
with the preservation of dewatering structures.
At the top of the lower Birkhead Formation reser-
voir, a soil with recognizable “a,” “b,” and “c”
horizons developed. This shows there was a hia-
tus in deposition before the Birkhead Formation
seal was deposited.
(3) Birkhead Formation seal: 1824.9 m (5989 ft)—top
(Figure 8 C1, C2). Meandering fluvial lithic aren-
ite to wackestone. The Birkhead Formation seal
represents a continuation of the same facies as
the lower Birkhead Formation reservoir, but
with a different provenance. Sedimentation rates
were often rapid, with ripple-bedded sands
comprising ≤60% of the facies. Throughout the
156 Boult et al.

140°00'E
Permian Toolachee Fm
gas Patchawarra Fm
Tirrawarra Sst
NE

Namur Sst
Jurassic Birkhead Fm
oil Hutton Sst
Poolowanna Fm

Jurassic ,,,,
,,,, Namur Sst
H

,,,,
oil over
Birkhead Fm

,,,,
Permian
gas
H
North
,,,, ,,,
Hutton Sst

,,,
Poolowanna Fm H

,,, 90
0
-6
0
50
-7
0
30
-7 0
10
-7
00
-69
B 28° 00'S

,,,,,
TRDG

53
E

,,,,,
IA E

,,,,,
subsea contour
SS

interval 200ft at top

,,,,,
32
I C

o Toolachee Fm
,,,,,,,
,,,,,
o
o20 o
,,,
,,,
,,,

,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,, o

,,,,,,,,,,
o
27
30

A
,,,,,
,,,,, H

,,,,,
,,,,,
5 km
SW
Figure 15. An oil pool map of the Gidgealpa field showing (1) the location of the Triassic zero edge and its
control on the Toolachee Formation gas accumulation, which is only present to the northeast, and (2) the
Triassic zero edge’s control on stacked Jurassic oil pools, which only occur within the southern dome. Cross
section AB shown in Figure 18.

Birkhead Formation seal sequence the dominant
lithology is a very lithic rich arenite with abun-
dant recognizable grains of fine-grained vol-
canics (Figure 8). Some of these grains have
been subjected to considerable plastic deforma-
tion, especially where the quartz grain content
falls below a critical percentage, allowing local-
ized framework collapse (Harris, 1989). A col-
lapsed lithic arenite occurs at the base of the
Birkhead Formation seal in Gidgealpa 32
between 1823.8–1824.9 m (5985.5–5989 ft).
It is considered by the authors that it is the non-
collapsed VAD lithic arenite that is the “weak link” or
effective capillary seal at Gidgealpa. Neither the shales
nor the collapsed lithic arenite would be laterally
extensive enough to form an effective barrier. The dis-
placement pressures from all samples are displayed in
Figure 16; it is thought that the interval between 1816.7
and 1822.8 m (5961.3–5982.0 ft) would be the effective
seal. Analysis of displacement pressures displayed in
Figure 16 indicates that the oil column retainable by the
effective seal at Gidgealpa is 19.7–42.7 m (65–140 ft)
(Table 2). The minimum and most probable figure is in
close agreement with the actual oil column of 20 m
(66 ft) that occurs beneath the Birkhead Formation seal
in Gidgealpa 25, which is near the crest of the struc-
ture. The maximum figure is still less than structural
closure.
Gravestock et al. (1983) noted the common occur-
rence of calcite within some aquifers of the Eromanga
Basin. Singh (1990) mapped calcite cemented intervals
Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production 157

Figure 16. Gidgealpa

field, Hutton
Sandstone/Birkhead
Formation mineral-
ogy and displace-
ment pressure log
showing the location
of the Birkhead
Formation seal:
RF = rock fragments
including common,
fine-grained vol-
canic lavas, Clays =
clays that cannot be
identified in thin
section, F-or =
orthoclase feldspar,
F-ab = plagioclase
feldspar with albite
twinning, S-or =
secondary/dissolu-
tion/intragranular
porosity, kaol =
kaolinite or dickite
occurring either as
intergranular pore
filling or grain
replacement,
org = organic matter,
opq = opaques,
Hv = heavy
nonopaque
minerals, mica =
muscovite and
biotite, Qtz = quartz
grains and
overgrowths,
IG-por = primary
or intergranular
porosity, Calc =
predominantly
calcite with minor
siderite, and
Hg DP = mercury
displacement
pressure.
158 Boult et al.

Table 3. Comparison of Arenite Lithologies of the Hutton Sandstone/Birkhead Formation Transition.

Hutton Sandstone/
Lower Birkhead Birkhead Formation
Hutton Sandstone Formation Facies (Post-Provenance Change)
Provenance CD CD VAD
Energy/Facies High Medium to low Medium to low
braided fluvial meandering fluvial meandering fluvial
Composition quartz arenite quartz to subarkosic lithic arenite to lithic
(see Figure 16) arenite wackestone with
abundant recognizable
grains of fine-grained
volcanics
Grain size medium to coarse fine to medium fine to medium
with occasional
pebbles
Sorting medium to good medium medium to poor
Grain shape rounded subangular subangular
Common accessories – muscovite authigenic clays and
calcite
Primary porosity (%) 15–25 10–20 0–5
Secondary porosity 2–10 2–10 2–15
Permeability (md) 500–3000 2–100 <0.2
Hg pore displacement <1–5 5–15 100–250
Pressure (psi)
Photomicrograph A1 and A2 B1 and B2 C1, C2, D1, and D2

within the Namur Sandstone over the Gidgealpa

1 3 9 ° 58'E

1 4 0 ° 00'E
south dome (Figure 17), and several workers (Jensen- 2 8 ° 00'S 75 thickness of 2 8 ° 00'S
-59 calcite, contour
Schmidt, 1989; Schulz-Rojahn, 1993; Townsend 1993) interval = 25 ft
0
have since noted poikilotopic calcite cement within the -6
00 95
0
-5
Namur Sandstone concentrates near the crest of other depth contour
• 31 interval = 25ft
oil-bearing structures. Schulz-Rojahn (1993) pointed
out that the Eromanga Basin is virtually devoid of evi-
-59

• 28
•32 •
25

dence for the microbial alteration of hydrocarbons,

which is thought to have triggered carbonate precipi- • 29
• • 20
tation in other, cooler petroleum-bearing sequences
•
(e.g., O’Brien and Woods, 1995; Hovland et al., 1987). •5 22
+
•21 •
Schulz-Rojahn (1993) and Ryan-Grigor and Schulz-
-59

• 27
Rojahn (1995, and personal communication) high- • 31
00

• 23
10

lighted the probable role of carbon dioxide in

5
12

2 8 ° 02'S + 2 8 ° 02'S
controlling carbonate cement precipitation near the
crest of petroleum fields. In the Eromanga Basin, avail- • 34
• 16
able geological and geochemical data suggest that the • 33
occurrence of calcite-cemented zones within the +
Namur Sandstone over the Gidgealpa south dome
may be related to chemical reactions involving migra-
1 3 9 ° 58'E

1 4 0 ° 00'E

tion of carbon dioxide from deeper sequences. Carbon 2km

dioxide is thought to be a precursor to oil maturation
(Momper, 1980) and migration, and oil often contains
some dissolved carbon dioxide.
Both the spatial and statistical relationships
between calcite-cemented zones in the Namur Sand-
stone and both over- and underlying traps (Jensen-
Schmidt, 1989) that generally contain hydrocarbons
are sufficient to view the cements as migration-
related diagenetic zones (MRDZs). The term differs
from the commonly used “hydrocarbon-related dia-
genetic zone” (HRDZ) because the Eromanga Basin
Figure 17. Calcite-cemented zone isopachs for the
Namur Sandstone and top Hutton Sandstone
(depths in feet) for the Gidgealpa south dome
(Singh, 1990). This shows the focussing of the possi-
ble migration pathway by the Birkhead Formation
seal and the resultant positioning of the MRDZ off
structure.
 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production 159

27 30 20 32 25 5 3 WELL
A
Depths
750 m 1750 m 500 m 700m 1200 m

B
subsea GIDGEALPA SOUTH DOME
feet Adori
5700 Sandstone

barren
lower
5800 Birkhead Birkhead
oil pool

Birkhead Formation
ch
an
ge
ce

5900
an
en

ch

?
ov

an
pr

ge
y
erg
en

6000
Hutton Oil Pools

Hutton Sandstone
CRATON-DERIVED VOLCANIC-ARC-DERIVED CORE
OIL POOLS POSITIONS
SEDIMENT SEDIMENT

Figure 18. A structural cross section across the Gidgealpa field showing provenance change (top dotted line)
between CD and VAD sediments; energy change (bottom dotted line) between braided fluvial and meander-
ing fluvial/lacustrine depositional environments; and oil pools.

calcites do not strictly represent alteration products
of hydrocarbons.
Thus, the MRDZ within the Namur Sandstone, the
0.6 × 106 m3 (4.0 million bbl) that occur above the Birk-
head Formation of a very similar oil to that in the
reservoir below it, and the abundant shows that are
evident within the VAD lithic arenite of the Birkhead
Formation, indicate that leakage of carbon dioxide and
oil has probably occurred or is occurring through
these sediments as they act as an “automatic valve.”
The Hutton Sandstone reservoir at Gidgealpa has a
strong bottom-water drive. The lower Birkhead Forma-
tion reservoir has limited pressure communication
with the Hutton Sandstone reservoir, which is primar-
ily due to vertical permeability destruction caused by
intervening siltstones. It is interpreted to have an edge
water drive, because it is in partial communication
with the Hutton Sandstone reservoir on the western
flank of the field. Production pressure data in combi-
nation with petrological core data and wireline data
have been used to create a correlation across the field,
which is presented in Figure 18. This correlation of the
lower Birkhead Formation reservoir is similar to the
Upper Hutton Sandstone reservoir at Jackson, with a
change to meandering fluvial from braided fluvial fol-
lowed by a provenance change. We suggest that the
lower Birkhead Formation reservoir at Gidgealpa is
probably equivalent to the upper Hutton Sandstone
reservoir at Jackson.
The Moorari Oil and Gas Field
The Moorari field is an oil- and gas-producing field,
with the main reserves in the Permian Tirrawarra
Sandstone, near the base of the Cooper Basin. When
discovered, the Tirrawarra Sandstone contained 2.31 ×
106 m3 (14.7 million bbl) of oil and 1070 × 106 m3 of gas
160 Boult et al.

seal is ~76 m (250 ft) thick, thus limiting connection to

0 GR GAPI 200 120 DT US/F 60
the underlying Cooper Basin hydrocarbon charge. The
70-9 Sand is at least 30 m (100 ft) above the top of the
Namur Sandstone Hutton Sandstone in Moorari 4 (Figure 19). The 70-9
Sand is a quartz to subarkosic arenite, which is locally
Depth clay-rich and micaceous and very similar to the lower
ft Birkhead Formation reservoir at Gidgealpa. Directly
above this sand is a thin, 15-m3 (6-in.) coal overlain by
6950 thinly interbedded, very fine grained sandstones and
siltstones/shales interpreted as lacustrine-to-coal
Formation

swamp facies. The very fine grained sandstones are

considered to be the effective seal. These sands have
7000 a significant labile rock fragment content, which may
correlate with the provenance change. However, the
major influence on displacement pressure does not
appear to be the pore-filling clays, as in the coarser-
grained sediments in Gidgealpa, but the fine grain
7050 size. Cores in other Moorari wells indicate that the
55 m (180 ft) of Birkhead Formation above the 70-9
Sand was deposited in a shallow-lacustrine environ-
ment with interbedded thin shales and fine-grained
sandstones. These have erosive bases that lead to
core

provenance change ? sand-on-sand stratification, which provides the weak

70-9 Sand link in this seal.
A series of samples was taken from the core in
Moorari 4. Mercury injection capillary pressure
7150 (MICP) curves were generated and compared with
petrological data using the same methodology as that
used for Gidgealpa 32. The effective seal to the 70-9
Sand is calculated to be capable of retaining a maxi-
Birkhead

mum oil column of 33.5–94.9 m (110–311 ft) (Table 2).

7200
energy change
Hutton Sandstone
7300
Figure 19. Moorari 4 well log showing 37 m (120 ft)
of low-energy Birkhead Formation facies that occur
below the provenance change. This is a well close to
Birkhead Formation depocenter. The seal is the fine-
grained swamp/lacustrine facies that occurs >2203 m
(7090 ft).
(Rodda and Paspaliaris, 1989). Minor amounts of gas
occur higher up in the Permian, but none has been
found to date in the Eromanga Basin. Only 0.3 × 106 m3
(2 million bbl) of oil occur in a thin sand (70-9 Sand)
within the Birkhead Formation of the Eromanga Basin.
The Moorari oil and gas field (Figure 4) is located
closer to the depocenter of the Eromanga Basin than
any of the other fields discussed in detail in this paper.
Here the Birkhead Formation is >94.5 m (310 ft) thick
(Figure 19). The regional Triassic Arrabury Formation
The maximum oil column that is interpreted for the
70-9 Sand reservoir is ~14 m (45 ft). The interpreted
structural closure is at least 60 m (197 ft). Therefore,
the 70-9 Sand reservoir is neither full to capillary leak-
age or structural spillpoint. The effective seal is a thick
accumulation of very fine grained lithic arenites to silt-
stones. Patchy shows that do occur within the seal are
not thought to be tertiary migrating oil from the 70-9
Sand below, due to high displacement pressures and
small oil column buoyancy. There is evidence of small
quantities of oil generated within the Birkhead Forma-
tion in the deeper parts of the basin such as at Moorari
(Smyth et al., 1984). This may be the case here, rather
than being Permian-sourced oil that has leaked
through the 76-m- (250-ft-) thick Triassic seal.
The Namur Sandstone, McKinlay Member, and
Murta Formation, Murteree Ridge, Eromanga Basin
The Murteree Ridge forms an embayment of base-
ment into the southern margin of the Permian Cooper
Basin so that Permian and Jurassic sediments onlap
onto its flank. The lowest Eromanga Basin sequence is
the Hutton Sandstone. Only minor oil accumulations
are present within the Hutton Sandstone in this area,
due to the thin nature of the Birkhead Formation.
The Namur Sandstone is interpreted as a CD
braided fluvial deposit similar to the Hutton Sand-
stone and is widespread across the Eromanga Basin.
The McKinlay Member is conformable on top of the
Namur Sandstone and is interpreted as a waning
 Œ

‡ˆ
ƒ
Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production

energy, meandering fluvial-to-lacustrine shoreline

deposit similar to the base of the lower Birkhead For-
mation reservoir at Gidgealpa. The McKinlay Member
and Murta Formation are of more limited areal extent
than the Birkhead Formation. The Murta Formation
mainly comprises laminated carbonaceous siltstones
and fine-grained sandstones known as the “low-
permeability reservoir” (LPR) (Figure 20). It is inter-
preted to represent a change to a predominantly lacus-
trine depositional environment, with some fluvial
influence near its geographical extremities. The Murta
Formation is capped by a shaly type A seal. Within the
Murta Formation there are some very thin, very
mature sandy horizons that are known as the “high-

Log Depth
(Feet)
3860

3880
30

10
JENA 11
GR

PEF

,,,,,,,
180

yy
,,
,,
yy
,,
,,
yy
,,,

Interpreted
Facies
Cadna-Owie
Formation
161

{|€
permeability sands” (HPS). These are extremely pro- HPS

,,
yy
3900
ductive and are interpreted to represent lower to
upper shoreface sand bodies.
Together, these horizons form an important reser-

,,
yy
voir/seal/reservoir/seal quadruplet in the more

,,,
3920
prospective zones above the edge of the Triassic

,,
yy
regional seal. In fields with multiple stacked oil pools,
and thus abundant charge from the Permian, oil
pools in the Murta Formation are often present as the 3940

,,
yy
shallowest available oil.
Murta
Formation
Limestone Creek, Biala and Jena Oil Fields

,,
yy
of the Murteree Ridge Area 3960

The HPS and LPR of the Murta Formation in the

Murteree Ridge area are estimated to contain ≤11.6 ×

,,
yy
106 m3 (74 million bbl) of oil. The Namur Sandstone 3980
and McKinlay Member are estimated to contain ~2.5 ×

,,
yy
106 m3(16 million bbl) of oil (N. Williams, 1995, per-


,
sonal communication). The HPS is 1 ft thick and
occurs 36 m (120 ft) above the McKinlay Member 4000

,,
yy
reservoir (Figure 20). Siderite-cemented layers (type B
seals) ≤1 m (3 ft) thick are common within LPRs but

,,
yy
are not acting as effective seals, as indicated by post-
4020
production repeat formation test (RFT) data. They con-

tain numerous open and kaolinite-filled fractures, as
McKinlay
indicated by core logging and formation microscanner Member

,,,
interpretation. The fine sandstones and siltstones 4040
within LPR are interpreted to represent storm events.

,,,
,,,
They have erosive bases that lead to sand-on-sand
,,

stratification and the formation of highly tortuous ver-


,, ,,,
Namur

,,
yy
tical sand pathways, which provide the weak link in 4060 Sandstone
this seal. The sands and siltstones are thus, besides

,, ,,
yy
being a low-permeability reservoir, likely to be the Siderite Cemented Facies Barrier-Bar

,y
effective capillary seal (type E/D seals) to the underly-

,,
,,
ing McKinlay Member accumulations. Shoreface Facies Lagoonal Shales

,,
MICP data (Table 2) indicate that the fine sands and

,, ,,
Nearshore Facies

,,
siltstones of the LPR are capable of acting as a capillary Meandering Fluvial

seal, and the calculated minimum, but most probable,

,,
Lacustrine Shelf Facies
oil columns of 15 m (50 ft) are in good agreement with (Distal to Proximal) Braided Fluvial

actual oil columns within the McKinlay Member/ Offshore Facies

Namur Sandstone. Fracture stimulation of several wells
has resulted in an increased water cut, with the water
being derived from the LPR. This, in combination with
the patchy distribution of oil shows within the LPR, Figure 20. Jena 11 (Murteree Ridge) gamma-ray and
indicates that the oil that is present occurs either as part photoelectric factor (PEF) curves correlated with
of a transition zone or as a series of oil migration con- core-defined lithofacies showing the location of the
duits extending from the McKinlay Member to the HPS. high-permeability sand (HPS).
162 Boult et al.
pressure (psia)
2000
1500
1000
500
0 1 2 3 4 5
cummulative fluid production
(million bbl)
Figure 21. Limestone Creek/Biala (Murteree Ridge)
averaged pressure history data from all wells for the
HPS, showing that the pressure declined with pro-
duction within the HPS until just over 0.3 × 106 m3
(2 million bbl) of oil had been produced, when it
stabilized.
Under production, the HPS initially shows a rapid
pressure drop. This eventually stabilizes, indicating a
weak pressure support mechanism (Figure 21). Con-
ventional drive mechanisms have been selectively
eliminated as potential sources of water (Williams et
al., 1994). Repeat formation test data indicate that a
pressure sink extends below the HPS for at least 20 m
(65 ft) in Jena 11 (Figure 22). All the RFT pressures are
above the theoretical pressure gradient that would be
associated with flow of water from the McKinlay
Member through the rock matrix into the HPS. Con-
duits for flow are not provided by fractures but by the
highly tortuous sand pathways previously alluded to
in the LPR. Hence, it is suggested that over geological
time these conduits have allowed oil (the nonwetting
phase) to migrate into the HPS, while over the time of
production they allow only water (the more mobile
wetting phase) to flow into the HPS, providing a weak
pressure support (Figure 23).
DISCUSSION
The most important aspect of seal evaluation is
establishing which lithofacies within a formation is the
weak link and thus the effective seal. Within a sand-
rich fluviatile/shallow lacustrine system where over-
bank and background sedimentation shales are not
very thick, they are not likely to be the effective seal to
migrating hydrocarbons. The effective seal within such
a facies must be the intervening sandy facies. This is
especially true when fault offset juxtaposes sandy
interbeds. Shales and siderite layers may, however,
form significant barriers on a production time scale,
creating highly tortuous pathways for fluid flow.
Another important aspect of seal evaluation is an
assessment of possible migration pathways beyond the
seal under investigation. The migration-related diage-
netic zones (MRDZs) found within formations above a
seal seem to be good candidates for indicating possible
leakage of buoyant fluids from below. Jensen-Schmidt
Figure 22. Repeat formation test data from Jena 11
and 12 in the Murteree Ridge area. All measured
pressures are above that of the theoretical gradient
that would be associated with normal linear flow of
water from the McKinlay Member through the
Murta Formation to the HPS.
(1989) noted a statistical link between hydrocarbon
occurrence within the Eromanga Basin and the occur-
rence of calcites within the Namur Sandstone. Struc-
tures with calcite in the Namur Sandstone are
three-and-a-half times more likely to contain oil than
those that do not contain calcite. However, 51% of
structures that have associated calcite are still dry. This
last figure reminds us that an MRDZ only shows up in
migration pathways under a given set of chemical con-
ditions; if there is no trap available, oil will not have
accumulated.
Figure 24 is a schematic representation of the con-
trols on oil migration within a fluvio/lacustrine
sequence such as that of the Jurassic Eromanga Basin
sequence. It assumes that capillary leakage is the
dominant sealing mechanism. It also assumes the
faults are not active, and thus the most common sce-
nario (Downey, 1993) applies: faults are neither seals
nor conduits to fluid flow. Figure 24 introduces the
notion of “seal bite,” which describes the vertical off-
set of sealing lithologies along a migration pathway
and its control on oil migration. Seal bite may be
caused by either fault offset, minor folding, or facies
interdigitation. Seal bite also depends on the fluid
properties involved in the control of oil migration,
such as hydrocarbon buoyancy and capillary pres-
sures generated. Thus, along a migration pathway
that occurs beneath a dipping seal, if seal bite is
greater than the possible retainable oil column, verti-
cal migration will be initiated; otherwise, lateral
migration will continue. Figure 24 shows the follow-
ing features that control oil migration.
• That weak-link lithologies, such as labile or fine-
grained sandstone, control the location of hydro-
carbon traps.
• That faults do not need to be sealing or acting as
conduits to focus oil migration conduits. It is the
 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production
A
Murta Fm
McKinlay Mbr
Namur Sst.
Murta Member - Lacustrine facies
Oil Filled Sands
Migration conduit
Vertical migration of oil through
the crest of the structure from the
McKinlay to the HPS
Figure 23. An oil migration and pressure support model for the Murta Formation. RFT = repeat formation
test, HPS = high-permeability sand, and LPR = low-permeability reservoir.
resultant juxtapositions of weak-link lithologies
that do this.
• If the seal bite is greater than the maximum hydro-
carbon column that a seal will hold back, vertical
migration may be initiated before major struc-
tures are accessed and filled.
• If the seal bite is less than the maximum petroleum
column a seal will hold back, the petroleum will
migrate predominantly along bedding into, and
begin to fill, major structures. However, they may
not fill to structural spillpoint, because once the
capillary displacement pressure of the seal to the
structure is exceeded, vertical migration will be
initiated.
This kind of control may be the reason why at
Gidgealpa (Figure 14), the Poolowanna Formation oil
accumulation is absent from the crest of the south
dome, but Hutton Sandstone/Birkhead Formation oil
is present at the crest of the dome.
We have investigated the Birkhead Formation
first and in most detail because this is the main seal
within the Eromanga Basin. It is probable that simi-
lar mechanisms of hydrocarbon entrapment will
apply, not only for other horizons within the Jurassic
of the Eromanga Basin, but for the other Mesozoic
basins in northeast Australia. Those containing
163
A B
HPS
Top
McKinlay
Expected RFT profiles show that pressure
depletion within the LPR (due to production
of water) would only extend down to the
McKinlay when measured outside the area
of the Mckinlay oil pool. Profile B is an actual
RFT profile
Water Filled Sands
Pressure support (brine) conduit
When pressure depletion in HPS
has reached a critical value water
can leak through from the Namur
aquifer
fluvio/lacustrine depositional environments that are
supplied with alternating CD and VAD sediments are
important here; for example, the Surat and Carpen-
taria basins (McConache et al., 1994).
Where the labile sandstone is the seal, its displace-
ment pressure depends not only on the existence of
pore-blocking diagenetic clays but also on the amount
of framework collapse that has taken place. It would
seem the more proximal this type of seal is to the
source of the labile material, the higher its displace-
ment pressure will be. Depth of burial seems to have a
lesser effect on its displacement pressure. The Jackson
Birkhead Formation seal, which is at a depth of 1430 m
(4700 ft), is shallower and slightly coarser grained than
at Gidgealpa at 1830 m (6000 ft), and we might expect
the seal at Jackson to have a lower displacement pres-
sure than at Gidgealpa. But Jackson is also more prox-
imal, with a higher labile content. This has had a
greater influence than depth or grain size; thus, the
seal at Jackson is capable of retaining ≤36 m (120 ft) of
oil, whereas at Gidgealpa it has probably leaked when
the oil column has reached 20 m (66 ft).
Where the very fine sandstones and siltstones of a
lacustrine facies are the effective seal, as in the Murta
Formation on the Murteree Ridge and possibly
above the 70-9 Sand at Moorari, it would appear that
burial has a major influence. The base of the Murta
164 Boult et al.
Migration
ground
water Related
flow Diagenetic
Zone
Seal bite < Th
Seal bite
> Th
Oil sourced
from Permian
Lithic sandstone - effective seal Oil pools
Discontinuous fluvial shale seals
Reservoir sandstones
Figure 24. An oil migration and entrapment model
for the Eromanga Basin, showing how the interac-
tion of “seal bite” and maximum oil column height
(Th) controls the location of migration pathways.
This model assumes that faults are neither sealing
nor conduits to flow.
Formation of the Murteree horst area is ~1220 m
(4000 ft), and the base of the mid-Birkhead Formation
lacustrine facies at Moorari is at 2152 m (7065 ft). The
former would be classified as a type D/E seal capable
of holding a column of 15 m (50 ft), and the latter
would be classified as a type C seal capable of hold-
ing 60 m (200 ft) of oil.
There also appears to be a link between the tectonics
that produce the periodic influx of labile material and
the change from high-energy to low-energy depositional
environments. It may be that the local downwarping of
both cratonic and foreland basins has changed river base
levels and created ephemeral shallow freshwater lakes
and swamps. It also may be that the periodic activation
of the volcanic arc to the east blocks up the generally
northward and eastward flow of the rivers either
directly or by dumping large amounts of sediment in
their path, as shown in Figure 6. Alternatively, this could
be a combination of these effects. A facies change prior
to a provenance change at many locations across the
Eromanga Basin is evidence that river base level change
is then followed by the rivers flowing predominantly
from the volcanic arc across the foreland basin and into
the epicratonic basin. This simplified model is compli-
cated by large- and small-scale basin warping, which
was probably associated with episodic activation of the
volcanic arc to the east. There is also evidence that a hia-
tus in sedimentation, in the form of soil horizons and
coals, occurred just prior to the major influx of labile
sandstone; this tends to support tectonic control on river
base levels.
CONCLUSIONS
The location of the effective seal within the Birk-
head Formation, away from its depocenter, is directly
controlled by the influx of volcanic-arc-derived (VAD)
labile sandstone into the depositional system. Within a
fluvio/shallow-lacustrine system where shales are not
laterally very continuous due to either erosion, dewa-
tering, or faulting, they are only likely to trap minor
amounts of oil. The effective seal in the examples dis-
cussed, where the lacustrine facies are not well devel-
oped, is caused by the diagenesis and compaction of
the VAD sediment within the Birkhead Formation.
Where the shallow-lacustrine facies are well devel-
oped, the fine sands are the effective seal. Their effec-
tiveness may be enhanced by diagenesis.
Important characteristics of the Hutton Sand-
stone/Birkhead Formation transition in predicting oil
occurrence and production characteristics are: (1) the
proximity of the location to the volcanic lithic source
area (closer to source area leads to better quality seal);
(2) the depth of burial of the seal: a greater depth of
burial leads to better quality seal, especially in the
finer grained facies; and (3) the stratigraphic thickness
of the upper Hutton Sandstone/lower Birkhead For-
mation low-energy facies. A thinner upper Hutton
Sandstone allows closer proximity of the good-quality
lower Hutton Sandstone reservoir to the main regional
VAD sandstone seal within the Birkhead Formation.
APPENDIX
Development of Seal Capacity Equation
The maximum size of an oil column that can be
trapped beneath a membrane seal occurs when the
buoyancy of that column is equal to the capillary pres-
sure generated by the seal. This can be represented by
equation 1:
Pch/w ( seal ) – Pch/w ( reservoir ) = ( SGw – SGh ) • g • Th (1)
Converted to field units (feet) and where the parame-
ters and units are Pch/w = capillary displacement pressure
(psia); SGh = subsurface density of hydrocarbon (g/cm3);
SGw = subsurface density of water (g/cm3); g = gravity;
and Th = height of hydrocarbon column (ft), then
Pch/w ( seal ) – Pch/w ( reservoir ) = ( SGw – SGh ) • Th × 0.433 (2)
Rearranged
Pch/w ( seal ) – Pch/w ( reservoir )
Th = (3)
(SGw – SGh )0.433
 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production 165

Which could be written is smooth and mercury closure around it is good, the
extrapolation of the curve plateau back to the pressure
Pch/w ( seal ) – Pch/w ( reservoir ) axis is used. If the closure is poor, the preferable
Th = (4) method is to use the incremental plot to determine
(gradw – gradh ) where the apparent mercury displacement increases
significantly.
for meters
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Pch/w ( seal ) – Pch/w ( reservoir )
Th = (5) We would like to thank the Energy Research and
(SGw – SGh )1.42 Development Corporation, Canberra, Australia, for
funding project 1541, “Quantification of hydrocarbon
Conversion from Lab Data to Field Data migration and entrapment,” which initiated the search
for Seal Capacity into seals within the Eromanga Basin. We would also
like to acknowledge R. Seggie and N. Williams of
Capillary pressure has been defined within basic SANTOS Ltd.; D. Gravestock of the South Australian
physics by equation 6: Department of Mines and Energy; J. Schulz-Rojahn of
the National Centre for Petroleum Geology and Geo-
2. IFT .Cosθ physics; and J. Jago, E. Lanzilli, and D. Folks of the
Pc = (6)
r University of South Australia for valuable discussion
during the preparation of this document.
Where IFT = interfacial tension, and θ = the contact
angle of the two fluids against the solid measured REFERENCES CITED
through the wetting phase.
Rearranged Ambrose, G., R. Suttill, and I. Lavering, 1986, The geol-
ogy and hydrocarbon potential of the Murta Mem-
2 × IFT × Cos θ ber, Mooga Formation, in the southern Eromanga
r= (7) Basin, in D.I. Gravestock, P.S. Moore, and G.M. Pitt,
Pc eds., Contributions to the geology and hydrocarbon
potential of the Eromanga Basin: Geological Society
Therefore, if r is constant of Australia Special Publication 12, p. 71–84.
Boult, P.J., 1993, Membrane seal and tertiary migration
2 × IFTh/w × Cosθ h/w 2 × IFTm/a × Cosθ m/a pathways in the Bodalla South oilfield, Eromanga
= (8) Basin, Australia: Marine and Petroleum Geology,
Pc h/w Pc m/a v. 10, no. 1, p. 3–13.
Boult, P.J., and P.N. Theologou, 1993, Quantification of
Rearranged hydrocarbon migration and entrapment: Unpub-
lished end of grant report, Energy Research and
IFTh/w × Cosθ h/w Development Corporation, project no. 1541.
Pc h/w = × Pc m/a (9) Core Lab, 1982, A course in special core analysis,
IFTm/a × Cosθ m/a
D. Keelan, ed., p. 3–12.
Dodman, A.P., and J.T. Rodriques, 1989, The Jackson
Substitution of equation 9 into 5 for meters gives oil field development, in B.J. O’Neil, ed., The
Cooper and Eromanga Basins, Australia: Proceed-

Th =
{
IFTh/w × Cosθ h/w × Pc m/a( seal ) – Pc m/a( reservoir )
IFTm/a Cosθ m/a × ( SGw – SGh )1.42
If the seal is water-wet with the contact angle
assumed to be 0 and accounting for mercury/air IFT of
484 N/m and contact angle of 140°, then
} (10)
ings of the Petroleum Exploration Society of Aus-
tralia, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Australian
Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SA Branches),
Adelaide, p. 81–89.
Dolan, P., P.D. Griffiths, and S.R. Welton, 1988, The
successful recovery of well productivity in the
Bodalla South Field: The Australian Petroleum
Exploration Association Journal, p. 7–18.

Th =
{
IFTh/w × Pc m/a( seal ) – Pc m/a( reservoir )
(SGw – SGh )526
Reading MICP Curves to
Determine Displacement Pressure
We always plot the incremental and cumulative
plots of mercury intrusion vs. pressure. If the sample
} (11)
Downey, M., 1993, Faults, leaks or seals? Presented at
Hedburg Conference, “Seals: a multidisciplinary
approach,” Crested Butte Colorado, June 21–23.
Foden, J., J. Mawby, S. Kelley, S. Turner, and D. Bruce,
1995, Metamorphic events in the eastern Arunta
Inlier, Part 2: Nd-Sr-Ar isotopic constraints: Pre-
cambrian Research, v. 71, p. 207–227.
Gravestock, D.I., M. Griffiths, and A. Hill, 1983, The
Hutton Sandstone—two separate reservoirs in the
166 Boult et al.
Eromanga Basin, South Australia: The Australian
Petroleum Exploration Association Journal,
p. 109–119.
Green, J.C., and J.F. Thomas III, 1993, Extensive felsic
lavas and rheoignimbrites in the Keweenawan Mid-
continent Rift plateau volcanics, Minnesota:
petrographic and field recognition: Journal of
Vulcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 54,
p. 177–196.
Habermehl, M.A., 1980, The Great Artesian Basin,
Australia: Bureau of Mineral Resources Journal of
Australian Geology and Geophysics, v. 5, p. 9–38.
Harris, N.B., 1989, Diagenetic quartz arenite and
destruction of secondary porosity: An example
from the Middle Jurassic Brent Sandstone of NW
Europe: Geology, v. 17, p. 361–364.
Hawlader, H.M., 1990, Diagenesis and reservoir
potential of volcanogenic sandstones—Cretaceous
of the Surat Basin, Australia: Sedimentary Geology,
v. 86, p. 181–195.
He, F., and P.J. Conaghan, 1994, Diagenesis of Jurassic
and Lower Cretaceous sandstones of the Eromanga
Basin in New South Wales: Australian Geological
Survey Organization Journal of Australian Geology
and Geophysics, v. 15, no. 2, p. 191–215.
Heath, R., S. McIntyre, and N. Gibbins, 1989, A Per-
mian origin for Jurassic reservoired oil in the Ero-
manga Basin, in B.J. O’Neil, ed., The Cooper and
Eromanga Basins, Australia: Proceedings of the
Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia, Society
of Petroleum Engineers, Australian Society of
Exploration Geophysicists (SA Branches), Adelaide,
p. 405–416.
Hill, L.V., 1985, Environmental analysis of the Hutton
Sandstone to Birkhead Formation transition within
the south-western Eromanga Basin, Queensland:
Honor’s thesis, Adelaide University.
Hird, K., 1995, Oil and gas report, J.B. Wear and Son:
Australian Research Report, March, 72 p.
Hollingsworth, R.J.S., 1989, The exploration history
and status of the Cooper and Eromanga basins, in
B.J. O’Neil, ed., The Cooper and Eromanga basins,
Australia: Proceedings of the Petroleum Explo-
ration Society of Australia, Society of Petroleum
Engineers, Australian Society of Exploration Geo-
physicists (SA Branches), Adelaide, p. 3–9.
Hovland, M., M.R. Talbot, H. Qvale, S. Olaussen, and
L. Aasberg, 1987, Methane-related carbonate
cements in pockmarks of the North Sea: Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, v. 57, p. 881–892.
Jensen-Schmidt, B., 1989, Calcite as an oil indicator in
the Eromanga Basin, South Australia: Unpublished
report, Monitoring Western/Central Division
(ESSO).
McConache, B.A., P.W. Stainton, M.G. Barlow, and
J.N. Dunster, 1994, The offshore Carpentaria
Basin—Gulf of Carpentaria, North Queensland:
The Australian Petroleum Exploration Association
Journal, p. 614–625.
McIntyre, S.M., C.L. Jamal, C.L. Pidcock, and M.I.
Kabir, 1989, The Gidgealpa oil and gas field: a
case history, in B.J. O’Neil, ed., The Cooper and
Eromanga Basins, Australia: Proceedings of the
Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia, Society
of Petroleum Engineers, Australian Society of
Exploration Geophysicists (SA Branches), Adelaide,
p. 91–101.
McPhie, J., M. Doyle, and R. Allen, 1993, Volcanic tex-
tures: A guide to the interpretation of textures in
volcanic rocks: University of Tasmania, Centre for
Ore Deposit and Exploration Studies, Hobart, 198 p.
Miller, R.G., R.K. O’Nions, P.J. Hamilton, and E.
Welin, 1986, Crustal residence ages of clastic sedi-
ments, orogeny and continental evolution: Chemi-
cal Geology, v. 57, p. 87–99.
Momper, J.A., 1980, Oil expulsion—a consequence of
oil generation: AAPG Distinguished Lecture: New
York, Science-Thru-Media, Inc.
O’Brien, G.W., and E.P. Woods, 1995, Hydrocarbon-
related diagenetic zones (HRDZs) in the Vulcan
sub-basin, Timor Sea: recognition and exploration
implications: The Australian Petroleum Explor-
ation Association Journal, p. 220–252.
Power, P.E., and S.B. Devine, 1970, Surat Basin, Aus-
tralia—sub-surface stratigraphy, history and
petroleum: AAPG Bulletin, v. 54, p. 2410–2437.
Powis, G.D., 1989, Revision of Triassic stratigraphy
at the Cooper Basin to Eromanga Basin transition,
in B.J. O’Neil, ed., The Cooper and Eromanga
Basins, Australia: Proceedings of the Petroleum
Exploration Society of Australia, Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Australian Society of Explo-
ration Geophysicists (SA Branches), Adelaide,
p. 265–277.
Rodda, J.S., and T.G. Paspaliaris, 1989, Tirrawarra and
Moorari oil fields enhanced oil recovery schemes—
further development, in B.J. O’Neil, ed., The
Cooper and Eromanga Basins, Australia: Proceed-
ings of the Petroleum Exploration Society of
Australia, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Aus-
tralian Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SA
Branches), Adelaide, p. 121– 129.
Rootare, H.M., 1970, A review of mercury porosime-
try: advanced experimental techniques in powder
metallurgy: New York, Plenum Press, p. 225–252.
Ryan-Grigor, S., and J.P. Schulz-Rojahn, 1995, Seismic
delineation of structure-controlled carbonate
cement and potential economic implications, Angel
Field, North West Shelf: The Australian Petroleum
Exploration Association Journal, p. 280–295.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–760.
Schulz-Rojahn, J.P., 1993, Calcite-cemented zones in
the Eromanga Basin: clues to petroleum migration
and entrapment: The Australian Petroleum Explo-
ration Association Journal, p. 63–76.
Singh, R., 1990, The seismic response of calcite
cemented sandstone—Gidgealpa: Master’s thesis,
University of South Australia.
Smyth, M., A.C. Cook, and R.P. Philp, 1984, Birkhead
revisited: petrological and geochemical studies of the
Birkhead Formation, Eromanga Basin: The Australian
Petroleum Exploration Association Journal, p. 230–242.
 Capillary Seals Within the Eromanga Basin, Australia: Implications for Exploration and Production
Sneider, R.M., and K. Stolper, 1991, Petrophysical
properties of seals (abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 75,
no. 3, p. 673–674.
Theologou, P.N., 1995, Murta Formation/McKinlay
Member of the Murteree Ridge Nappagoongee-
Murteree Block—improved oil recovery project:
Ph.D. thesis, University of South Australia.
Townsend, G., 1993, Distribution, chemistry, isotopic
composition and origin of diagenetic carbonates:
Namur Sandstone, Cooper Eromanga Basin, South
Australia: Honor’s thesis, University of Melbourne.
Veevers, J.J., ed., 1984, Phanerozoic Earth History of
Australia: New York, Oxford University Press,
418 p.
Watts, K.J., 1987, The Hutton Sandstone–Birkhead
Formation transition, ATP 269, Eromanga Basin:
The Australian Petroleum Exploration Association
Journal, p. 215–228.
Whitford, D.J., P.J. Hamilton, and J. Scott, 1994,
Sedimentary provenance studies in Australian
basins using neodymium model ages: Australian
167
Petroleum Exploration Association Journal 1994,
p. 320–329.
Williams, N.V., P.N. Theologou, P.J. Boult, M.
Zwigulis, R.P. Schlicting, and R.A. Price, 1994,
Unusual lacustrine reservoirs and seals of the
Murteree Horst area, Eromanga Basin, South Aus-
tralia: Society of Petroleum Engineers paper no.
28751, presented at the Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Con-
ference, Melbourne, Australia, November 7–10,
p. 99–112.
Wiltshire, M.J., 1989, Mesozoic stratigraphy and
palaeogeography, eastern Australia, in B.J. O’Neil,
ed., The Cooper and Eromanga Basins, Australia:
Proceedings of the Petroleum Exploration Society
of Australia, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Aus-
tralian Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SA
Branches), Adelaide, p. 279–291.
Zoellner, E., 1988, Geology of the Early Cretaceous
Murta Member, Mooga Formation, in the Copper
[sic] Basin area, South Australia and Queensland:
Ph.D. thesis, Flinders University of South Australia.
 Uygur, K., H. Is, and M.A. Yukler, 1997, Reservoir characteriza-
tion of Cretaceous Mardin Group carbonates in Bölükyayla-
Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields, SE Turkey: a petro-graphic
and petrophysical comparison of Overthrust and Foreland
Zones, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum
system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 169–198.

Chapter 11
◆

Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous

Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölükyayla-
Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields, SE Turkey:
A Petrographic and Petrophysical
Comparison of Overthrust and Foreland Zones
Kadir Uygur
Huseyin Is
TPAO Exploration Group
Ankara, Turkey

M. Arif Yükler
IBA Inc.
Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Approximately 95% of Turkey’s total oil production comes from south-
east Turkey, with 70% of the 95% from Cretaceous Mardin Group carbon-
ates. This study is carried out to evaluate the petrophysical and
petrographic properties of the source-reservoir-seal carbonate intervals of
the Mardin Group oil fields of the foreland area and oil fields of the Upper
Cretaceous overthrust frontal zone of southeast Anatolia. The data include
thin sections, cores and plugs, drill-stem tests, electrical logs, organic geo-
chemistry, and basin analyses results from 65 exploration wells in both
regions.
The Aptian–Lower Campanian Mardin Group is deposited on the shelf-to-
intrashelf part of a passive continental margin of the Arabian plate. Relative
sea level changes in the Cretaceous are responsible for three main shallowing-
upward cycles that produced three reservoir intervals separated from each
other by source and/or seal intervals. Each of the cycles is underlain and
overlain by unconformity surfaces.
Structurally, the oil fields of the overthrust frontal zone and the foreland
area studied are represented by the Cretaceous imbricated structures and the
Miocene wrench system, respectively. Large accumulations of hydrocarbons
have been trapped along both the east-west elongated, narrow, and asymmet-
rical thrusted anticlines of the imbricated zone and the northeast-
southwest–trending en echelon anticlines of the wrench system.

169
170 Uygur et al.

The source, reservoir, and seal rocks are all carbonates. The oil, which is
in fractured dolomites and limestones, is 22˚–35˚API. Porosity, permeabili-
ty, and water saturation of reservoir pay zones are 3–15%, 0.1–7000 md,
and 20–50%, respectively. Secondary porosity is dominant and, in decreas-
ing order of abundance, it occurs as dolo-intercrystalline, vugular, and
fracture types.
The Mardin Group carbonates have undergone both early and late dia-
genesis resulting from the existence of shallowing-upward depositional
cycles and burial-tectonic stresses during the Cretaceous and Tertiary
Periods. The important effects of diagenesis on reservoir quality have been
fracturing and dolomitization. Intrafracture mineralization, mineral
replacement, and dissolution also play an important role in determining
reservoir quality. The reservoir performance, on the field scale, is good at
the structurally high intervals due to increased frequency of fractures and
intensified late dolomitization.
The same and/or similar static hydraulic regimes prevail in the double
porosity system reservoirs in and between the oil fields. There is an increase
in initial reservoir pressure with depth for both foreland and overthrust
frontal zones.
The main factors affecting hydrocarbon generation in source rock for the
overthrust frontal zone in the northwest and the foreland area in the south-
east are thickness of both the Campanian Karadut-Kocali and the Upper
Miocene allochthonous units, the thickness of the Eocene–Miocene carbon-
ates, and clastics.
Due to gravitational segregation, the API gravity of oil decreases with
depth in both regions. The API gravity of oil also decreases gradually from
the overthrust frontal zone to the foreland area.

INTRODUCTION This study, an extension of Uygur and Gürel (1991),

The study area (Figure 1) is located in the foreland
and Upper Cretaceous overthrust frontal zones of
southeast Turkey. It is near the cities of Adiyaman to
the west, Urfa to the south, and Diyarbakir to the east.
It covers ~190 km2 of subsurface area and consists of
six oil-producing fields: Karakus, K. Karakus, Cen-
dere, and G. Karakus of the foreland, and Bölükyayla
and Cukurtas of the overthrust frontal zone (Figure 1).
This study is a petrophysical evaluation and com-
parison of the Mardin Group carbonates in these oil
fields and is the product of four years’ endeavors con-
ducted by the TPAO Exploration Group. This paper
introduces the stratigraphy, depositional environ-
ments, and structural position of the Mardin Group
carbonates with respect to reservoir quality. In addi-
tion, it explains, interprets, and compares diagenetic
and reservoir characteristics (i.e., porosity, permeabil-
ity, static reservoir pressure, API oil gravity, hydrocar-
bon potential) of the Mardin Group carbonates in the
oil fields that were studied. These fields produce
>50% of total crude production of TPAO.
is based on information from 65 exploration and pro-
duction wells. Analysis of drill-stem tests, electrical
logs, cores and plugs, thin sections, and organic geo-
chemistry from these wells, including four selected
wells modeled using the quantitative basin analysis
software of YUKLERPC ® (Yükler and Welte, 1980;
Yükler, 1987), make up the basis for this study.
Stratigraphy
The Mardin Group carbonates are Aptian–Early
Campanian in age (Figure 2). The group is mainly
limestone and dolomite in both regions. Approxi-
mately 300 m of Mardin Group carbonates were pene-
trated by the wells. The group consists of four
mappable rock units of the three main cycles (Figure
2): the Areban-Sabunsuyu (Aptian–Cenomanian), the
Derdere (Cenomanian–Turonian?), and the Karababa
(Santonian–Lower Campanian) formations. These for-
mations are separated from each other by unconformi-
ties. The contacts at the bottom and top of the Mardin
Group are also unconformities (Figure 2).
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields
Figure 1. Index map of the study area.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND
RESERVOIR QUALITY
The Mardin Group carbonates are deposited on the
shelf and intrashelf part of a passive continental mar-
gin of the Arabian plate (Horstink, 1971; Uygur and
Aydemir, 1988; Celikdemir et al., 1991). During the
Cretaceous, relative sea level changes (Gorur et al.,
1987) caused the formation of three main shallowing-
upward depositional cycles and several subcycles
(Figure 3) in the Mardin Group carbonates. Unconfor-
mities between the cycles are also evident as erosional
or nondepositional surfaces by sequence stratigraphic
analysis (Tardu et al., 1990), who state that the Mardin
Group consists of at least three different depositional
sequences. Both thickening-upward and coarsening-
upward sequences are observable in each of the three
main shallowing-upward cycles.
The three shallowing-upward cycles initially cre-
ated the reservoir intervals separated by source
and/or seal intervals (Figure 3). In general, the lower
parts of cycles II and III are source and seal rocks, with
reservoir rocks generally in the upper and middle part
of each cycle. These three reservoir intervals, particu-
larly the dolomites of the second cycle (Derdere For-
mation), are the main oil producers and are often
interconnected by tectonically formed fractures and
dissolution pathways. Unconformity surfaces between
the cycles, which introduce additional porosity and
permeability, may also play an important role in deter-
mining reservoir quality (Wagner and Pehlivan, 1985;
Wagner et al., 1986; Uygur and Aydemir, 1988; Duran
and Aras, 1990; Celikdemir et al., 1991).
171
STRUCTURAL POSITION AND
RESERVOIR QUALITY
The Karakus, K. Karakus-Cendere, and G. Karakus
oil fields of the foreland area (Figure 4) are located just
to the south of the frontal part of the Orogenic belt.
The Bölükyayla and Cukurtas oil fields are in the
foothills of the Orogenic belt (Figure 4).
The foreland area is represented by gentle, low-
relief anticlines and faulted folds (Akgül and Pasin,
1992, personal communication). The foothills of the
Orogenic belt are partially characterized by the
Upper Miocene and Upper Cretaceous imbricated
overthrust belt. The foreland is to the south of the
imbricated Cretaceous overthrust frontal zone (Fig-
ure 4). In general, the present tectonic features of the
study area and adjacent areas are developed as the
result of the collision of the two continental masses:
the Arabian and Anatolian plates (Horstink, 1971;
Dewey et al., 1973).
Structurally, the oil fields of the foreland are on the
Miocene wrench system (Çemen and Akgül, 1991, per-
sonal communication). This system, known as the
Adiyaman Fault zone, is shown in Figure 5. The sys-
tem, very similar to the classic examples given by
Wilcox et al. (1973) and Hobbs et al. (1976), is an
oblique-slip type with dominantly sinistral (left-
lateral) displacement (Brown, 1991; Pasin, 1992, per-
sonal communication). It contains a series of north-
east-southwest–trending left-lateral strike-slip faults
and en echelon folds (Figure 5). However, Uysal and
Duygu (1992, personal communication) observed that
left-lateral displacement of the Adiyaman Fault zone is
172 Uygur et al.
not dominant, and the structure of the area has been
formed primarily by Upper Cretaceous thrusting and
reactivation of Upper Cretaceous thrusting that
occurred during the Miocene.
Large accumulations of hydrocarbons have been
trapped in the northeast-southwest–trending en eche-
lon folds of the wrench system. The system, which
belongs to the East Anatolian Fault System, is believed
to be Middle Miocene (Çemen and Akgül, 1991, per-
sonal communication), Middle Eocene–Miocene (Yil-
maz et al., 1991), Miocene (Perinçek and Çemen, 1991)
in age and the result of late Tertiary reactivation
(Brown, 1991). The basin modeling results show that
the expulsion and accumulation of oils took place from
the Miocene to the Pleistocene (Yükler, 1987). There-
fore, if structural wrenching took place during
Miocene times, then the earliest that hydrocarbon
migration into the traps could have occurred was in
the Miocene. This has been confirmed by the applica-
tion of other basin analysis methods in the area.
The fractures in these carbonate reservoir rocks
have significant contribution to the reservoir quality,
especially to the productivity (Tore et al., 1992).
Ozkanli and Standen (1991) studied the degree of frac-
turing, orientation of fracture systems, and fracture
porosity in these reservoirs by both electrical (FMS)
Figure 2. General
stratigraphy of the
Mardin Group
(Celikdemir et al., 1991).
and acoustic (BHTV) images. They observed that frac-
ture densities and orientations are related to local
structural events such as faults, folds, and unconfor-
mities.
The Bölükyayla and Cukurtas oil fields of the
foothills are located in the Cenomanian–Turonian
Karadut allochthonous complex area, which is mainly
composed of carbonate flysch. The emplacement of the
allochthonous complex at the northern margin of
southeast Anatolia and into the Kastel Formation
occurred during the Late Cretaceous (Akgul and Erdo-
gan, 1992). Below the Karadut complex, the Sayindere
Formation, Karabogaz Formation, and Mardin Group
carbonates are present (Figure 4).
SOURCE, RESERVOIR,
AND SEAL ROCKS
The source, reservoir, and seal rocks of the oil fields
are all carbonates (Table 1). As explained above, gen-
erally the lower parts of each shallowing-upward
cycle, with the exception of cycle I, contain source
and/or seal rocks, and the upper and middle parts con-
tain reservoirs. The representative ranges of porosity
(θ), permeability (K), and total organic carbon (TOC)
values are listed in Figure 3.
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields 173

Figure 3. Generalized sketch of lithostratigraphy, facies, depositional cycles, areal

distribution, tectonic setting, and economic importance of Mardin Group carbonates
(adapted from Wagner and Tuna, 1988).
174 Uygur et al.
Figure 4. Schematic structural cross section of southeast Turkey (modified from Horstink, 1971; Akgul and
Erdogan, 1992).
Source Rocks
The dominant source rock in the area is a phos-
phatic mudstone of the Karabogaz Formation (Table
1, Figure 6). This source rock is typified by its dark
color, mud-supported texture, TOC content, hydro-
gen index (HI), and Tmax values (Table 2). The values
in Table 2 indicate type II kerogen and moderate
maturity (Soylu and Gurgey, 1991, personal commu-
nication). In general, in a southeast (foreland area) to
northwest (overthrust zone) direction, TOC content
decreases, maturity increases and amount of amor-
phous organic matter increases (Soylu, 1994, per-
sonal communication).
The lower parts of cycle III (Karababa-A member
of the Karababa Formation) and cycle II (the lower
part of the Derdere Formation) also have source rock
potential (Table 1, Figure 3).
Reservoir Rocks
As indicated by cores, logs, drill-stem test evalua-
tions, thin sections, and porosity and permeability data
for the Mardin Group carbonates, the lower part of the
fractured Karabogaz Formation, dolomitic wackestone
of the Karababa-C member of the Karababa Formation,
and especially the dolomites (Figure 7) of the Derdere
Formation, are the dominant reservoir rocks (Figure 3,
Table 1) in the area. Dolomites of the Sabunsuyu For-
mation, grainstones of the upper part of the Derdere
Formation, and the bioclastic wackestones of the
Karababa-C member are reservoirs of secondary
importance (Table 1). Unconformity surfaces, which
are the sites for dissolution and karstification features,
between both the Karabogaz and Karababa formations
and between the Karababa and Derdere formations
also enhance the reservoir quality of the Mardin
Group carbonates.
The reservoir rocks, mainly fractured dolomites
and limestones, do not contain significant primary
porosity. Diagenesis, karstification, and tectonics
have generated major secondary porosity develop-
ment through various stages of dolomitization, dis-
solution, and fracturing.
In addition, tectonically controlled fractures (Fig-
ure 8) play a dominant role in the development of
well productivity by causing the reservoir intervals
to be interconnected with each other.
Seal Rocks
Clayey, fossilliferous wackestone of the Sayindere
Formation is the dominant seal rock type (Table 1)
for the Mardin Group reservoirs. This seal is at the
top of the Karabogaz Formation. In general, the
source rocks of the area are also effective seal rocks.
The lower part of the Derdere Formation may be a
seal for the Sabunsuyu reservoir. The Karababa-A
member, which is another potential seal, is above the
Derdere reservoir. All the seals are either mudstones
or wackestones (Table 1).
Figure 5. Structure contour map of the K. Karakus-Cendere (upper right), Karakus (center),
G. Karakus (lower right), and Cukurtas and Bölükyayla (upper left) oil fields (modified from
Pasin, 1991).
176 Uygur et al.

Table 1. Source, Reservoir, and Seal Carbonates of the Studied Oil Fields, Southeast Turkey.

Oil Fields Source Rock Reservoir Rock Seal Rock

Karaboğas Fm. Phosphatic Mudstone Wackestone Mudstone/Wackestone
Sayindere Fm. Clayey Fossiliferous
Wackestone
Karababa-A Mudstone/Wackestone Mudstone/Wackestone (?)
Member
Karababa-C Bioclastic Wackestone
Member Dolomitic Wackestone
Derdere Fm. Mudstone/Wackestone Dolomite Mudstone/Wackestone
(lower part) Grainstone (lower part?)
Sabunsuyu Fm. Dolomite
Unconformity(?) Karaboğaz/Karababa
Surfaces Karababa/Derdere

DIAGENESIS AND RESERVOIR
QUALITY
The Mardin Group carbonates in the study area
have undergone both early and late diagenesis as the
result of three shallowing-upward carbonate cycles
(Figure 3) and burial-tectonic stresses. The effects of
these three shallowing-upward cycles on the reservoir
quality are: (1) the creation of three carbonate reser-
voirs separated from each other by source and/or seal
carbonates, (2) the development carbonate rock types
containing intergranular porosity at the upper parts of
each cycle, (3) subaerial exposures and consequent
karstification, desiccation cracks, and early dolomiti-
zation. Burial-tectonic stresses, which are superim-
posed on the previous events, caused the initiation
and development of tectonodiagenetic processes.
These processes include fracturing in both the Creta-
ceous and the Miocene deformations, pressure solu-
tion, coarse-crystalline late dolomitization, and
dissolution. The most important of these tectonodiage-
netic events on reservoir quality are fracturing and late
dolomitization.
Visual analyses of cores, thin-section analyses, and
porosity-permeability-fluid saturation-mercury injec-
tion measurements of both the Karababa-C member
and Derdere Formation from wells such as Cendere-9
allow the following generalizations for diagenesis,
reservoir quality, and burial history: (1) the Karababa-
C member is generally tight and vertically fractured,
with some fractures still open. No visible porosity is
observed in cores and thin sections. It may be a sec-
ondary reservoir, when associated with fault zones. (2)
The upper parts of the Derdere reservoir are generally
limestone. Toward the middle part, it changes to

Figure 6.
Photomicrograph of
phosphatic mudstone
from the Karabogaz
formation. Dark colors
are phosphate in dark
matrix, which is rich in
organic matter. Width
of the field: 3.6 mm.
Plane-polarized light.
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields 177

Table 2. Source Rock Characteristics of the porosity is controlled by dolomitization (Figure 9),
Phosphatic Mudstone of the Karabogaz Formation dissolution (Figure 10), brecciation (Figure 11), and
in the Oil Fields Studied, Southeast Turkey.* fractures (Figure 9). These parameters that affect poros-
ity are very intense near fault zones, at the crest of folds,
TOC HI Tmax and/or on the maximum curvature of folds. The porosity
(wt. %) (mgHC/grock/wt. %) (°C) resulting from the above causes is secondary in type.
Decreasing order of abundance of this secondary poros-
1–2 350–450 440 ity is intercrystalline (Figures 7, 9), vuggy (Figure 10),
and fracture (Figure 9) types. There is dissolution in
*Values indicate type II kerogen and moderate maturity. From dolo-intercrystalline pores, as indicated by embayments,
Soylu and Gurgey, 1991.
irregular shapes, and enlargements along the dolomite
dolomite. Homogeneous distribution of porosity and crystal faces (Figure 10). The product of this dissolution
dolomitization is not observed on interwell scale. is the vuggy type of porosity.
However, there is a definite relationship between The association of late dolomitization with live
fracturing and dolomitization (Figure 9). Most of the hydrocarbon staining and fracture is shown in Figure
Figure 7. Photomicrograph of
the dolomite reservoir of the
Derdere Formation. This is the
main reservoir for the Mardin
Group carbonates and has an
excellent intercrystalline
porosity. Dark colors between
crystals are hydrocarbon
stains. Width of the field: 2.4
mm. Plane-polarized light.

Figure 8. Core photography of

fractures. The interconnection
of the reservoir intervals is
made by these fractures.
The vertical fractures are
dominant. Along these
fractures, some diagenetic
processes, such as dolomitiza-
tion, calcification, and
dissolution, exist. Scale is
5 cm. Karakus-2 well, depth of
2692.5m, Karababa-C
formation.
178 Uygur et al.

Figure 9. Photomicrograph
of dolomite and its association
with fracture. Coarse-
crystalline dolomites are
along the fracture, which
extends from the lower right
to the upper right. Dark areas
in intercrystalline pores are
hydrocarbon stains. Width
of the field: 1.40 mm. Plane-
polarized light. Karakus-14,
Derdere Formation.

12. The fracture in the center of the photomicrograph
indicates that the late dolomitization and live hydro-
carbon staining along the fracture are associated with
each other. The connections of the Mardin Group
reservoirs with each other are conducted by these
permeable fractures (Figure 12).
RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE MARDIN GROUP CARBONATES
The representative values of the reservoir proper-
ties of the Cendere, K. Karakus, Karakus, and
G. Karakus oil fields of the foreland and the
Bölükyayla and Cukurtas oil fields of the overthrust
frontal zone are given in Table 3.
In the foreland, the oil is produced dominantly
from the Upper Cretaceous fractured dolomites and
secondarily from the fractured limestones at a mini-
mum subsea depth of 1600 m. The combined dimen-
sions of the fields are ~l5 × 7 km and they are
structurally characterized by northeast-southwest–
trending low relief en echelon folds and faulted folds
(Figure 5).
The maximum height of oil column is ~250 m. The
approximate oil/water contact is at 1850 m subsea in

Figure 10. Photomicrograph

of dissolution in dolo-
intercrystalline porosity.
Irregular embayments along
the dolomite crystal faces
indicate the dissolution, which
may later produce vuggy-type
porosity. Dark areas in the
embayments are hydrocarbon
stains. Width of the field: 0.70
mm. Plane-polarized light.
Karakus-14, Derdere
Formation.
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields 179

Figure 11. Photomicrograph

of brecciation in the Derdere
formation. This is a fault-
related brecciation.
Dark spots and lines are
hydrocarbon stains. Width
of the field: 5.40 mm. Plane-
polarized light. Cendere-l.

the Karakus, K. Karakus, and Cendere oil fields. It is
~1870 m subsea for the G. Karakus field.
The porosity and permeability of the system and
the water saturation ranges of pay zones of the fore-
land oil fields are 3–15%, 0.1–7000 md, and 20–50%,
respectively. The reservoir temperature is between
200° and 250°F (93°–121°C). The initial reservoir pres-
sure ranges from 2600 psig to 3542 psig, with an aver-
age of 3056 psig. Oil gravity ranges between 25° and
32° API, with an average of 29° API. The gross pro-
duction of each well ranges from 200 to 5,000
bbl/day, with an average water cutoff of 30%. The
gross production of the 40 wells in the fields was
72,000 bbl/day, with 50,000 bbl/day of net crude oil
production in October 1991, and 27,000 bbl/day in
February 1994.
In the overthrust frontal zone, the representative
values of the reservoir properties of the Bölükyayla
and Cukurtas oil fields are different from the oil fields
of the foreland area (Table 3). Here, the maximum
height of the oil column (120 m) is less, the oil-water
contact (–1970 ft; –2250 m) is deeper, the system’s per-
meability (0.1–65 md) is smaller, the reservoir temper-
ature (220°–270°F) is higher, maximum net crude oil

Figure 12. Photomicrograph

of the relationship
between the late dolomite,
hydrocarbon stain, and
fracture. Coarse-crystalline
dolomites and hydrocarbon
stain (dark line in the center)
along the fracture. Width
of the field: 5.40 mm. Plane-
polarized light. Karakus-14,
Derdere Formation.
180 Uygur et al.

Table 3. Reservoir Parameters and Variations Extracted from DSTs and Log Analysis in the Foreland and the
Overthrust Frontal Zone Oil Fields, Southeast Turkey.

Overthrust
Parameters Foreland Frontal Zone
Dimension (km) 15 × 7 8×7
Max. Height of Oil Column (m) 250 20
Oil-Water Contact BSL (m) –1850, –1870 –1970, –2250
Pay Zone Fractured Fractured
Dolomite (LST) Dolomite (LST)
φ (%) 3–15 1–7
K (md) 0.1–7000 0.1–65
Sw (%) 20–50 0.0–30
Reservoir Temperature (˚F)(˚C) 200–250 (93–121) 220–270 (104–132)
Initial Reservoir Pressure (psi) 2600–3542 2900–4050
Oil Gravity (˚API) 25–32 33–40
Max. Net Crude Oil 50,000 1050
Production (bbl/day)

Figure 13. The plot of

depth vs. the average
system’s permeability
for 141 measurements
in the Cendere,
K. Karakus, Karakus,
G. Karakus, Bölükyayla,
and Cukurtas oil fields.
High variability in
permeability values is
observed. Permeability
measurements are from
drill-stem tests of the
Mardin Group carbonates.
BSL = below sea level.
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields 181

Figure 14. The plot of depth vs. the system’s average permeability for 43 measurements in the Cendere, K.
Karakus, Karakus, and G. Karakus oil fields. Permeability measurements are from drill-stem tests of the
Derdere Formation. BSL = below sea level; R, correlation coefficient, = –0.4533; –x, mean depth BSL, –1815.98 m;
–y, mean permeability, = 12.59 md; and Y = 15.91 – 0.0082X is the regression equation.

Figure 15. Photomicrograph of

coarse dolomite crystals (on
the left) and fine dolomitic
crystals (on the right). Coarse
dolomites are in association
with thin fracture from lower
center toward upper left. Dark
colors along the fracture are
hydrocarbon stains. Width of
the field: 5.40 mm. Plane-
polarized light. K. Karakus-l,
Derdere Formation.
182 Uygur et al.

Figure 16. Photomicrograph

of heterogeneity in the
amount of dolomite.
Dolomite crystals are more
in the left than in the right
side. Intense dolomitization
(late) along the fractures.
Width of the fields: 5.40
mm. Plane-polarized light.
Karakus-14, Derdere
Formation.

Figure 17. Structural cross section through the K. Karakus and Cendere fields. Karakus-2 and -4 are structural-
ly higher than the Cendere-2 and -1 wells (see Figure 5 for location of cross section).
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields 183

Table 4. Comparison of Carbonate Textures, Porosity, and Diagenesis for the Cendere and N. Karakus Oil
Fields of the Foreland Area.

Well Name Karababa-C Member Derdere Formation

Cendere-1 Bioclastic Carbonate breccia
wackestone/mudstone Pressure solution
Pressure solution Fractured
Fractured φ**≤1%
φ*≤3%
Cendere-2 Bioclastic- Dolosparite, dolomitic
wackestone/packstone wackestone
Fractured Vertical extension and
φ**≤6% conjugate shear fractures
Intercrystalline, vuggy φ
φ**≤15%
N. Karakus-2 Dolomitic wackestone Dolosparite
Fractured Fractured
φ*≤1% Intercrystalline, vuggy φ
Intense dissolution
φ*≤20%
N. Karakus-1 Bioclastic-wackestone Dolosparite
Fractured Fractured
φ*≤3% Intercrystalline, vuggy φ
Moderate dissolution
φ*≤10%
* φ is from log.
** φ is from core.

Figure 18. Plot of depth below sea level vs. the average system’s permeability of Mardin Group car-
bonates in the Cendere and K. Karakus oil fields, foreland area.
 184
Uygur et al.

Figure 19. Drill-stem tests indicated flow rates for the Cendere and K. Karakus fields, foreland area.
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields 185

Figure 20. Depth reference to sea level (RSL) vs. static reservoir pressure
for the Mardin Group reservoirs in the Karakus, K. Karakus, Cendere,
and G. Karakus fields of the foreland area and fields of the overthrust
frontal zone.
186 Uygur et al.

Figure 21. Static reservoir pressure contour map at the top of the Derdere Formation.
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields 187

Figure 22. Depth reference to sea level (RSL) vs. bottom-hole temperature
(BHT) for the Mardin Group reservoirs in the foreland and overthrust
frontal zone (OTFZ) oil fields.
188 Uygur et al.

Figure 23. Depth reference to sea level (BSL) vs. API oil gravity. R, correlation coefficient,
= 0.7597; –x, mean depth, = –1772.83 m; –y, mean API oil gravity, = 29.01° API; and Y = 57.477 +
0.016X is the regression equation.
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields
Table 5. Correlation Coefficients for API Oil Gravity vs. Depth in the Oil Fields of Foreland Area, Southeast
Turkey.
Field Name Number of Mean BSL
Samples Depth (m)
Cendere 9 –1759.9
K. Karakus 13 –1772.1
Karakus 44 –1766.8
G. Karakus 5 –1842.2
Total 71 –1772.8
production (1050 bbl/day) is less, and the initial reser-
voir pressure (2900–4050 psi) and API oil gravity
(33–35) are higher than those of the oil fields in the
foreland (Table 3).
VERTICAL AND LATERAL VARIABILITY
IN RESERVOIR QUALITY
The most important reservoir parameter of the
systems is permeability, which ranges from 0.1 to
7000 md. The variable average production rate of
each well is between 200 bbl/day and 5000 bbl/day.
These values indicate that there is a great variability
in the reservoir quality of the Mardin Group carbon-
ates in the study area. On the other hand, there are
no main vertical or lateral changes in lithology,
facies, and thicknesses of the three shallowing-
upward cycles of the Mardin Group carbonates on
the interwell scale. Therefore, the variations in per-
meability and production rates are related to the dia-
genesis, including fractures of the Mardin carbonate
reservoirs.
Figure 13, which is the plot of depth below sea
level vs. average system’s permeability of both the
Karababa-C member and the Derdere Formation of
the foreland and overthrust frontal zone oil fields,
shows the very high variability in permeability values.
The similar plot for the Derdere Formation of the fore-
land oil fields (Figure 14) also shows a similar result.
Although the relationship between depth and perme-
ability seems to be clearer for the Derdere Formation,
statistically it is still insignificant, with a correlation
coefficient of –0.4533.
In general, permeability depends upon the Creta-
ceous and the Miocene fracture systems and dolo-
intercrystalline porosity. The intensity of fracturing
and dolomitization in the area are heterogeneous
and/or heterogeneity in tectonic and diagenetic tex-
tures exists. This heterogeneity, in microscale, is
shown in Figures 15 and 16. Figure 15 shows that dif-
ferent sizes of dolomite crystals exist in the left and
right sides of the photomicrograph. Coarse dolomite
crystals in the left side of the photomicrograph are
associated with a thin fracture from the lower left
toward the upper right. Figure 16 illustrates the het-
erogeneous distribution of dolomitization that was
initiated by fractures. The amount of dolomitization
189
Correlation
Mean (API) Coefficient (R)
29.73 0.9614
29.07 0.7705
29.12 0.7170
26.87 0.6733
29.01 0.7597
in the left side of the photomicrograph is more than
in the right side. The intense dolomitization occurs
along the fractures. All these features indicate the
heterogeneity in tectonic and diagenetic textures.
Structurally High Intervals
The reservoir performance, in the field scale, is gen-
erally good at the structurally high intervals. This is
largely due to increase in fractures and associated
dolomitization, and better permeability and porosity
at the crest of the folds where the fracturing is intensi-
fied. For example, if one compares the reservoir para-
meters of the K. Karakus-2 and -4 wells, which are
structurally located at the higher position with respect
to the Cendere-2 and -1, which are in the lower posi-
tion (Figure 17), one gets better parameters at the
structurally higher intervals and/or on the maximum
structural curvature than at the lower intervals and/or
at the flanks of the fold.
Table 4 shows the comparisons of carbonate tex-
tures, porosity types, and diagenesis for structurally
high (K. Karakus field) and low (Cendere field) areas.
The best place in terms of reservoir quality is the
location of the K. Karakus-2 well. At this location,
which comprises the highest point in the area, the
intensity of dolomitization, dissolution, and the
amount of secondary porosity of the Derdere Forma-
tion are more than the intensity of dolomitization,
dissolution, and amount of secondary porosity of the
Derdere reservoir in Cendere-1 and -2 and K.
Karakus-1 locations (Table 4).
Similarly, the depth (below sea level) vs. the aver-
age system’s permeability plot shows that the per-
meability values (Figure 18) at the structurally high
intervals (K. Karakus field), especially in the K.
Karakus-2 well, are better than those at the struc-
turally low intervals (Cendere field). Consequently,
the flow rates (in barrels per day per meter) of the
structurally high intervals are better than those of
structurally low intervals (Figure 19).
Static Reservoir Pressure
The static reservoir pressures of the Mardin Group
carbonates in the foreland and overthrust frontal
zones, from 257 drill-stem tests, are plotted against
depth with reference to sea level (Figure 20). This plot
190 Uygur et al.

Figure 24. Depth reference to sea level (BSL) vs. API oil gravity of foreland and overthrust frontal zone
oil fields.
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields 191

Figure 25. API oil gravity contour map at the top of the Derdere Formation.
192 Uygur et al.
Figure 26. Computed subsidence history with water depth, Bölükyayla-2 well.
indicates a good correlation between static reservoir
pressure and depth: the pressure increases with
increasing depth. Almost all the data points fall on the
same trend, with a correlation coefficient of 0.65. Some
discrepancies in the data points are due to the exis-
tence of more than one production zone, ongoing pro-
duction, and consequent pressure drops or the effects
of interference between wells in the fields. If these dis-
crepancies are omitted, the correlation coefficient
would be >0.65. This indicates that the same and/or
similar hydraulic regimes prevail in the Mardin Group
reservoirs of both regions due to interconnection
between reservoir intervals by means of tectonically
controlled fractures and dissolution voids.
The static pressure contour map at the top of the
Derdere Formation (Figure 21) indicates lower pres-
sure values at the structurally high intervals than at
the structurally low intervals. This is obtained by com-
paring the structural contour map in Figure 5 with the
static pressure contour map in Figure 21. The static
pressure contours of the Karakus, K. Karakus, Cen-
dere, and G. Karakus oil fields of the foreland and the
Bölükyayla and Cukurtas oil fields of the overthrust
frontal zone are almost a mirror image of the structure
contours expected in any hydrostatic to slightly sub-
normally pressured system.
Bottom-Hole Temperatures and
Geothermal Gradients
The corrected bottom-hole temperatures (BHT) of
the Mardin Group reservoirs in both the foreland and
the overthrust frontal zones are plotted against subsea
depth (Figure 22). This figure shows a positive correla-
tion between BHT and subsea depth; that is, BHT
increase with increasing depth.
The detailed investigation of the plot, however,
exhibits two geothermal gradients. The geothermal
gradient of the overthrust frontal zone in the north-
west (0.89°F/100 ft; 1.30°C/100 m) is smaller than
the geothermal gradient of the foreland zone
(2.15°F/l00 ft; 3.9°C/100 m) in the southeast. This
means that the Mardin Group reservoir in the over-
thrust frontal zone is cooler than the Mardin Group
reservoir in the foreland area. This is due to the pres-
ence of thicker high-thermal-conductivity carbon-
ates in the overthrust frontal zone and the movement
of the formation water from the deeper intervals in
the overthrust zone to the shallower depths in the
foreland zone. There are also areas with meteoric
water recharge.
Since the oil fields of the foreland area have rela-
tively higher geothermal gradients than the oil
fields of the overthrust frontal zone, the foreland
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields
Figure 27. Computed subsidence history with water depth, Karakus-3 well.
area is expected to be a better site for hydrocarbon
accumulation due to active water drive mecha-
nism. However, this hypothesis must be checked
by other parameters, such as salinity and hydraulic
head distributions within the Mardin Group reser-
voirs.
API Oil Gravity
In the foreland area, the API gravity of oil
decreases with increasing depth (Figure 23 ) in each
of the Cendere, K. Karakus, Karakus, and G. Karakus
oil fields. In other words, oil gets heavier with
increasing depth. The correlation coefficients of API
gravity vs. depth for each of the fields studied range
from 0.6733 to 0.9614 (Table 5). The correlation coef-
ficient for the total samples (n = 71) is 0.7597. This
points to a gravitational segregation of oil within the
reservoir and/or migration of hydrocarbons with
strong water flow from the deeper overthrust frontal
zone where hydrocarbons are generated to the shal-
lower zones in the foreland zone.
There is no relationship between the API gravity
of oil and depth in the oil fields of the overthrust
frontal zone. This is due to the scarce data points in
this area. Figure 24 shows the relationships of the
API gravity of oil and depth in both regions.
193
The API gravity of oil also decreases gradually from
the overthrust frontal zone in the northwest to the
foreland area in the southeast (Figure 25). The cause of
this, however, is still being studied, and it may be that
either “heavy oils are generated away from the Thrust
Belt (Upper Cretaceous) and lighter oils are generated
close to the Thrust Belt” (Yükler, 1991) or short-
distance migrations occur from the adjacent low areas
toward the structurally high areas.
BASIN MODELING AND RESULTS
The deterministic dynamic basin modeling software
developed by Yükler (Yükler and Welte, 1980; Yükler,
1987), YUKLERPC®, is used to quantify the geologic
(lithofacies, chronostratigraphy, type of event, rate of
sedimentation, and/or erosion and tectonic evolution),
temperature, pressure, and hydrocarbon generation,
migration, and accumulation histories. Figures 1 and 5
show the study area and the wells that are modeled. In
this chapter, we present only the subsidence and
hydrocarbon generation histories at two wells:
Bölükyayla-2 in the overthrust frontal zone and
Karakus-3 in the foreland area (Figure 5).
In the basin modeling, the sedimentary sequences
at the wells are subdivided into 40 layers from the
194 Uygur et al.
Figure 28. Computed temperature and hydrocarbon generation (type II) at present, Bölükyayla-2 well.
Aptian (125 Ma) to the present and have vertical conti-
nuity in lithology and lateral continuity in time. The
vertical continuity is essential to correctly compute
pressure and temperature histories. The lateral conti-
nuity in time is needed to accurately define chrono-
stratigraphy and to plot the results at any time during
the geologic history (Yükler and Welte, 1980).
Figures 26 and 27 illustrate the subsidence histories
at the Bölükyayla-2 and Karakus-3 wells, respectively.
The sedimentation rates were slow to moderate until
the late Campanian (75 Ma). With the thrusting during
the latest Campanian–earliest Maastrichtian (75–73
Ma), the subsidence rate was very high at the
Bölükyayla-2 well (Güven et al., 1991), followed by
slow to moderate rates until the early Eocene (54 Ma)
and higher rates until the Oligocene (35 Ma) (Figure
26). At the Karakus-3 well, the subsidence rate was
high from the earliest Campanian to the Oligocene,
which is typical of a foreland area (Figure 27). The
study area was then subjected to erosion from the
Oligocene to Middle Miocene (35–16 Ma), followed by
another deposition until the end of Miocene (5 Ma)
(Figures 26, 27). During the last 5 Ma, the study area
was uplifted and the Selmo Formation was partly or
totally eroded.
In the optimization of the computed pressure and
temperature values, all the available maturity and
temperature data are used, and there is good agree-
ment between the computed and measured values.
The computed hydrocarbon generation vs. depth
trends (Figures 28, 29) are then compared against all
available pyrolysis data and hydrocarbon occurrences
at the wells. At the Bölükyayla-2 well, the organic mat-
ter is immature down to 1186 m, in early oil generation
phase (10°–14° API) down to 1828 m, at main oil phase
(15°–28° API) down to 3015 m (peak oil generation at
3015 m) and at condensate phase (30°–50° API) down
to T.D. (Figure 28). At the Karakus-3 well, the organic
matter is immature down to 1805 m, at early oil gener-
ation phase down to 2689 m, and at main oil phase
down to T.D. (Figure 29).
Figure 30 shows the hydrocarbon generation his-
tory for the two potential source rocks, Derdere and
Karabogaz formations, at the Bölükyayla-2 well. The
Derdere Formation reached peak oil generation at
43.6 Ma and the Karabogaz Formation at 37.4 Ma.
Since oil generation rates (and heating rates) were
low within the area, expulsion efficiency for oil was
also low. Therefore, oil expulsion took place when
the source rocks entered the light oil/condensate
generation phase. Consequently, the oils generated
and expelled in the overthrust frontal zone found
within the area have API gravities that are ≥30˚ API.
The modeling results show that expulsion of oils in
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields
Figure 29. Computed temperature and hydrocarbon generation (type II) at present, Karakus-3 well.
the overthrust frontal zone started as early as 45 Ma
and continued until the Late Miocene (6 Ma). The
Miocene thrusting also had a major influence on
generation and migration of oils. Both of the poten-
tial source rocks at the Karakus-3 well are still at
early oil generation phase (Figure 31). No effective
oil expulsion and migration can take place at this
location.
CONCLUSIONS
The petrophysical and petrographic properties of
the three carbonate reservoir intervals within the
Mardin Group are evaluated to improve the explo-
ration success in southeast Turkey.
Three carbonate reservoir intervals were initially
separated by source and/or seal carbonate rocks.
Those reservoir intervals may now be interconnected
with each other by tectonically controlled fractures
and dissolutions. The present configuration of
source reservoir and seal intervals is the result of the
combination of carbonate shallowing-upward cycles
and burial-tectonics stresses, which initiated and
developed the tectonodiagenetic processes and
superimposed on those carbonate shallowing-
upward cycles.
195
Fracturing and late dolomitization, and the rela-
tionships of depth vs. static reservoir pressure, API
oil gravity variations, and bottom-hole tempera-
tures, indicate that the Cendere, K. Karakus,
Karakus, G. Karakus, Bölükyayla, and Cukurtas
Mardin Group reservoirs behave as a single, contin-
uous reservoir. A similar increase in static reservoir
pressure with depth is also an indication that similar
hydraulic regimes exist in Mardin Group reservoirs
of both the foreland area and the overthrust frontal
zone. Increased intensity of fracturing, dolomitiza-
tion, dissolution, and better permeability and poros-
ity at structurally high intervals exert the main
control over the reservoir quality. Heterogeneity in
fracturing and dolomitization must be studied in
detail by means of oriented cores, thin sections, elec-
tron scanning images, and interference tests for
future prospect areas.
The computed geothermal gradients show that
the gradients in the overthrust frontal zone
(0.89°F/100 ft; 1.30°C/100 m) is lower than the fore-
land area (2.15°F/100 ft; 3.9°C/100 m). This suggests
meteoric water recharge in the former and discharge
in the latter zones. The active water circulation
makes the foreland area a better site for hydrocarbon
accumulation.
196 Uygur et al.
Figure 30. Computed hydrocarbon generation history (type II) for the two potential source rocks, Derdere and
Karabogaz formations, Bölükyayla-2 well.
The basin modeling results show that oil generation
from the two potential source rocks (Derdere and
Karabogaz formations) in the overthrust frontal zone
started with the late Cretaceous thrusting. Expulsion
of oils, however, started toward the mid-late Eocene
time. Oil expulsion occurred at peak oil and/or con-
densate phase. Hydrocarbon generation in the fore-
land area is directly related to the thickness of the
Paleocene and Eocene sediments. Some of the sub-
basins are still at early oil generation phase, whereas
others are approaching peak oil generation.
Both the type of hydrocarbons generated in these
two zones and the active water from the overthrust
frontal zone to the foreland area resulted in a gradual
decrease in API gravities of oils in the traps from the
overthrust frontal zone to the foreland area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the TPAO Exploration Group for support
and permission to publish this work. The help of
Vedat Aydemir and Hamdi Gungor of the TPAO
Petrophysical Evaluation Unit in extracting the reser-
voir parameters and in drawing some of the diagrams
is appreciated. We would like to thank Ahmet Dinçer,
Bayram Saritas, Samim Tatli, and Adnan Cetin of
TPAO for the discussions we had regarding this study.
Ihsan Donmez and Cem Pasin of TPAO Drafting
Department deserve special thanks for drawing the
figures.
REFERENCES CITED
Akgul, A., and L.T. Erdogan, 1992, Factors affecting
hydrocarbon generation in Southeast Turkey, with
examples from the Bölükyayla and Karakus oil
fields, in A.M. Spencer, ed., Generation, accumula-
tion and production of Europe’s hydrocarbons: Spe-
cial Publication of the European Association of
Petroleum Geoscientists 2: Oxford, Oxford Univer-
sity Press, p. 231–236.
Brown, S.A., 1991, New structural insight in southeast
Turkey (abs.): Ozan Sungurlu Symposium, Novem-
ber 26–28, 1991, Ankara, Turkey, p. 29–30.
Celikdemir, E.M., S. Dulger, N. Gorur, C. Wagner, and K.
Uygur, 1991, Stratigraphy, sedimentology and hydro-
carbon potential of the Mardin Group, Southeast
Turkey, in A.M. Spencer, ed., Generation, accumu-
lation and production of Europe’s hydrocarbons:
Special Publication of the European Association of
Petroleum Geoscientists 1: Oxford, Oxford Univer-
sity Press, p. 439–454.
Reservoir Characterization of Cretaceous Mardin Group Carbonates in Bölökyayla-Cukurtas and Karakus Oil Fields
Figure 31. Computed hydrocarbon generation history (type II) for the two potential source rocks, Derdere and
Karabogaz formations, Karakus-3 well.
Dewey, J.F., W.C. Pitmann III, W.B.F. Ryan, and J. Bon-
nin, 1973, The plate tectonics and the evolution of
the Alpine system: Geological Society of America
Bulletin, v. 84, no. 10, p. 3137–3180.
Duran, O., and M. Aras, 1990, Yeniköy petrol sahasi
(G.D. Anadolu) Mardin Grubu karbonatlari cokel
fasiyes ve rezervuar özellikleri: Türkiye 8, Petrol
Kongresi Jeoloji Bildirileri cildi, p. 272–280.
Gorur, N., E. Celikdemir, and S. ve Dulger, 1987,
Guneydogu Anadolu X, XI ve XII. Petrol bol-
gelerinde Mardin Grubu karbonatlarinin sedi-
mentolojisi, yayilimi, fasiyes, cokelme ortami ve
paleocografya: TPAO Report no. 2321.
Güven, A., A. Dinçer, M.E. Tuna, and T. Çoruh, 1991,
Guneydogu Anadolu Kampaniyen Paleosen Otok-
ton istifinin stratigrafisi: TPAO Report no. 2828.
Hobbs, B.E., W.D. Means, and P.F. Williams, 1976, An
outline of structural geology: New York, John Wiley
and Sons, p. 383–387.
Horstink, J., 1971, The Late Cretaceous and Tertiary
geological evolution of eastern Turkey: Türkiye l,
Petrol Kongresi, p. 25–41.
Ozkanli, M., and E. Standen, 1991, A study of frac-
ture morphology from borehole image data in
Karakus, Cendere, Ozan Sungurlu fields (abs.):
197
Ozan Sungurlu Symposium, November 26–28,
1991, Ankara, Turkey, p. 91–92.
Pasin, C., 1991, Karakus ve Cendere sahalari Mardin
Grubu üstü yapy kontur haritasi: TPAO Arama
Grubu.
Perinçek, D., and I. Çemen, 1991, Structural highs in
the forelands of the southeastern Anatolia fold-
thrust belt—their age, geometry and tectonic im-
plication (abs.): Ozan Sungurlu Symposium,
November 26–28, 1991, Ankara, Turkey, p. 50.
Soylu, C., and K. ve Gurgey, 1991, Adiyaman bol-
gesinde Kretase yasli birimlerin petrol turum
potansiyelleri: TPAO Report no 1945.
Tardu, T., Y. Akcay, and L. Is, 1990, GD Anadoluda
secilmis bazi stratigrafi birim ve birliklerinin sismik
stratigrafik analizi (abs.): Turkey 8, Petrol Kongresi,
Genisletilmis Bildiri Ozetleri, p. 51–52.
Torre, J., E. Memioglu, and S.C. Bakiler, 1992, Injection
revives Turkey’s low-energy wells: Middle East
Well Evaluation Review, no. 12, p. 44–48.
Uygur, K., and M. Gurel, 1991, Petrophysical evalua-
tion and comparison of Mardin Group carbonates
in Karakus, K. Karakus-Cendere, and G. Karakus
oil fields of SE Turkey: Ozan Sungurlu Symposium,
November 26–28, 1991, Ankara, Turkey, p. 1–28.
198 Uygur et al.
Uygur, K., and V. Aydemir, 1988, Bölükyayla-
Cukurtas sahalarinda (XII. Bolge) Derdere,
Karababa, Karabogaz ve Sayindere formasyonlar-
inin yeralti jeolojisi; Petrografi, sedimentoloji, ortam
analizi, petrofizik ve goreceli olay kronolojisi:
TPAO Report, p. 2554–259.
Wagner, C., and M. Pehlivan, 1985, Karst-geological
interpretation of the Mardin carbonates in the Cem-
berlitas field: A pilot study: Unpublished TPAO
Report no. 2051.
Wagner, C., and M.E. Tuna, 1988, Campanian cycle IV
carbonates in southeast Turkey: depositional envi-
ronment and paleogeography: Unpublished TPAO
Report no. 2528, 11 p.
Wagner, C., M. Pehlivan, and C. Soylu, 1986, Oil habi-
tat of the Adiyaman area—southeast Turkey: A
joint geological geochemical study: TPAO Report
no. 2139.
Wilcox, R.E., T.P. Harding, and D.R. Seely, 1973, Basic
wrench tectonics: AAPG Bulletin, v. 57, p. 74–96.
Yilmaz, Y., E. Yigitbas, and C. Genc, 1991, A new
approach on the geological evolution of SE Anato-
lian orogenic belt (abs.): Ozan Sungurlu Sympo-
sium, November 26–28, 1991, Ankara, Turkey,
p. 42
Yükler, M.A., 1987, How essential is quantitative basin
modelling in petroleum exploration?: 7th
Petroleum Congress of Turkey, Proceeding: Geol-
ogy, p. 392–404.
Yükler, M.A., 1991, The effects of quantitative basin
modelling application in petroleum exploration in
Turkey (abs.): Ozan Sungurlu Symposium, Novem-
ber 26–28, 1991, Ankara, Turkey, p. 21–22.
Yükler, M.A., and D.H. Welte, 1980, A three-dimen-
sional deterministic dynamic model to determine
geologic history and hydrocarbon generation,
migration and accumulation in a sedimentary
basin: Fossil Fuels, Editions Technip, p. 267–285.
 Surdam, R.C., Z.S. Jiao, and H.P. Heasler, 1997, Anomalously
pressured gas compartments in Cretaceous rocks of the
Laramide Basins of Wyoming: a new class of hydrocarbon
accumulation, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the
petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 199–222.
Chapter 12
◆

Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments

in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins
of Wyoming: A New Class of Hydrocarbon
Accumulation
R.C. Surdam
Z.S. Jiao
H.P. Heasler
Institute for Energy Research, University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Cretaceous shales in the Laramide basins of Wyoming (LBW) below
~8000–9000 ft (2440–2740 m) typically are anomalously pressured. In the
basin centers, the top 1000–2000 ft (305–610 m) of the anomalously pressured
zone is transitional and typically occurs within upper Cretaceous shales
(Steele, Cody, or Lewis). The overpressured zone [~2000 ft (610 m) thick]
persists down to the lowermost organic-rich Cretaceous shale. Typically, the
rocks below these shales in the Powder River and Wind River basins are nor-
mally pressured. The top of the anomalously pressured zone is identified by
marked increases in sonic transit time, hydrocarbon production index, clay
diagenesis (smectite to illite), and vitrinite reflectance. Many of the affected
organic-rich shales are characterized by bitumen-filled microfractures.
In the LBW, the major difference between pressure compartmentalization in
Cretaceous sandstones and shales is one of scale. The overpressured
Cretaceous shales in each of the basins comprise a basinwide, dynamic pres-
sure compartment. In contrast, the Cretaceous sandstones within each basin are
subdivided stratigraphically and diagenetically into relatively small, isolated
pressure or fluid-flow compartments [largest dimension 1–10 mi (1.6–16 km)]
within the shale section.
The driving mechanism of pressure compartmentalization in both the shales
and sandstones is the generation and storage of liquid hydrocarbons that sub-
sequently partially react to gas, converting the fluid-flow system from a single-
phase regime to a multiphase regime in which capillarity controls permeability.
In a single-phase, water-dominated system, internal and external stratigraphic
elements (ranging from paleosols along unconformities to transgressive shales)
act as low-permeability rocks with finite leak rates. These elements evolve dia-
genetically during progressive burial (smectite altering to illite; kaolinite to

199
200 Surdam et al.

chlorite). As more liquid hydrocarbons are generated and the oil-to-gas reac-
tion proceeds, the system becomes saturated with hydrocarbons. This results
in the expulsion of free water and greatly increased displacement pressures,
which cause the low-permeability elements acting as fluid-flow barriers to
form capillary seals. Three-dimensional closure of the seals results in fluid
compartmentalization and anomalous pressure and, thus, the formation of
an anomalously pressured gas accumulation. In the sandstones, three-
dimensional closure of capillary seals above, below, and within a sandstone
results in isolated fluid-flow or pressure compartments within the sand-
stone. In a few cases, faulting bounds sandstone compartments by emplacing
low-permeability carbonate- or quartz-cemented rocks adjacent to them.

INTRODUCTION trend of sonic transit time occurs at ~8000–9000 ft

The aim of this chapter is to document the pressure
regimes characterizing Cretaceous shales and sand-
stones in the Laramide basins of Wyoming (LBW)
(Figures 1, 2). This paper consists of (1) evaluation of
the regional pressure regime in Cretaceous shales,
with emphasis on the causes and timing of overpres-
suring; (2) evaluation of the pressure regime within
Cretaceous sandstones, with emphasis on the mecha-
nisms causing anomalous pressures within reservoir
sandstones; (3) discussion of the origin of anomalous
pressures in the LBW; and (4) discussion of the evolu-
tion of the pressure regimes and the formation of
anomalously pressured gas accumulations during
either continuous subsidence or subsidence and subse-
quent uplift and erosion.
REGIONAL ANOMALOUS PRESSURE
REGIME IN THE UPPER CRETACEOUS
SHALES
Delineation of Anomalous Pressure
Using Sonic Logs
Determining trends in acoustic transit time (µs/ft)
on sonic logs is a conventional method of detecting
anomalous pressures in shales (Hottman and John-
son, 1965; Magara, 1976; Powley, 1982). Powley (1982,
personal communication) cites many examples of
pressure compartments delineated on the basis of
analyzing trends in sonic transit time from sonic logs.
Because the velocity of a compressional wave in sedi-
mentary rock is dependent on the effective rock stress,
an increase in transit time is interpreted as indicating
a lower effective rock stress and, therefore, overpres-
suring. Almost all sonic logs from the LBW exhibit a
marked increase in transit time (decrease in velocity)
in the deeper portions of the basins (Figure 3A–D).
Downhole trends in digitized sonic logs from the
LBW (Figure 3A–D) indicate that a reversal in the
(2440–2740 m) depth in the Cretaceous shales in the
central portions of the Powder River, Bighorn, and
Wind River basins (Figure 3A–C). This increase in
sonic transit time marks the top of a continuous, over-
pressured shale section that begins at 8000–9000 ft
(2440–2740 m) depth in these three basins and persists
down to 10,000–11,500 ft (3050–3505 m) depth in the
Powder River and Wind River basins (Figure 3A, C).
Due to drilling patterns, the base of the regionally
overpressured shale section in the Bighorn Basin has
not been determined (Figure 3B). In the Washakie
Basin (Figure 3D), the top and bottom of the overpres-
sured shale section occur at depths of 10,000 and
15,000 ft (3050 and 4570 m), respectively.
Mud weights and measured pressures of thin
sandstones interbedded with the Cretaceous shale
section also indicate that this section in the LBW is
typically overpressured. During drilling, mud
weights were typically adjusted from 8.4 to ~9.0 ppg
at the top of the Cretaceous shale section, and from
9.0 to ≤15 ppg within the section. A mud weight of
8.4 ppg corresponds to a pressure gradient of 0.436
psi/ft, and a mud weight of 14.8 ppg corresponds to
a pressure gradient of 0.77 psi/ft; a gradient of
~0.433 is considered normal. Rocks occurring strati-
graphically above and below the overpressured Cre-
taceous shale section in the LBW are generally
characterized by normal pressure (i.e., they have a
pressure gradient of ~0.433 psi/ft). Shale displace-
ment pressures measured in the laboratory follow a
gradient parallel to the regional lithostatic gradient,
but offset to lower pressures (Figure 4A, B).
The sonic anomaly panels shown in Figure 5A–D
are a more detailed representation of the pressure
regime of the Cretaceous shales in the LBW. They
were constructed from decompacted sonic transit-
time profiles through the LBW in two steps: (1) pan-
els of sonic logs along cross sections across each
basin were filtered using gamma-ray logs so that
only fine-grained clastic lithologies were repre-
sented, and the panels were used to construct sonic
 Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming
WYOMING
45
Bighorn
44
Basin
Wind River
Latitude
43 Basin
Green
42 River Washakie
Basin Basin
41
111 110 109 108
Longitude
velocity profiles; and (2) the velocities from the sonic
log panels were corrected for compaction (i.e., they
were decompacted) by using an exponential function
constrained by the lowest observed transit-time
value in the sonic logs from each basin (i.e., typi-
cally~60 µs/ft). After this two-step operation, the
sonic transit-time anomaly or anomalies were iso-
lated for each basin.
Several observations can be made from the sonic
anomaly panels (Figure 5A–D). First, except at the
basin margins of the LBW, the onset of overpressuring
is marked by a transitional zone (slightly overpres-
sured rocks; mud weights >8.4 ppg) ~1000–2000 ft
(305–610 m) thick; the top of the transitional zone in
the basin center is approximately horizontal. Sec-
ond, the highest pressures are found in the lower
half of the overpressured shale section; where
observed, the bottom of this section is regionally
coincident with the lowermost organic-rich shales in
the Cretaceous. Finally, overpressuring within these
shales develops in each basin as one large and fairly
continuous volume of rock, or pressure compart-
ment. The only exception occurs along the margins
of the basins, where the Cretaceous section
approaches the surface and where erosion (unroof-
ing) has been greatest; the overpressured shale sec-
tion at the basin margins is wedge shaped (Figures
3, 5A, C). In the Powder River Basin, the base of the
Cretaceous shale section is parallel to the Fuson
Shale, but the top of it cuts across stratigraphy (Fig-
ure 5A).
201
Figure 1. Index map of the
Laramide basins of
Wyoming (LBW). The solid
lines are the lines of the
sonic log panels in Figure 3.
Powder
River
Basin
50 miles
107 106 105
ANOMALOUS PRESSURE REGIMES
IN THE UPPER CRETACEOUS
SANDSTONES
As indicated by measured pressures from drill-stem
tests (DSTs) and repeat formation tests (RFTs), the
Cretaceous sandstones of the LBW at a present-day
depth of ~8000–9000 ft (2440–2740 m) are anomalously
pressured, tight gas sandstones (Figure 6). The pres-
sure regime of Cretaceous sandstones in the LBW dif-
fers from the pressure regime characterizing the shales
mainly in terms of scale. The Cretaceous sandstones
within the overpressured shale section are not part of a
large, basinwide pressure compartment like the
shales; rather, the fluid-flow and pressure systems of
individual sandstones are separated spatially, both
vertically and horizontally (Figure 6) (Heasler et al.,
1994). Even within specific sandstones (e.g., Dakota,
Muddy, or Frontier), rocks are subdivided into rela-
tively small, isolated compartments (Figure 6).
The pressure anomalies shown in Figure 7 are simi-
lar to a multitude of anomalies found in the Cretaceous
sandstones in the LBW and described in Heasler et al.
(1994). In each case, the flow anomalies on a potentio-
metric surface map are characterized by steep sides and
relatively flat tops. Heasler et al. (1994) interpret these
anomalies as pressure compartments isolated from sur-
rounding rocks by the three-dimensional closure of
seals and characterized by insignificant fluid flow
within the compartments. The mechanism responsible
202 Surdam et al.

Figure 2. Stratigraphic nomenclature chart for the LBW. (Modified from the Wyoming
Geological Association Annual Field Conference Guidebook, 1993).

for such compartmentalization is discussed in the next
section.
The Cretaceous sandstones of the LBW above and
below the pressure boundary exhibit very different fluid-
flow characteristics (Figure 4A, B). Sandstones above the
pressure boundary typically follow a path parallel or
subparallel to a hydrostatic gradient (~0.433 psi/ft); at
any specific depth, these sandstones support only the
weight of the overlying fluid column. In contrast, sand-
stone reservoirs below the pressure boundary follow a
gradient (0.9–1.0 psi/ft) parallel to the regional litho-
static gradient, but offset to much lower pressures
(Figure 4A, B). For the present discussion, this gradi-
ent is designated the “sandstone gradient.” These
sandstones support the weight of the fluid column
down to the boundary, plus the weight of the rock and
fluid column from the pressure boundary down to the
depth of the sandstone. Figure 4A, B demonstrates
that the sandstones within the overpressured shale
section are not only isolated from the sandstones
Figure 3. Typical acoustic transit time vs. depth plots for the Powder River, Bighorn, Wind River, and Washakie basins.
Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming
203
204 Surdam et al.

(a) Pressure (psi) (b) Pressure (psi)

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0 0
"L
Reservoir Pressure ith Reservoir Pressure
os
Displacement Pressure ta Displacement Pressure
tic
"H y d

2000

0.4
"Li "
G
rost

33
tho ra
sta di
atic"

ps
tic en
"G t,

i/ft
rad 1.
Gra

4000 0
ien ps
di

t, 1 i/f
ent,

5000 .0 t
ps
0.

i/ft
433

6000

Depth (ft)
ps
Depth (ft)

i/ft

Top of Pressure Compartment "Gas"

Gradient Top of Pressure
Sh 8000
ale Compartment
"D Sh
isp Pr ale
lac Sa
10000 em es "
Sa en 10000 nd su Dis
nd tP st re pl
sto res on " ac
ne su e G e
re" Pr ra m
"F Gr es di en
rac su en t
tur ad 12000
e" ien re t
Gr t G
ad ra
ien di
t en
14000 t

15000

Figure 4. (A) Pressure profile for the major Cretaceous gas reservoirs in the Washakie Basin. (B) Pressure pro-
file for the major Cretaceous gas reservoirs in the Powder River Basin. Note that at the depth that compart-
mentalization is complete, the evolution of the pressure regime is significantly altered. Below the top of
overpressure, the change of reservoir pressures parallels the lithostatic gradient, but offset to lower pressures
than regional lithostatic gradient.

above the pressure boundary, but also from the adja- al., 1988; Martinsen, 1994). The Muddy Sandstone
cent shales below the boundary. along the west-east cross section shown in Figure 9 is
Sandstones within the overpressured Cretaceous externally sealed above and below by the Mowry and
shale section can be overpressured, normally pres- Skull Creek shales (transgressive shales), and is inter-
sured, or even underpressured. The pressure regime nally separated into flow compartments by imperme-
of the sandstones is dependent on whether, and how, able horizons within the sandstone (Figure 7;
the sandstones are connected to rocks outside the vol- Moncure, 1992). Note that along the cross section
ume of overpressured shales. Note that when under- shown in Figures 7 and 9, the inclination of the rocks is
pressured sandstone reservoirs are present in these 2° regionally, and there is no structural closure along
basins, they occur in the upper portion of the over- the section.
pressured shale section (Figures 5, 8). In Figure 8, the Figure 10 summarizes the relationship between
underpressured compartment is revealed by severe sandstone pressure compartments and the regional
lost circulation during drilling and the anomalous overpressuring of Cretaceous shales. The distribution
behavior of the acoustic transit time and resistivity. of sandstones and shales in the Wind River Basin in
Figure 9 illustrates detailed compartmentalization Figure 10 was determined from gamma-ray logs. Shal-
within an individual sandstone reservoir facies, in this lower, anomalously pressured sandstones are under-
case the Muddy Sandstone along a west-east cross sec- pressured.
tion from the Amos Draw to the Kitty to the Ryan field
to a wildcat well in the Powder River Basin. Along
this section, the Muddy Sandstone is part of a ORIGIN OF ANOMALOUS PRESSURES
shoreface/valley-fill depositional system in which the IN THE LARAMIDE BASINS
younger, valley-fill elements (Recluse, Cyclone, and OF WYOMING
Ute members) are separated from the older, shoreface
sandstones (Rozet/Lazy B members) by a paleosol Role of Disequilibrium Compaction
developed along a regionally prominent lowstand
unconformity, with intensive clay infiltration into the Many factors could have caused the marked increases
underlying sandstone (Odland et al., 1988; Wheeler et in sonic transit time observed in the Cretaceous shale
 Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming 205

Powder River Basin Bighorn Basin

(A) W E (B) W E
2000

4000 le
ee 4000
St

a
ar
br
io
6000 6000
m

N
F

n
nce

so

Depth, ft
La

Fu
8000
Depth, ft

8000
10000

M
10000

or
12000

ris
on
hale
14000 ry S

Fm
12000 M ow
16000
14000
110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 5 15 25 35 45

Distance, mi Distance, mi

(C) SW Wind River Basin NE (D) W Washakie Basin

E

M 4000
4000
or La
ris nc
on e 6000

AL
MO
8000

Depth, ft

ND
Depth, ft

8000

12000
10000

12000
16000

14000
20000
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Distance, mi Distance, mi

Increasing Anomaly

Figure 5. Velocity/gas profiles after decompaction correction across the LBW, showing basinwide overpressure
compartmentalization in the Cretaceous shale section. Note that the basinwide overpressure compartments
have a wedge shape in the Powder River and Wind River basins. Selected formation boundaries are shown for
structural reference.

section in each basin of the LBW. These include poros- Basin, the total dissolved solids (TDS) in produced
ity, fluid type, effective rock stress, lithology, matrix waters average 10,000 ppm. The relatively constant
composition, salinity, isotherm, and bed thickness, and dilute TDS content of these waters indicates that
although variations in porosity and fluid properties (1) marine rocks in the Cretaceous section have been
are generally considered to be the most significant fac- strongly influenced by meteoric water influx from the
tors. Dramatic increases in sonic transit time like those basin margins and (2) the upper 8000–9000 ft
observed on sonic logs from the LBW (Figure 3A–D) (2440–2740 m) of section in each basin of the LBW is
are usually attributed to undercompaction, which is likely in hydrologic communication. The rapid and
associated with increased porosity. However, there is significant increase in TDS (to averages ~35,000 ppm)
no observed increase in shale or sandstone porosity in produced waters from below the pressure boundary
below the top of the overpressured Cretaceous shale strongly suggests that fluid compartmentalization has
section in the LBW (Table 1). In fact, the measured occurred within the basin, and that there is poor fluid
porosities of shales in the overpressured section in the communication between rocks above and below a
LBW range from only 2%–5%. Thus, as the Cretaceous present-day depth of 8000–9000 ft (2440–2740 m)
shale section in the LBW cannot be undercompacted, (MacGowan et al., 1994). In the Washakie Basin, the
some other factor must be responsible for the observed transition occurs at greater depth.
overpressuring. It is evident from petrographic, as well as geochem-
Variations in fluid properties are observed in the ical, studies that the overpressured Cretaceous shale
LBW, as is evidenced by the significant change in com- section is hydrocarbon saturated, while rocks above
position of the produced waters at the top of the over- and below it are not. For example, ultrathin sections of
pressured Cretaceous section (MacGowan et al., 1994). organic-rich Mowry Shale from the Powder River
For example, above this depth in the Powder River Basin have abundant microfractures and laminations
206 Surdam et al.
filled with bitumen (Figure 11) below the pressure
boundary (≈8000 ft, 2440 m), but only a few thin,
widely separated fractures contain bitumen at shal-
lower depths (≈5000 ft; 1520 m) (Figure 11).
Because the Cretaceous shale section below the
sonic transit-time reversal in the LBW (1) does not
show an increase in porosity, (2) is saturated with
hydrocarbons and overpressured on a regional scale,
and (3) exhibits regional trends in hydrologic commu-
nication (as determined from the composition of
produced waters), it is clear that disequilibrium com-
paction is not the dominant cause of the anomalous
pressures observed in the LBW. In fact, the gas content
of fine-grained rocks appears to have the greatest
impact on compressional wave velocity in these basins
(Figure 12). Thus, variations in fluid composition, par-
ticularly at gas saturations >15%, are the primary
cause of the sonic anomalies observed in the LBW,
although lithologic factors also may have played a sig-
nificant role. For the remainder of this chapter, sonic
anomalies are equated to the onset of anomalous pres-
sure (i.e., the pressure boundary) and gas saturation in
the Cretaceous shales.
Thermal Maturation of the
Upper Cretaceous Shales in the LBW
In the central portions of the LBW, significant
changes in the fundamental properties of the Creta-
ceous shales coincide with the sonic transit-time rever-
sal, or pressure regime boundary. Overpressuring of
the Cretaceous shales below the pressure boundary
can be correlated with (1) an increase in production
index [PI = S1/(S1 + S2)], or observed remnant hydro-
carbon, as determined from anhydrous pyrolysis
(Figure 13); (2) variations in kerogen structure and
carbon aromaticity; (3) variations in the vitrinite
Figure 6. Contoured
pseudopotentiometric
surface computed from
drill-stem test data from
the Frontier Formation in
the Laramide basins of
Wyoming (see Figure 1
for basin names). The
sandstone pressured
compartments (red spots)
are isolated from
each other.
reflectance/depth gradient (Figure 14) (Hunt, 1979;
Law et al., 1989; Jiao, 1992; MacGowan et al., 1994);
(4) a transition from 20% illite to 85% illite in mixed-
layer illite/smectite clays in the shale, and ordering of
the clay structure (Figure 15) (Jiao and Surdam, 1993);
and, most importantly, (5) a marked increase in the
displacement pressure and sealing capacity of the Cre-
taceous shales in a multiphase fluid-flow system (Fig-
ure 16) (Schowalter, 1979; Jiao and Surdam, 1993).
Thermal maturation—including generation but
only partial expulsion of oil and conversion of this
residual stored oil to gas—is likely responsible for the
variations in fluid properties and other changes in
properties of the Cretaceous shales observed in the
LBW. These changes and the continued addition of
hydrocarbons to the system led to a marked increase
(from 400 to 4000 psi for a gas/water system) in the mea-
sured displacement pressures of the shales (Table 1).
Preliminary investigation of the coincidence of over-
pressuring with thermal maturation and hydrocarbon
accumulation in the LBW has led to a combined analy-
sis of the relationship of overpressuring to the thermal
history of the Cretaceous shales in these basins.
Direct Measurements
Production Index
Vertical trends in production index (PI) from the
Cretaceous shales in the LBW indicate that more rem-
nant hydrocarbons (liquid hydrocarbon + bitumen)
are present in the overpressured Cretaceous shale sec-
tion than above or below the section (Figure 17; Sur-
dam et al., 1994), and that the section is indeed
saturated with hydrocarbons. For instance, above the
top pressure boundary marking the Cretaceous shale
section in the LBW, PI is typically <0.1, and very few
stored hydrocarbons are present. More than 50% of the
Figure 7. Three-dimensional representation of the Muddy Sandstone pseudopotentiometric surface in the vicinity of the Amos Draw and Kitty
fields. These two nearly contiguous overpressured compartments are separated by the Rozet unconformity within the Muddy Sandstone. Heads are
calculated from the repeat formation test data collected by Moncure (1992).
Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming
207
208 Surdam et al.
Fuller Reservoir II ( W RB (
0 peak to the right on the spectra is the resonance sig-
2000
4000
6000
Depth (ft)
Transition
8000
Underpressured
10000 (Severe lost circulation)
Transition
12000
Overpressured
14000 DST 0.64 psi/ft
Transition
DST 0.48 psi/ft
16000
170 130 90 50
∆ t (µs/ft)
Figure 8. A typical acoustic transit time vs. depth
plot for the Wind River Basin. Underpressured sec-
tions are determined by severe lost circulation, mud
weight, and transit time anomalie. Drill-stem test
data indicate that the formation pressure becomes
normal under the overpressured section.
fields in rocks above the boundary follow a normal
(hydrostatic) pressure gradient, are contained within a
regional, single-phase fluid-flow system, and are
under water drive. In contrast, PI is >0.1 at the top of
the overpressured shale section and increases to as
much as 0.3 within the section (MacGowan et al.,
1994). The difference between PI and the transforma-
tion ratio (TR) calculated for the reaction of type II
kerogen to liquid hydrocarbon (using kinetic parame-
ters from Tissot and Welte, 1984) suggests that approx-
imately half of the generated liquid hydrocarbons
have been retained in the source rocks within the over-
pressured Cretaceous shale section in the LBW (Figure
17; Surdam et al., 1994). The fact that there typically
are no water legs or hydrocarbon/ water contacts
involved in hydrocarbon production from sandstones
within the overpressured shale sections in the LBW
(Surdam et al., 1994) seems to support this.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
13Cnuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra for
organic-rich shale samples from the LBW over a
wide depth range are shown in Figure 18. The major
nal from carbon in aliphatic functional groups, and
the major peak to the left is carbon in aromatic func-
tional groups. The NMR spectra indicate that with
depth, the peak area for aliphatic carbon decreases.
This decrease reflects changes in kerogen structure
due to thermal maturation: aliphatic functional
groups are lost as a result of the generation of liquid
and gaseous hydrocarbons. At the pressure bound-
ary, the aliphatic carbon peak is either completely
gone or greatly reduced, and kerogen has little
remaining capacity to generate hydrocarbons, either
liquid or gas.
Vitrinite Reflectance
Vitrinite reflectance (Ro), a measure of the thermal
maturation of organic matter with depth, shows pro-
gressive increase with depth in each basin of the LBW.
Vitrinite reflectance increases slowly with depth, from
0.4 at 3000 ft (910 m) to 1.0 at 9000 ft (2740 m) (Figure
14). Below 9000 ft (2740 m) depth, Ro increases rapidly,
from 1.0 to 1.6 over the 9000 to 11,500 ft (2740–3505 m)
depth interval (Figure 14).
Clay Diagenesis
The diagenesis of interstratified illite/smectite clays
during the progressive burial of a sedimentary
sequence is considered to be an important empirical
geothermometer (Hower et al., 1976; Pytte and
Reynolds, 1989). It has been demonstrated that the
diagenetic trend in illite/smectite clay is temperature-
dependent and may be related to regional hydrocar-
bon generation (Bruce, 1984; Hagen and Surdam,
1984).
The alteration of smectite to illite during clay diage-
nesis was concurrent with the addition of hydrocar-
bons to the fluid-flow system in the Cretaceous shale
section in the LBW. This is evidenced by the fact that
the percentage of illite in mixed-layer clays increases
from 20% to 85% illite, and the structure of the clays
changes from random to ordered at ~8000 ±1000 ft
(2440 ±305 m) (Figure 15), the same depth at which sig-
nificant increases in the displacement pressure and
sealing capacity occur in the shales (Figure 15) (Jiao
and Surdam, 1993).
Predictive Kinetic Modeling: Transformation Ratio
In order to evaluate the thermal maturation level
of the Upper Cretaceous shales in the LBW using
thermal modeling, burial histories were constructed
for each basin (Figure 19). Figure 4 shows the time-
temperature profiles for each basin. Transformation
ratios (TRs) for the kerogen-to-gas and the liquid-
hydrocarbon-to-gas reactions were calculated with a
program written by Heasler (1995); results are shown
in Figure 20. Conventionally, a TR of 0.4 indicates that
liquid hydrocarbons have been generated (Hagen and
Surdam, 1984). The kerogen-to-gas reaction has not
progressed significantly (i.e., reached a TR >0.1) in
Figure 9. East-west cross section of the lower Cretaceous stratigraphic sequence through the Amos Draw, Kitty, and Ryan fields and a wildcat well
in the Powder River Basin. Muddy Sandstone reservoirs along this cross section are oil/water- or gas/water-dominated fluid-flow systems external-
ly sealed above and below by the Mowry and Skull Creek shales. The Muddy Sandstone is internally separated into flow compartments by low-
permeability paleosols and clay-infiltrated sandstones associated with the Rozet unconformity. The Rozet and Skull Creek unconformities are
shown by wavy lines on the cross section. Stippling represents shoreface sandstone.
Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming
209
210 Surdam et al.

Figure 10. Southwest-northeast anomalous pressure/gas saturation panel through

the Wind River Basin (Figure 1). The lithology designations are based on gamma-
ray responses. Formation pressure and gas saturation characteristics are based on
acoustic transit time edited for either sandstone or shale DST data. The tops of the
Lance and Morrison formations are shown for structural reference. The normal
pressure regime in the Cretaceous shales is shown in blue. Normally pressured
sandstone reservoirs are represented by white circles. Underpressured sandstone
reservoirs near but below the top of the overpressuring in the Cretaceous shales
are represented by ellipses, are compartmentalized, and probably resulted from
significant post-Laramide erosion. Overpressured sandstone reservoirs are repre-
sented by purple circles and are compartmentalized and gas saturated.

either the centers or the flanks of the LBW (Figure central portions of the LBW was calculated using the
20). The transformation of liquid hydrocarbon to gas kinetic parameters (i.e., activation energy and
for the overpressured Cretaceous section in the frequency factor) of Mackenzie and Quigley (1988).

Table 1. Displacement Pressures and Sealing Capacities Calculated from High-Pressure Mercury Injection
Test Data for the Cretaceous Shale Samples from the Laramide Basins.*

Sample No. Depth (ft) Porosity (%) K (md) Pd (psi) (gas/brine) Sealing Capacity (ft)
Powder River Basin (Mowry Shale)
1 5430 11.7 0.012 400 1000
2 7906 5.2 0.059 1300 3300
3 7909 5.6 0.013 1500 3800
4 8790 4.9 0.012 1800 4600
5 9906 2.7 – 2800 7100
6 10,008 2.2 0.004 3000 7600
7 13,388 2.2 0.004 4000 10,000

Washakie Basin (Lewis Shale)

1 10,037 1.3 0.007 2200 5800
2 10,443 5.2 0.035 2000 5300
3 11,322 2.1 0.008 2200 5800
4 14,392 3.0 0.009 2000 5300

*The porosity and permeability for each sample are also listed. The porosity is helium porosity using Boyle’s Law technique, and permeability
is to gas (sleeve pressure, 400 psi).
 Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming 211

Figure 11. (A) Microphoto-

graph showing a few thin,
separated fractures in the
Mowry Shale at 5000 ft.
Scale bar is 76 µm. (B)
Below 8000 ft, where sonic
logs show a marked
increase in transit time,
abundant wide, linked frac-
tures filled with bitumen
are present in the Mowry
Shale. Scale bar is 38 µm.

In the basin centers of the LBW, liquid hydrocarbons
in the lower Cretaceous stratigraphic section began
converting to gas ~40–50 Ma (Figure 20). The reac-
tion in the basin centers of the LBW reached comple-
tion at the time of maximum burial, ~10 Ma, with the
exception of the Washakie Basin, in which all oil
reacted to gas by 30 Ma. On the flanks of the LBW,
according to calculations for the Upper and Middle
Cretaceous sections, the reactions of liquid hydrocar-
bon to gas have reached 25% and 50% completion,
respectively.
Dominant Mechanism Driving the
Overpressuring in the LBW
It is clear from the data presented above that
there are fundamental changes in organic and inor-
ganic geochemical and geophysical properties in the
rock-fluid system of the Upper Cretaceous shale sec-
tion at the pressure boundary. The changes coin-
cided with a change in the fluid-flow regime from
water to gas saturation and from normally pres-
sured to overpressured.
212 Surdam et al.
7.0
Velocity (v) (ft/sec x 103)
6.0
5.0
Measured (vp)
4.0
3.0
2.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water Saturation (SW)
Figure 12. Compressional-wave velocity vs.
saturation for a sand pack (from Timur, 1987).
These observations suggest that the generation
and storage of liquid hydrocarbons in the organic-
rich Cretaceous shale section and the subsequent
reaction of this oil to gas were the dominant forces
driving the overpressuring in the LBW. Concur-
rently, clay diagenesis, specifically the alteration of
smectite to illite (dehydration reactions), provided
water to the fluid-flow system, ensuring the multi-
phase fluid character of the shale. As generated but
retained liquid hydrocarbons began to react progres-
sively to gas, the displacement pressures of the shales
increased by an additional order of magnitude (Fig-
ure 16; Table 1) (Surdam et al., 1994). The fluid-flow
system began to change from a single-phase, water-
dominated regime to a multiphase (oil/gas/water)
hydrocarbon-dominated regime, and low-permeabil-
ity lithologies (fluid-flow barriers) began to evolve
into capillary seals.
Regardless of how low the absolute permeability
is, the low-permeability paleosol or shale horizons
that form flow barriers in a single-phase fluid-flow
system have finite leak rates, and anomalous pres-
sures cannot be maintained (Jiao and Surdam, 1994).
However, in a multiphase fluid-flow system
(gas/oil/water) dominated by capillarity, fluid
crosses the capillary seal only when the displace-
ment pressure, or lithostatic gradient (fracture gradi-
ent), is exceeded. Thus, the relative permeability of
rocks in a multiphase fluid-flow system has much
more impact on the maintenance of anomalous pres-
sures than their absolute permeability (Berg, 1975);
in the LBW, the overpressured Cretaceous shales are
orders of magnitude more effective in retaining
anomalous fluid pressure than a conventional strati-
graphic trap. As a result, the Cretaceous shale-rich
system became a large, seemingly basinwide over-
0
Powder River
2000 Bighorn
Wind River
Washakie
4000
6000
Dept h (ft)
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
PI, fraction
Figure 13. Plot of the production index (PI) vs. present-
day depth for the Cretaceous shales in the LBW.
pressured compartment in each basin of the LBW
(Figure 5). This conclusion is illustrated by compar-
ing Figure 20: the distribution of anomalous pressure
in the shale-rich Cretaceous section correlates nicely
with increasing transformation ratios for the oil-to-
gas reaction.
In the LBW, the primary difference between pres-
sure compartmentalization in Cretaceous sandstones
and shales is one of scale. The overpressured compart-
ments within the Cretaceous sandstones are typically
relatively small (longest dimension 1–10 mi) (Figure
6), whereas the surrounding shale is overpressured on
a basinwide scale (Figures 5A, 6).
As in the shales, the transition of the fluid-flow sys-
tem from single-phase to multiphase in the sandstones
was driven by the storage of liquid hydrocarbons and
their subsequent reaction to gas. In fact, the fluid-flow
systems of the Cretaceous sandstones and shales in the
LBW were closely related during the initial stages of
overpressuring in the shales (in which primary migra-
tion of hydrocarbons into microfractures occurred).
This close relationship persisted until pressure buildup
in the shales resulted in hydrocarbon expulsion and
 Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming 213

0 0

Powder River
2000 Bighorn 2000
Wind River
Washakie
4000 4000

6000 6000
Depth (ft)

Depth (ft)
8000 8000

10000 10000

12000 12000
Powder River
Bighorn
14000 14000
Wind River
Washakie
16000 16000
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 0 20 40 60 80 100
R o (%) Illite in the I/S (%)
Figure 14. Plot of vitrinite reflectance Ro vs. Figure 15. Plot of percent illite in the mixed-layer
present-day depth for the Cretaceous shales in smectite-illite clays vs. present-day depth for the
the LBW. Cretaceous shales in the LBW.

migration into sandstone conduits and traps, which
may have occurred once or many times, depending on
the nature of the source rocks and how often the dis-
placement pressure, or fracture gradient, in the shales
was exceeded by internal pressure buildup.
As hydrocarbons migrated from the shales into
stratigraphic/diagenetic traps in the sandstones, free
water was expelled from the bottom of the traps,
where the low-permeability horizons were still in con-
tact with a dominantly single-phase flow system and
had finite leak rates. As long as free water was a signif-
icant component of the fluid phase, the traps remained
under water drive, even though the seals in contact
with liquid hydrocarbon accumulations were domi-
nated by capillarity. When hydrocarbons finally satu-
rated a trap and the fluid-flow regime changed from
single-phase to multiphase (Berg, 1975; Iverson et al.,
1994), low-permeability zones in the sandstones (e.g.,
lowstand unconformities, transgressive shales, and
paleosols) converted to capillary seals (Figure 16; Jiao
and Surdam, 1993; Martinsen, 1994; Surdam et al.,
1994). With additional burial and increased thermal
exposure, liquid hydrocarbons in the trap began react-
ing to gas and bitumen. At this time, if the trap was
completely surrounded by capillary seals (3-D clo-
sure), a pressure compartment would have formed
that was completely isolated from the shales above
and below, and from any sandstones updip and
downdip. The capillary seals observed in these sand-
stones are typically capable of withstanding a 1000-psi
pressure differential at the top and a 4000-psi pressure
differential at the bottom of the overpressured Creta-
ceous shale section (Figure 7).
Sealing Capacity of the Cretaceous Shales
Sealing capacity is a function of pore radius and
fluid characteristics, and is expressed as the height of
the hydrocarbon column that can be supported by a
seal. According to the classification of Sneider et al.
(1991), the typical increase in sealing capacity
observed in the LBW across the pressure regime
boundary is equivalent to a change from a class C
seal (capable of supporting an oil column of >100 but
214 Surdam et al.
4000
Gas Column
6000
8000
Depth (ft)
10000
12000
14000
0 4000 8000 12000
Gas Column (ft)
Figure 16. Plot of the displacement pressure vs.
present-day depth for the Cretaceous shales in
the LBW.
<500 ft) to a class A seal [capable of supporting an oil
column of >1000 ft (305 m)] (Table 1).
Smith’s equation was used in this study to calculate
the sealing capacity of potential hydrocarbon seals:
H=
(PdB − PdR )
0.433(ρ w − ρ h )
(1)
where H is the maximum hydrocarbon column in feet
that a seal can support, PdB is the subsurface displace-
ment pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) of the
seal rock, PdR is the subsurface displacement in psi of
the reservoir rock, ρ w is the subsurface density in
g/cm3 of water, ρh is the subsurface density of the
hydrocarbon, and 0.433 is a units conversion factor.
The displacement pressure, the minimum pressure
required to start mercury moving through a sample,
was determined by extrapolating the injection pres-
sure curve (plateau portion) to 0% mercury saturation.
This pressure was then converted to displacement
pressure for the subsurface gas/water and oil/water
system using Schowalter’s (1979) nomograms. Results
are shown in Table 1. For a gas/water system, the seal-
ing capacity of the Cretaceous shales is 600 ft (180 m)
(gas column) at a depth of 5000 ft (1520 m) and rapidly
increases to 2150 ft (655 m) at 8000 ft (2440 m) depth
and 6150 ft (1870 m) at 13,000 ft (3960 m) depth. The
paleosol horizon has a similar trend.
Timing of Overpressuring
It is possible to place an approximate time on the
initiation and subsequent development of overpres-
suring in the basins by (1) identifying the depths at
which the generation of liquid hydrocarbons began
and their subsequent cracking to gas became impor-
tant in the LBW (when TR >0.1) (Figure 19) and (2)
locating the corresponding depths in burial history
diagrams for these basins (Figure 20). In the Creta-
ceous shale sections in the central portions of the
basins, the potential for overpressuring began at ~70
Ma (TR of 0.1–0.4 for the kerogen-to-oil reaction) and
probably was firmly developed at approximately 40 Ma
(TR >0.1 for the oil-to-gas reaction; Barker, 1990). Signif-
icant progress in the reaction of liquid hydrocarbon-to-
gas during the last 40 m.y. suggests that substantial
overpressuring has been present in the Cretaceous
shale section during this period of time, leading to the
conclusion that in the centers of the LBW, the reaction
of liquid hydrocarbon to gas had progressed signifi-
cantly by the time of maximum burial at 10 Ma (Fig-
ures 19, 20). Thus, compartmentalized overpressuring
in these basins is not an ephemeral geological phe-
nomenon, but is rather a long-lived geological process
intimately related to hydrocarbon generation and
reaction within a rock sequence dominated by
organic-rich shales.
EVOLUTION OF VARIOUS PRESSURE
REGIMES IN THE CRETACEOUS
SANDSTONES IN THE LBW
As indicated, the Cretaceous sandstones contained
in the overpressured Cretaceous shale section in the
LBW can be normally pressured, underpressured, or
overpressured. This section describes possible evolu-
tion pathways for the Cretaceous sandstones.
At any specific depth, the “shale displacement
pressure” shown in Figure 4 is significantly greater
than the pressure along the “sandstone gradient”;
both gradients are parallel to the regional lithostatic
gradient, but offset to lower pressures. Note that even
though the reservoir sandstones follow a gradient
parallel to the regional lithostatic gradient, there is no
evidence of natural hydraulic fracturing, or poly-
directional fracturing, in these sandstones, even those
subjected to the highest overpressuring. One explana-
tion for this observation has been offered by Lorenz et
al. (1991), who note that natural hydraulic fracturing
of overpressured rocks is extremely rare because “as
the pore pressure increases, the horizontal in-situ
stresses increase proportionately until all stresses are
nearly equal, at which point the development of an
oriented, large-scale systematic fracture system is
unlikely.” In some reservoir sandstones within the
Cretaceous shale compartment, small-scale unidirec-
tional and nearly vertical extensional fractures are
 Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming 215

TR/PI Figure 17. Plot of

production index (PI) and
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 transformation ratio (TR)
0 vs. depth for the Mowry
Transformation Ratio Shale, Powder River Basin.
Sample depths for the PI
Production Index have been corrected for
2000 0
post-Laramide erosion.
The difference between
PI and TR <9000 ft suggests
4000 2000 that a significant portion
of the generated and
expelled hydrocarbon
has remained in the
Maximum Burial Depth (ft)

6000 4000 organic-rich shale.

Present-Day Depth (ft)

8000 6000
Measured Remaining
Liquid Hydrocarbon
10000 8000
Calculated Liquid
Hydrocarbon Generation
12000 10000

14000 Hydrocarbon
Stored in
12000
Source Rocks

16000 14000

observed; the small-scale fractures typically termi-
nate within the sandstones.
Laboratory measurements indicate that if the capil-
lary displacement pressure is greater than the pressure
differential needed for microfracture, the measured
shale displacement values (Figure 4) may represent
the fracture gradient of the shales, or at least be paral-
lel to this gradient. If this is the case, the measured
capillary displacement pressures are minimal values,
much less than the actual capillary displacement pres-
sures of the shales. Therefore, as pressure increases,
the fracture gradient of these will always be inter-
sected before the capillary displacement pressure is
exceeded.
It is possible that with progressive burial to depths
greater than those shown in Figure 4, the hydrocarbon-
saturated sandstone compartments will deviate from
the sandstone gradient, proceeding along some differ-
ent pressure/depth gradient. With progressive burial,
these isolated hydrocarbon accumulations initially
would be characterized by increasing pressure due to
at least two causes: (1) at constant volume, the liquid-
hydrocarbon-to-gas reaction continually increases the
pressure of these isolated sandstone compartments
and (2) as the depth of burial increases, the tempera-
ture increases, leading to elevated pressure in the
compartment at constant volume. However, at some
depth, the liquid-hydrocarbon-to-gas reaction will
reach completion, and will no longer provide a mecha-
nism for increasing pressure. Thereafter, the possibil-
ity exists that the pressure/depth gradient of a
sandstone compartment might decrease with progres-
sive burial.
However, as all basins of the LBW have experi-
enced at least some uplift and erosion (unroofing),
deviation from the sandstone gradient due to great
burial is not presently observed in the basin areas
studied. The LBW were uplifted during and subse-
quent to the Laramide Orogeny; the exact amount of
uplift has not been established, and the amount of
unroofing is highly variable. For example, in the Pow-
der River Basin, the estimated erosion is 1000 ft in the
basin center and 4000 ft or more along the east margin
of the basin (Jiao, 1992). Generally, the amount of ero-
sion and uplift in the LBW varies from ~1000–2000 ft
(305–610 m) in the basin centers to more than 5000 ft
(1520 m) along the basin margins (Jiao, 1992;
Kharitonova, 1995). For these basins, determining
what happened to the isolated gas-saturated compart-
ments during unroofing is of great importance.
Certain compartments, particularly those that were
in the lower portion of the overpressured shale section
216 Surdam et al.

Figure 18. 13C nuclear

Powder Washakie magnetic resonance
spectra of the Mowry
River Basin Shale samples from
Basin depths of 3000–18,000 ft
in the LBW. Note the
4900 ft diminishing or
3085 ft disappearance of the
7441 ft
aliphatic carbon peak
4010 ft (the right-hand major
9159 ft
peak) <10,000 ft.
5720 ft
10663 ft
8377 ft
13659 ft
9230 ft
18420 ft

9695 ft
300 200 100 0 -100
11425 ft ppm

Bighorn
300 200 100 0 -100
Basin
ppm
Wind River 3015 ft
Basin 4100 ft
4530 ft
10350 ft 10500 ft
12440 ft 11010 ft

14280 ft 14060 ft

300 200 100 0 -100 300 200 100 0 -100

ppm ppm

during unroofing, appear to proceed up along the
sandstone gradient of Figure 4 (point B’, Figure 21B).
Those compartments that were in the upper portion
of the overpressured shale section during unroofing
and that intersected the boundary between normally
pressured and overpressured rock have a different
pressure/depth pathway (point A’, Figure 21B). Typi-
cally at this boundary, pressure decreases in the gas-
saturated compartments; with further unroofing, these
rocks begin to follow an approximate gas gradient
(0.2–0.3 psi/ft) upward until the hydrostatic gradient is
intersected (Figure 21B). Because they follow a gas
gradient, these compartments are conventionally clas-
sified as underpressured. It should be noted that these
gas-saturated compartments all plot below the shale
displacement pressure gradient in Figure 4.
It is uncertain what mechanism or process causes
the shift in pressure regimes as these compartments
intersect the upper boundary of the overpressured
shale section during unroofing. However, it is specu-
lated that the compartment seals are breached at the
upper boundary, where the pressure contrast between
the compartment and its external environment is
greatest, resulting in gas being released into the over-
lying normally pressured rock system. Subsequently,
the fluid in the compartment equilibrates with the
overlying gas-charged column, and the fluid gradient
becomes a function of the weight of the gas-charged
fluid column. There is considerable literature to sup-
port the hypothesis that fluid expulsion from over-
pressured compartments is episodic and short-lived;
any fractures opened during such expulsion are
rapidly sealed by silica or carbonate cements resulting
from the drop in pressure and temperature accompa-
nying the expulsion (Bruton and Helgeson, 1983; Low-
ell et al., 1993; Roberts and Nunn, 1995). Thus, if these
 Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming
Figure 19. Burial history diagrams for the central Powder River, Bighorn, Wind River, and Washakie basins.
compartments are breached by fracture, it appears that
they are quickly reestablished, albeit at significantly
lower pressure. With further unroofing, no internal
mechanism exists to increase pressure, so the compart-
ments remain isolated but underpressured. These iso-
lated, underpressured, gas-saturated compartments
are observed to exist at the margins of the Laramide
basins of Wyoming (LBW) in the upper portion of and
above the overpressured shale section; they remain
underpressured until they intersect the hydrostatic
gradient (Figure 4).
Note that some of the largest anomalously pres-
sured gas accumulations in the LBW are underpres-
sured. For example, the Wattenberg field in the
Denver Basin, and the fields known collectively as
the Elmworth area and the Hoadley field of the
Western Canada Basin—all giant gas fields—are
underpressured. Moreover, the most significant por-
tion of all anomalously pressured gas production in
the LBW is derived from the stratigraphic interval
between the pressure boundary down to 2000 ft
below the boundary (Figure 22). In other words, it
appears that gas was concentrated in the upper part
217
of the anomalous pressure section during the uplift
and erosion of the LBW.
A NEW CLASS OF HYDROCARBON
ACCUMULATION
The anomalously pressured, gas-saturated com-
partments associated with Cretaceous sandstones in
the deeper portions of the Laramide basins of
Wyoming (LBW) are dependent neither on structural
closure, faults, nor stratigraphic pinchout. Structural
and stratigraphic factors can be important to these
accumulations, but are independent of the time of
hydrocarbon generation. In contrast, the compart-
mentalized, anomalously pressured gas accumula-
tions are dependent on the basinwide stratigraphic
fabric (e.g., a relatively thick shale and/or coal rich
section); the conversion of the fluid-flow system from
single-phase to multiphase (e.g., conversion of low-
permeability flow barriers to capillary seals) due to
hydrocarbon saturation; diagenesis (e.g., reducing
permeability in the fine-grained and low-permeability
218 Surdam et al.
Figure 20. Computed transformation ratios of liquid hydrocarbon to gas for the central (A) Powder River, (B)
Bighorn, (C) Wind River, and (D) Washakie basins.
lithologies, and in some cases enhancing porosity in
the reservoir facies); and the nature of hydrocarbon
generation, storage, reaction, and expulsion patterns
(Figure 23). Because these anomalously pressured and
gas-saturated compartments depend on a new
assemblage of determinative processes, we feel justi-
fied in recommending that they be treated as a new
and unconventional class of hydrocarbon accumula-
tion (Figure 24).
Regardless of classification, compartmentalized
gas accumulations will play a major role in future
exploration for the huge energy resources contained
in the deeper portions [>8000–9000 ft (2440–2740 m)]
of the LBW. Innovative technologies must be devel-
oped to expedite this exploration, as exploration
techniques designed to locate conventional strati-
graphic and structural traps tend to be blind to these
unconventional, subtle traps. The key to expediting
this exploration is to develop techniques to detect
storage capacity within the anomalously pressured
and gas-saturated shale section. Commercial gas
storage capacity could range in type from intergran-
ular porosity in sandstone to fracture porosity in
shales. The first priority in finding new and large
commercial gas accumulations in these basins will be
to determine storage capacity and deliverability—
the key to unlocking the immense gas resources of
the LBW.
CONCLUSIONS
Conventional hydrologic theory suggests that over-
pressuring is a function of disequilibrium compaction
driven by the imbalance between the rates of sedimen-
tation and fluid flux (escape) or artesian flow.
Although disequilibrium compaction, or water expul-
sion, may have originally played a role in the develop-
ment of overpressuring of the Laramide basins of
Wyoming (LBW), it clearly has played little or no role
in maintaining these anomalous pressure regimes for
millions of years.
The pressure compartments documented and char-
acterized in these basins are the result of multiphase
fluid flow coupled with three-dimensional closure of
capillary seals. Thus, pressure compartmentalization
in the LBW is genetically related to hydrocarbon gen-
eration, storage, migration, and reaction (kerogen-to-
liquid-hydrocarbon and liquid-hydrocarbon-to-gas +
“bitumen”). The addition of hydrocarbons to the fluid-
flow system was essential to pressure compartment
evolution in these basins. First, the appearance of
 Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming 219

(a) Pressure Evolution During Burial (b) Pressure Evolution During Uplift
Pressure (psi) Pressure (psi)
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0 0
"L
ith
os
ta
2000 tic

0.4
2000
"Hy

"
"Li G

33
d ro s

tho ra
di

ps
sta
tatic

tic en

i/ft
"G t,
" Gr

4000 rad 4000 1.

ien 0
adie

t, 1
ps
i/f
nt, 0

.0 t
ps
i/ft

Depth (ft)
.433

6000 6000
A'
p si /
Depth (ft)

ft

"Gas"
Top of Pressure Compartment Gradient Top of Pressure
8000 8000
Sh Compartment
ale
"D Sh
A isp Pr ale
lac es "
10000 em 10000 B' an
S su Dis
en re pl
tP ds " ac
B Sa res
su
to
ne
G e
ra m
nd re" di en
sto Gr 12000 Pr en t
12000 ne ad es
"F ien su t
rac t re
tur G
e" ra
Gr di
14000 ad 14000 en
ien
t t

Figure 21. Present evolution pathways during burial (a) and subsequent uplift and unroofing (b).

hydrocarbons in the system gradually drove the tran- pressure compartments characterizing the Creta-
sition from single-phase (water) to multiphase fluid ceous sandstones of the LBW cannot be under water
flow (gas/oil/water), thereby activating capillary seals. drive—they must be under gas-depletion drive; (2)
Second, as hydrocarbons completely saturate the com- hydrocarbon generation, storage, expulsion, and
partment, they ensure the integrity of the three-dimen- migration are essential to the formation of the type
sional aspect of the bounding capillary seals. In of pressure compartments found in these basins;
addition, hydrocarbon saturation of the compartment and, most importantly, (3) although the pressure/fluid
provides a mechanism for expelling free water from compartmentalization found in these sandstones
the compartment system. begins with an infusion of hydrocarbons from
Clearly, hydrologic overpressuring and compart- associated shales and evolves as the result of the
mentalization of anomalous pressure regimes are fluid-flow system undergoing a transition from
fundamentally different processes and have very dif- single-phase to multiphase flow, a sandstone com-
ferent implications for the exploitation of gas partment, once formed, is isolated from the rest of
resources. Multiphase pressure compartmentaliza- the rock system. A significant implication, particu-
tion is long-lived; it develops midway to late in a larly with respect to drilling procedures, is that the
burial history; it is intimately related to hydrocarbon sandstone pressure compartments need not be at the
generation and reaction; and it can be found over a same pressure as the surrounding overpressured
wide depth interval. Most importantly, gas resources shales.
associated with multiphase fluid-flow compartments In summary, the concept and understanding of
can occur in rocks of any age; they will not spill dur- multiphase fluid flow as it relates to three-dimen-
ing structural reorientation (excluding rupture by sional pressure compartmentalization and fracture
fracturing); and their integrity or appearance can gradients will greatly expedite the search for, the
only be destroyed by significant uplift when the discovery of, and the exploitation of new, unconven-
pressure differential exceeds the displacement pres- tional gas resources. One of the most exciting aspects
sure of the capillary seals, or the fracture gradient is of this work is that the type of sonic log contrast rep-
exceeded, or by deep burial when the pressure dif- resented by the pressure compartments shown in
ferential is eliminated, even though the compart- Figures 7 and 9 should be detectable with modern
ments remain intact. seismic techniques and new pattern-recognition
Three points should be emphasized: (1) the hydro- technology. Because these pressure anomalies are
carbon accumulations associated with the type of the direct result of gas accumulation, their detection
220 Surdam et al.

Distance to Top of Anomalous Pressure (ft)

Distance to Top of Anomalous Pressure (ft)

Cretaceous Major Gas Reservoir, Bighorn Basin Cretaceous Major Gas Reservoirs, Powder River Basin
-5000 -5000
-4000 -4000
-3000 -3000
-2000 -2000
-1000 -1000
0 0
1000 1000
2000 2000
3000 3000
Reservoir: 22 Reservoir: 58
4000 CGP: 776 bcf 4000
CGP: 1456 bcf
5000 5000
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 200 400 600 800
Cumulative Gas Production (bcf) Cumulative Gas Production (bcf)
Distance to Top of Anomalous Pressure (ft)

Distance to Top of Anomalous Pressure (ft)

Cretaceous Major Gas Reservoir, Washakie Basin Cretaceous Major Gas Reservoir, Wind River Basin
-5000 -5000
-4000 -4000
-3000 -3000
-2000 -2000
-1000 -1000
0 0
1000 1000
2000 2000
3000 3000
Reservoir: 26 Reservoir: 32
4000 CGP: 1642 bcf 4000
CGP: 863 bcf
5000 5000
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Cumulative Gas Production (bcf) Cumulative Gas Production (bcf)

Figure 22. Cumulative gas production diagrams for the (A) Powder River, (B) Wind River, (C) Bighorn, and (D)
Washakie basins, showing production in the stratigraphic interval between the top pressure boundary down
to 2000 ft below the boundary. Gas was probably concentrated in the upper part of the anomalous pressure
section during uplift and erosion of the LBW. bcf = billion cubic feet; CGP= cumulative gas production.

Figure 23. Comparison of a

Conventional trap Anomalously Pressured conventional hydrocarbon
trap (e.g., structural closure)
(Water Drive) Gas Accumulation under water drive with an
(Gas-Depletion Drive) unconventional, anomalous-
ly pressured gas accumula-
tion under gas-depletion
Trap drive. Delineating storage
Gas capacity within the regional
Oil gas-saturated stratigraphic
section is vital to the explo-
Anomalous Gas ration for unconventional
Pressure Saturated hydrocarbon accumulations
Regime Volume in the LBW.
Water Flux

Water Flux
 Anomalously Pressured Gas Compartments in Cretaceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming
UNCONVENTIONAL CONVENTIONAL
al
rm ure
no ss
"Pressure Seal" pr
e These accumulations
s on capillary seals to
ou
al re
om su
an res
p "Sweetspots"
should result in the discovery of new hydrocarbon
resources.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded by the Gas Research Insti-
tute under contract 5089-260-1894 and the NSF-
EPSCoR-ADP Fossil Energy program under contract
EHR-910-8774. The original manuscript was reviewed
by Kathy Kirkaldie. In addition, F. Meisner, J. Lorenz,
and W. Tyrrell reviewed and improved an earlier draft
of the manuscript. R.C. Surdam acknowledges useful
discussions with Bob Siebert of Conoco and Alex Mar-
shall and John Bates of VICO. We also acknowledge
the significant contributions made to this paper by
Nick Boyd, William Iverson, Donald MacGowan,
Randi Martinsen, Debi Maucione, Francis Miknis,
Rebecca Moncure, Vladimir Serebryakov, Scott Smith-
son, and Yue Wang.
REFERENCES CITED
Barker, C., 1990, Calculated volume and pressure
change during the thermal cracking of oil to gas in
reservoirs: AAPG Bulletin, v. 74, p. 1254–1261.
Berg, R.R., 1975, Capillary pressure in stratigraphic
traps: AAPG Bulletin, v. 59, p. 939–956.
Bruce, C.H., 1984, Smectite dehydration and its rela-
tion to structural development and hydrocarbon
accumulation in Northern Gulf of Mexico Basin:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 68, p. 673–683.
Bruton, D.J., and H.C. Helgeson, 1983, Calculation of
the chemical and thermodynamic consequences of
differences between fluid and geostatic pressure in
hydrothermal systems: American Journal of Science,
221
Figure 24. Schematic
diagram showing
unconventional gas
accumulations in
anomalously pressured
compartments. The
sandstones contained
in the Cretaceous shale
section are anomalously
pressured, compartmental-
ized, and gas-saturated.
are not formed as a result
of structural or stratigraphic
closure, but rely instead
form traps.
v. 283-A, p. 540–588.
Hagen, E.S., and R.C. Surdam, 1984, Maturation his-
tory and thermal evolution of Cretaceous source
rocks of the Big Horn Basin, Wyoming and Mon-
tana, in J. Woodward, F. Meisser, and J. Clayton,
eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of the Greater
Rocky Mountain Region: Rocky Mountain Associa-
tion of Geologists, p. 321–338.
Heasler, H.P., R.C. Surdam, and J.H. George, 1994,
Pressure compartments in the Powder River Basin,
Wyoming and Montana, as determined from drill-
stem test data, in P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compart-
ments and seals: AAPG Memoir 61, p. 235–262.
Hottman, C.E., and R.K. Johnson, 1965, Estimation of
formation pressures from log-derived shale proper-
ties: Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 17,
p. 717–772.
Hower, J., E.F. Eslinger, M.E. Hower, and E.A. Perry,
1976, Mechanism of burial and metamorphism of
argillaceous sediments: 1. Mineralogical and chemi-
cal evidence: Geological Society of America Bul-
letin, v. 87, p. 725–737.
Hunt, J.M., 1979, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geol-
ogy: San Francisco, Freeman and Co., 617 p.
Hunt, J.M., 1990, Generation and migration of
petroleum from abnormally pressured fluid com-
partments: AAPG Bulletin, v. 74, p. 1–12.
Iverson, W.P., R.S. Martinsen, and R.C. Surdam, 1994,
Pressure seal permeability and two-phase flow, in
P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals:
AAPG Memoir 61, p. 313–319.
Jiao, Z.S., 1992, Thermal maturation/diagenetic
aspects of the abnormal pressure in cretaceous
ahales and sandstones, Powder River Basin,
Wyoming: Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wyom-
ing, Laramie, 242 p.
222 Surdam et al.
Jiao, Z.S., and R.C. Surdam, 1993, Low-permeability
rocks, capillary seals, and pressure compartment
boundaries in the Cretaceous section of the Powder
River Basin: Wyoming Geological Association
Jubilee Anniversary Field Conference Guidebook,
p. 297–310.
Kharitonova, N.A., 1995, Analysis of the sonic well
logs applied to erosion calculation in the Bighorn
Basin, Wyoming: M.S. thesis, University of
Wyoming, Laramie, 105 p.
Law, B.E., C.W. Spencer, R.A. Carpenter, R.F. Crovelli,
R.F. Mast, G.L. Dolton, and C.J. Wandrey, 1989,
Estimates of gas resources in overpressured low-
permeability Cretaceous and Tertiary sandstone
reservoirs, Greater Green River Basin, Wyoming,
Colorado, and Utah, in J. Eisert, ed., Gas Resources
of Wyoming: Wyoming Geological Association 40th
Field Conference Guidebook, p. 39–61.
Lorenz, J.C., L.W. Teufel, and N.R. Warpinski, 1991,
Regional fractures I: a mechanism for the formation
of regional fractures at depth in flat-lying reser-
voirs: AAPG Bulletin, v. 75, p. 1714–1737.
Lowell, R.P., P.V. Cappellen, and L.N. Germanovich,
1993, Silica precipitation in fractures and the evolu-
tion of permeability in hydrothermal upflow zones:
Science, v. 260, p. 192–194.
MacGowan, D.B., Z.S. Jiao, R.C. Surdam, and F.P.
Miknis, 1994, Formation water chemistry of the
Muddy Sandstone and organic geochemistry of the
Mowry Shale, Powder River Basin, Wyoming and
Montana: evidence for mechanism of pressure com-
partment formation, in P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin com-
partments and seals: AAPG Memoir 61, p. 321–331.
MacKenzie, A.S., and T.M. Quigley, 1988, Principles of
geochemical prospect appraisal: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 72, p. 399–415.
Magara, K., 1976, Thickness of removed sedimentary
rocks, paleopressure, and paleotemperature, south-
western part of Western Canada Basin: AAPG Bul-
letin, v. 60, p. 554–565.
Martinsen, R.S., 1994, Stratigraphic compartmentation
of reservoir sandstones: examples from the Muddy
Sandstone, Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in P.
Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals: AAPG
Memoir 61, p. 273–296.
Martinsen, R.S., 1995, Stratigraphic compartmentaliza-
tion of reservoir sandstones: Examples from the
Muddy Sandstone, Powder River Basin, Wyoming,
in P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals:
AAPG Memoir 61, p. 273–296.
Moncure, R.S., 1992, Diagenesis and hydrodynamics
of the lower Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone in the
vicinity of Amos Draw, Elk Draw and Kitty fields,
Powder River Basin: Ph.D. dissertation, University
of Wyoming, Laramie, 242 p.
Odland, S.K., P.E. Patterson, and E.D. Gustason,
1988, Amos Draw field: A diagenetic trap related
to an intraformation unconformity in the Muddy
Sandstone, Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in
R. Diedrich, M. Dyka, and W. Miller, eds.: Wyom-
ing Geological Association 39th Annual Field Con-
ference Guidebook, p. 147–160.
Powley, D.E., 1982, Pressures, normal and abnormal:
AAPG Advanced Exploration Schools Unpublished
Lecture Notes, 38 p.
Pytte, A.M., and R.C. Reynolds, Jr., 1989, The thermal
transformation of smectite to illite, in N. Naeser and
T. McCullock, eds., Thermal history of sedimentary
basins: New York, Springer-Verlag, p. 133–140.
Roberts, S.J., and J.A. Nunn, 1995, Episodic fluid
expulsion from geopressured sediments: Marine
and Petroleum Geology, v. 12, p. 195–204.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–776.
Sneider, R.M., K. Stolper, and J.S. Sneider, 1991, Petro-
physical properties of seals: AAPG Bulletin, v. 75,
p. 673–674.
Surdam, R.C., Z.S. Jiao, and R.S. Martinsen, 1994, The
regional pressure regime in Cretaceous sandstones
and shales in the Powder River Basin, in P. Ortol-
eva, ed., Basin compartments and seals: AAPG
Memoir 61, p. 213–233.
Tissot, B.P., and D.H. Welte, 1984, Petroleum Forma-
tion and Occurrence; 2nd ed.: Berlin, Springer-
Verlag, 699 p.
Timur, A., 1987, Acoustic logging, in H. Bradley, ed.,
Petroleum Engineering Handbook: Dallas Society
of Petroleum Engineers, p. 51-1–51-52.
Wheeler, D.M., E.R. Gustason, and M.J. Furst, 1988,
The distribution of reservoir sandstone in the
Lower Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone, Hilight field,
Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in A. Lomando and
P. Harris, eds., Giant oil and gas fields: Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Core
Workshop 12, p. 179–228.
Wyoming Geological Association, 1993, Wyoming
stratigraphic nomenclature chart, in B. Stroock and
S. Andrew, eds.: Casper, Wyoming, Wyoming Geo-
logical Association.
 Martinsen, R.S., 1997, Stratigraphic controls on the devel-
opment and distribution of fluid-pressure compart-
ments, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the
petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 223–241.
Chapter 13
◆

Stratigraphic Controls on the Development

and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure
Compartments
R.S. Martinsen
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Studies in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming indicate that the boundaries
of individual fluid pressure compartments commonly correspond to the
boundaries of various stratigraphic elements (e.g., lithofacies and unconformi-
ties). This finding leads to the question: “What, then, is the difference between
a stratigraphic trap and a fluid pressure compartment?” The fundamental dif-
ference is that conventional stratigraphic and structural traps have incomplete
capillary seal closure, whereas fluid pressure compartments (of the type
observed in the Powder River Basin) have complete capillary seal closure.
Most structural traps and many stratigraphic traps are not completely bound-
ed by low-permeability rocks and have discrete spillpoints. They cannot
achieve complete capillary seal closure and are incapable of becoming pres-
sure compartments. Even the many stratigraphic traps (and fewer structural
traps) that are enclosed by low-permeability rocks do not all comprise pres-
sure compartments. In order for a hydrocarbon reservoir to be enclosed by
capillary seals, not only must it be enclosed by low-permeability rocks, it must
be either completely filled (lack a hydrocarbon-free water contact) or enclosed
by low-permeability rocks that contain multiple fluid phases. These conditions
are more likely met in reservoirs completely enclosed within, or closely associ-
ated with, mature source rocks. The distribution and characteristics of fluid
pressure compartments observed in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming are
discussed within the framework of these types of stratigraphic variables.

INTRODUCTION the generation and maturation of hydrocarbons, espe-

Studies in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming have
led to the identification of numerous reservoir-scale
fluid-pressure compartments (Heasler et al., 1995).
Overpressuring in these compartments is attributed to
cially the cracking of oil to gas. Overpressuring occurs
in normally compacted rocks and has been present in
those rocks for at least 20 m.y. (Jiao, 1992). Boundaries
of these fluid-pressure compartments typically coincide
with various types of stratigraphic discontinuities or

223
224 Martinsen
facies changes (Martinsen, 1995). In fact, all the fluid-
pressure compartments identified by Heasler et al.
(1995) are also classified as stratigraphic traps. How-
ever, not all stratigraphic traps in the basin meet the
criteria for being fluid-pressure compartments (e.g.,
they are not externally closed to fluid movement and
they appear to be in hydrodynamic continuity with
the surface) (Heasler et al., 1995).
Containment of abnormally high pressure fluid com-
partments over geologic time is a significant problem. In
fact, many geologists believe that overpressuring is time
transient, no matter what its origin, and that pore pres-
sures always attain equilibrium within a few million
years. This appears to be true in many areas, such as por-
tions of the U.S. Gulf Coast, where overpressuring
occurs in both aquifers and hydrocarbon reservoirs; is
often associated with thick, undercompacted shale sec-
tions; and is commonly the result of disequilibrium com-
paction (Bethke et al., 1988). However, in other areas,
such as the Powder River Basin, where overpressuring is
dominantly due to hydrocarbon generation and matura-
tion, overpressuring may be maintained over much
longer time spans because multiphase fluid conditions
decrease effective permeabilities.
Multiphase fluid conditions exist when two or more
gaseous or liquid components occupy the void spaces
within a given volume of rock. The addition of hydro-
carbons, either by generation from organic matter or
migration, into the pores of a water-saturated rock is
the dominant mechanism by which multiphase fluid
conditions are created in the subsurface. Under condi-
tions of multiphase fluid flow, low-permeability rocks
can become seals to fluid flow because each fluid
phase added to a system results in decreased effective
permeabilities for all phases present (see Berg, 1975;
Schowalter, 1979). Such “capillary seals” may be capa-
ble of indefinitely preventing fluid flow as long as the
capillary threshold displacement pressure is not
exceeded (Iverson et al., 1995). Whereas all hydrocar-
bon accumulations are the result of capillary sealing
(Smith, 1966; Berg, 1975; Schowalter, 1979; Downey,
1984), only those completely enclosed by capillary
seals fit the definition of a fluid-pressure compartment
(i.e., externally closed, internally open fluid system)
(Heasler and Surdam, 1992).
CONDITIONS THAT PROMOTE TOTAL
CAPILLARY SEAL CLOSURE AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF FLUID-PRESSURE
COMPARTMENTS
In order for a hydrocarbon trap enclosed by capil-
lary seals to form, several conditions must be met.
Capillary pressures exist in all multiphase fluid-filled
rocks, but require the presence of low-permeability
(seal-type) rocks in order to trap significant amounts
of hydrocarbons or allow anomalous pressures to
develop. Therefore, as a first condition, the trap must
be completely enclosed by low-permeability rocks in
order for total capillary seal closure to occur. That is,
the trap cannot have a spillpoint. The majority of traps
that meet this condition are stratigraphic traps or com-
bined stratigraphic-structural-diagenetic traps (Figure
1). Not all stratigraphic traps, however, lack spill-
points. Therefore, not all stratigraphic traps are capa-
ble of becoming fluid-pressure compartments.
Furthermore, not all traps that are enclosed by low-
permeability rocks have total capillary seal closure.
If the low-permeability rocks enclosing the trap are
filled with a single fluid phase (water), then the reser-
voir must be completely filled and lack a free-water
leg. A contact between water-filled reservoir rock and
water-filled low-permeability rock is not a seal, it is an
aquitard. Therefore, anomalous pressures generated
in an incompletely filled trap can be equilibrated by
movement of water out from the water-leg portion of
the reservoir into and through the water-saturated
pores of the low-permeability rocks adjacent to or
below the reservoir. An example of this situation
would involve an incompletely filled reservoir that
becomes temporarily overpressured because of an
increase in hydrocarbon fluids associated with the
cracking of oil to gas. In such a reservoir, overpressur-
ing could be normalized by the downward displace-
ment of the hydrocarbon/water contact within the
reservoir and consequent movement of water out of
the reservoir into surrounding low-permeability
rocks. Whether or not a trap becomes completely filled
is a function of (1) the amount of hydrocarbons avail-
able to fill the reservoir relative to the volume of reser-
voir and (2) the holding capacity of the top and lateral
seals relative to the amount of closure in the trap.
Because many stratigraphic traps are elongated, the
orientation of a trap’s maximum dimension relative to
structure has an important influence on whether the
holding capacity of the top or lateral seal will be
exceeded and, thus, on whether the trap will become
enclosed by capillary seals (Figure 2).
Another way for a reservoir to achieve complete
capillary seal closure is for the low-permeability rocks
surrounding it to contain multiphase pore fluids; cap-
illary forces would then cause the low-permeability
rocks to become impermeable. This is most likely to
occur in mature source rocks. Reservoirs that are
closely associated with mature source rocks also prob-
ably have more than enough hydrocarbons available
to fill even very large (enclosed) reservoirs. Traps not
closely associated with mature source rocks require
some form of long-distance secondary migration and
have more of a supply problem. Reservoirs enclosed
within low-permeability rocks are, for the most part,
excluded from long-distance secondary migration
pathways because the buoyant forces associated with
secondary migration are generally insufficient to
enable hydrocarbons to enter into and migrate
through the low-permeability rocks around them.
Because hydrocarbons follow the path of least resis-
tance, once they begin migrating within the confines of
a porous and permeable carrier bed, they usually con-
tinue to migrate within it until they either accumulate
in conventional traps along the migration pathway or
reach the surface.
 ,,,,,,,
Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure Compartments 225

COMPLETE CLOSURE INCOMPLETE CLOSURE Figure 1. Schematic

diagrams showing complete

,,,,,,,
vs. incomplete closure in
SECTION
CROSS- various types of traps.
VIEW
Contours are of reservoir-
FACIES TRAPS

type rock thickness in feet.

,,,,,,,
0
20
VIEW
MAP

40 30 20 10 0

,,,,
,,
,,,,
,,,,
UNCONFORMITY TRAPS

SECTION
CROSS-

VIEW

,,
,,,,
0 20
20 40
VIEW
MAP

,,,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,
,,
STRUCTURAL TRAPS

SECTION
CROSS-

VIEW

,,,
,,,,
0
VIEW
MAP

100 100

,,
50 75 50 45 45 50

Fault termination or facies change

Porous & permeable Low permeability

(reservoir-type rock) (seal-type rock)

Leakage of hydrocarbons from an underlying accu-
mulation, and subsequent migration through a poor
trap rock, may be the mechanism wherein some reser-
voirs enclosed within low-permeability rock become
filled with hydrocarbons. For many reservoirs enclosed
in very low permeability rocks, however, a pressure in
excess of that due to buoyancy alone, such as that cre-
ated during hydrocarbon generation, may be necessary
to force the entry of hydrocarbons through the low-
permeability rocks into the reservoirs (Figure 3). There-
fore, for a variety of reasons, complete capillary seal clo-
sure is more likely to occur in reservoirs closely
associated with thick, high-quality source rocks. An
exception to this generalization is, of course, stratigraph-
ically enclosed reservoirs that are filled by long-distance
migration along either faults or fractures, and subse-
quently have been healed or diagenetically isolated.
POWDER RIVER BASIN, WYOMING
General Setting
The Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana
contains >6000 m (>20,000 ft) of dominantly clastic
 zzzz
,,,,,





yyyyy
226 Martinsen

R 76 W R 75 W R 74 W Figure 2. Schematic
cross sections of a “bar”
geometry sandstone

-3
20
,,,,,







yyyyy
zzzz
{{{{{
||||
reservoir oriented with

0
its long axis (A) parallel
T to structural strike and
46 (B) parallel to structural

-3
40
N dip. Changing the

0
,,,,,







yyyyy
zzzz
{{{{{
||||
orientation of the sand
body relative to structural
dip can change the
maximum feet of strati-
graphic closure from
~350 to >1600 ft.

,,,,,







yyyyy
zzzz
{{{{{
||||
-360
T

0
45

-3800
N

,,,,,







yyyyy
zzzz
{{{{{
|||| -40
00

,,,,,







yyyyy
zzzz
{{{{{
||||
44
N

B A
-4

T
20
-4

43
0
40
-46
-48

N
0
-50

00
00
-52

00
00

8000 FT 0 1 2 3 4 MI

rocks, ranging in age from Middle Cambrian to
Oligocene. Figure 4 is a generalized stratigraphic
nomenclature chart for the basin. This chart indicates
names and ages of formations within the basin, as well
as the major unconformities. Zones that produce
hydrocarbons, zones considered potential source
rocks, and zones in which anomalous pressures have
been documented are also indicated. Approximately
2400 m (8000 ft) of this section, including the Permian–
Pennsylvanian Tensleep Sandstone through the Upper
Cretaceous Mesaverde Formation, is highly produc-
tive of hydrocarbons and has been extensively stud-
ied. Except at its margins, very little structural
deformation occurs within the basin; the majority of
the hydrocarbon fields are stratigraphic in origin.
Numerous fluid-pressure compartments have been
mapped within the basin (Heasler et al., 1995). Over-
pressured, underpressured, and normally pressured
fluid compartments have been recognized. Nearly all
of the overpressured fluid compartments occur within
the Cretaceous section; are restricted to the deeper,
more central portions of the basin; are associated with
mature to supermature source rocks; are normally
compacted; and are hydrocarbon saturated. That is,
they do not contain overpressured aquifers or even
reservoirs with discrete hydrocarbon/water contacts.
Although discrete fluid-pressure compartments have
been identified in the Permo-Pennsylvanian section
(McBane, 1984; Sheppy, 1986), only a few, questionable
anomalous pressures have been recorded (Heasler et
al., 1995). This apparent lack of fluid-pressure com-
partments in the Paleozoic section is surprising
because the Paleozoic rocks contain numerous strati-
graphically trapped hydrocarbons and should be at
higher temperatures and pressures than the Cretaceous
rocks because they are deeper. Fluid compartments
 Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure Compartments
Conventional
TOP OF
OVERPRESSURING
immature organic-rich shale
(single phase pore fluids)
mature organic-rich shale
(multi phase pore fluids)
Figure 3. Diagram showing how sandstones enclosed in shale are more likely to become charged with hydro-
carbons if the shale that encloses them has generated hydrocarbons.
within the Minnelusa typically are identified by vary-
ing pressure draw-down histories within fields, by the
presence of virgin pressures in in-fill wells, and by
varying water chemistries.
CRETACEOUS SECTION
Basinwide Zone of Overpressuring
The Upper Cretaceous section consists of ~1500 m
(~5000 ft) of shale and subsidiary amounts of sand-
stone (Figure 5). For the most part, these rocks were
deposited in a series of very broad, clastic shelf sys-
tems that intermittently prograded across the
Interior Seaway (Asquith, 1970). The Teapot, Park-
man, and parts of the Frontier are mostly shoreline-
associated deposits, whereas the Sussex, Shannon,
and other parts of the Frontier have been interpreted
as shelf sand ridges (Gill and Cobban, 1973;
Merewether el al., 1979; Hobson et al., 1982; Cough-
lin and Steidtmann, 1984; Tillman and Martinsen,
1984, 1987). The shoreline-associated sandstones
typically have wedge-shaped geometries that
interfinger seaward with marine shales and land-
ward with various coastal plain deposits, and thus
are not generally enclosed within low-permeability
rocks. The ridge sandstones are typically encased in
marine shales.
227
Traps
Fluid Pressure
Compartment Traps
direction of HC migration
porous & permeable reservoir
HC accumulations
The Lower Cretaceous section also consists mostly
of shale, sandstone, and some conglomerate. Histori-
cally it is the major hydrocarbon-producing interval in
the basin (Dolson et al., 1991), in part because the
Lower Cretaceous organic-rich Mowry Shale is
believed to be a major hydrocarbon source rock. Depo-
sition of the Lower Cretaceous rocks occurred in allu-
vial plain to shallow-marine environments. Both the
Muddy and the Dakota are highly heterolithic reser-
voirs containing shale through pebble-size sediments.
The Lakota is lithologically more uniform and gener-
ally consists of sandstone with some conglomerate.
Major shale units include the Mowry-Shell Creek
overlying the Muddy, the Skull Creek between the
Muddy and the Dakota, and the Fuson, between the
Dakota and the Lakota. Powley (1982, 1990) indicates
the Fuson is the basal seal to the Cretaceous overpres-
sured regime.
Overpressuring in the Powder River Basin is
believed to be the result of both hydrocarbon genera-
tion and maturation, especially the cracking of oil to
gas (Jiao, 1992). Figure 6A is a west-to-east pressure
profile, and 6B is a gross lithofacies cross section of the
Powder River Basin. The top of the overpressured
regime (yellow and blue region) more closely follows
stratigraphic boundaries and is deeper between
ranges 70W and 76W, where the section above the
Steele Shale contains significantly more sandstone
228 Martinsen

WEST EAST WEST EAST

POPO
PLIOCENE AGIE FM

CHUGWATER GP
CROW MTN
ALCOVA LS

MIOCENE TRIASSIC
RED PEAK FM

OLIGOCENE
TERTIARY

WHITE RIVER FM WHITE RIVER FM SPEARFISH FM

GOOSE EGG FM

GOOSE EGG FM
ERVAY PINE SALT

EOCENE FORELLE LS
GLENDO SH
FORELLE LS
GLENDO SH
MONCRIEF

WAS
MINNEKAHTA LS MINNEKAHTA LS

FM
KINGSBURY CGL
WASATCH FM PERMIAN OPECHE SH OPECHE SH
FT UNION

FT UNION
TONGUE R TONGUE R
CONVERSE
PALEOCENE
FM

FM
LEBO SH LEBO SH LEO
TULLOCK TULLOCK
TENSLEEP SS
LANCE FM LANCE FM HELL CR
MINNELUSA FM
FOX HILLS SS FOX HILLS SS PENNSYLVANIAN
MESAVERDE

BEARPAW SH
TEAPOT SS AMSDEN FM
BELL SS

PARKMAN SS PIERRE
SUSSEX SS SHALE
MISSISSIPPIAN MADISON LS PAHSAPA LS

UPPER * SHANNON SS

STEELE SH
ENGLEWOOD FM
CODY SHALE

CRETACEOUS JEFFERSON
DEVONIAN FM

NIOBRARA SH NIOBRARA SH

CARLILE SH SAGE BREAKS SH

SILURIAN
* WALL CR TURNER SS
CARLILE SH
GREENHORN LS

FRONTIER FM BIGHORN DOL WHITEWOOD DOL

BELLE FOURCHE SH
ORDOVICIAN
UNNAMED SS ROUGHLOCK,
MOWRY SH MOWRY SH ICE BOX, ALADDIN

SHELL CREEK SH NEFSY SH

LOWER * MUDDY SS NEWCASTLE SS

GALLATIN
DEADWOOD
THERMOPOLIS SH SKULL CREEK SH
UPPER LS
FM

CRETACEOUS DAKOTA SILT DAKOTA SILT GROS VENTRE

CAMBRIAN

FM

*
KARA GP

KARA GP

FALL RIVER SS FALL RIVER SS

INYAN

INYAN

SS
FUSON SH FUSON SH D
EA
LAKOTA CGL LAKOTA CGL ATH
FL
MIDDLE
MORRISON FM MORRISON FM
SUNDANCE FM

SUNDANCE FM

UPR SUNDANCE REDWATER SH

JURASSIC

UPPER LAK MBR LOWER

HULETT SS
LWR SUNDANCE STOCKADE BEAVER
CANYON SPRINGS PRECAMBRIAN
GYPSUM SPR GYPSUM SPR
MIDDLE
LOWER

= Hydrocarbon producing zone

= Known source rock
= Contains overpressured reservoirs
*
Figure 4. Stratigraphic nomenclature chart for the Powder River Basin. Modified from
Wyoming Geological Association (1991).

than elsewhere. Probably considerably less gas and and overpressuring that may have developed is more
pressure were generated where sandstones and silt- likely to have been dissipated by flow within the thick,
stones are abundant because they contain less organic laterally continuous sandstone zones. Thus, although
material than marine shales. In addition, whatever gas the top of overpressured zone does not strictly follow
 zzzz




,,,
yyy ,,
,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyy
Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure Compartments 229

WEST

,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyy
EAST


zzz
|||



zz

|| ,,
yy
{{
,
y


{ {
|
{ 
Lance Fm Lance Fm

,,,,,
Fox Hills SS Fox Hills SS

MESAVERDE Lewis Sh


|||
{ {

Teapot SS

Parkman SS
UPPER CRETACEOUS

Pierre Sh
Sussex SS
STEELE SH

Shannon SS

,,,,,
|{
{ 
|
{ 
|
{ 
Steele Sh

,,,,,
,,,,,,
Niobrara Sh

yyy
,,,
Niobrara Sh

,, ÀÀÀ
€€€
@@@
,,, ,,,
yyy

CARLILE SH
| ,,
|
{


y
z
y

,



zz
y


,,
z z


,
y
Carlile Sh Sage Brush Mbr

,,,,,,
Wall Ck SS(1st Frontier) Turner SS

,,
FRONTIER FM

Emigrant Gap Mbr Pool Creek Mbr

Greenhorn LS

,,,,,,,
Belle Fourche Mbr
Belle Fourche Mbr

,
zz,
yy



,,
y
,


z z,

y
,
y

||
,,,,,,,
,


z
y

{
Mowry Sh Mowry Sh
CLOVERLY GP THERMOPOLIS SH

Shell Creek Sh Netsy Sh

LOWER CRETACEOUS

Muddy SS Muddy SS

,,,,,,,
z
|,,y,{,,,,,,,
|{ÀÀ€€@@,,ÀÀ€€@@,,,,{|
Thermopolis Sh Skull Creek Sh

,,,,,,,
, ,,,,,,
,,,,,,, CLOVERLY GP
Fall River SS Fall River SS
(Dakota SS) (Dakota SS)

,,,,,,,
Fuson Sh Fuson Sh
Lakota Cgl Lakota Cgl

yy
,,
,,
yy
dominantly sandstone dominantly shale

,,
variable clastic lithologies limestone and/or
calcareous shales
dominantly sandstone
and/or conglomerate hiatus
unconformity
Figure 5. Chronostratigraphic nomenclature chart for the Cretaceous Powder River
Basin, with unconformities and lithofacies indicated.

stratigraphy, it appears to be strongly influenced by it. Furthermore, the base of the overpressured sec-
The higher, nearly horizontal top of the anomaly in the tion follows stratigraphy throughout the basin and
eastern and extreme western parts of the basin occurs appears to be bounded by the Fuson Shale. Whereas
within shale and may represent the top of the gas- the section between the Fuson and the top of the
generating zone. Steele is comprised dominantly of shale (with only
230 Martinsen

(A) Figure 6. (A) West-to-east

W 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 E cross section through
the Powder River Basin

le
4000 showing the distribution

ee
and relative magnitudes of

St

a
overpressuring. (From

ar
br
6000 Maucione et al., 1995, their

io
figure 16.) (B) West-to-east

N
Depth (ft)

n cross section through the

8000
uso Powder River Basin
F showing the gross
lithofacies (dominantly
10000 sand/dominantly shale)
and the outline of
overpressuring as indicated
12000 in Figure 6A. Note that the
section between the top of
Steele down to top of Fuson
14000 is dominantly shale with
110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
zones of relatively thin,
Distance (mi) isolated sand, and the
section above the Steele is
much more sand rich in the
western part of the basin.
Increasing Anomaly
(B) (Overpressure)
W 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 le 63 62 E
4000
ee
St

a
ar
br

6000
io
N
Depth (ft)

n
8000
uso
F

10000
Outline of
Overpressuring
12000

14000
110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Distance (mi)

minor amounts of sandstone beds), the section below
the Fuson is dominated by sandstone and siltstone.
Although Lakota sandstones and conglomerates are
sometimes enclosed in shales, the shales tend to be
red or green (J. Dolson, 1994, personal communica-
tion), and are probably not organic-rich. Therefore,
overpressuring is less likely to occur below the
Fuson because it contains fewer organic-rich rocks in
which to generate excess pressures and an abun-
dance of sandstone conduits to equilibrate excess
pressures.
Reservoir-Scale Fluid-Pressure Compartments
Within the regional zone of overpressuring, numer-
ous reservoir-scale fluid-pressure compartments have
been identified. The boundaries of those fluid-
pressure compartments that have been studied coin-
cide with lithofacies boundaries.
Examples from the Muddy Sandstone, one of the
most highly fluid compartmentalized formations in the
basin, demonstrate stratigraphic controls on the devel-
opment of reservoir-scale fluid-pressure compartments.
,,,,,,,,
Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure Compartments 231

Figure 7. Schematic

,,,,,,,,
representation of
three scales of stratigraphic
A compartmentalization
within the Muddy Sandstone.

,,,,,,,,
(From Martinsen, 1995.)
LATERAL
SEALS

,,
VERTICAL SEAL

LATERAL

,,,,,,,,
Rozet-unconformity surface

paleosol.

,,,,,,,,
B

,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,
VERTICAL SEALS

,,,,,,,,
Transgressive shales

,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyy ,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyy
yyyyyy
,,,,,, ,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy ,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyy ,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyy
,,,,,, yyyyyyy
yyyyyy ,,,,,,, yyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyy
,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyy

,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,
yyyyyy
C
,,,,,
yyyyy ,,,,,
yyyyy ,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyyy ,,,,,,
yyyyyy
,,,,,yyyyy
yyyyy ,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyy ,,,,,,
yyyyyy
,,,,,, yyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,yyyyyy
,,,,,,
,,,,,yyyyyyyyyyy
yyyyy ,,,,,,
yyyyyy

,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,
yyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy ,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
,,,,,,
yyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,
yyyyyy ,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy ,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy ,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,
yyyyyy ,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy ,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy ,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,
yyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy ,,,
yyy,,,
yyy ,,,,,,
yyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,yyy
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy ,,,
yyy ,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyy
,,,yyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,
yyyyy
,,,,,,
yyyyyy
,,,,,
yyyyy
,,,,,,
yyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,yyy
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy ,,,yyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyy ,,,,,
yyyyy
,,,,,
yyyyy
,,,,, Various Ss lithologies
yyyyy
,,,,,
yyyyy

For an in-depth understanding of Muddy Sandstone
stratigraphy and depositional history in the Powder
River Basin, see Gustason (1988), Gustason et al. (1988a,
b), Dolson et al. (1991), and Martinsen (1995).
At least three scales of stratigraphic compartmen-
talization occur within the Muddy Sandstone (Figure
7). Each of these three scales appears to coincide with
a different scale of fluid-pressure compartmentaliza-
tion observed in the formation. The largest scale of
compartmentalization is provided by the Rozet
unconformity, which divides the Muddy into two sepa-
rate stratigraphic sequences. Diagenesis beneath the
unconformity created a rock with excellent sealing
capacity, even in areas where sand is in contact with
sand across the unconformity (Jiao, 1992). The overall
geometries of the compartments formed by the Rozet
unconformity are defined by the intersection of the
unconformity (or the associated paleosol) with either
the underlying Skull Creek Shale or the overlying Shell
Creek Shale. The middle scale of compartmentalization
232 Martinsen

Figure 8. Map of the

120 Powder River Basin
90 Hammond showing the location of
BC T
Muddy Sandstone oil and
9 gas fields, thickness of the
90 MONTANA Fence Creek Bell Creek
WYOMING Sandbar T
S Muddy, and the location
120 Ute LM 57 of mapped lineaments.
90 R64W
N Isopach values taken from
Recluse Dolson et al. (1991, their
90
Oedekoven Collums SR figure 11); lineament data
RZ taken from Slack (1981, his

60
Gas Draw
figure 4) and Martinsen and
30 Marrs (1985, their figure 1).
Amos Draw Kitty
Springen Ranch
SC
60

T
50
R64W
GB
N
Lazy B S-Bar Coyote Creek
Slattery 30
60
FC
Fiddler Creek
Trend
30
Buff CT R61W
T
45
Hilight N
Ha Creek
Clareton Area
Porcupine Finn 60

60

Teapot
Steinle Ranch
BD

WH

T
30 Powell 38
R61W N
GI

Cole Creek
60

30
60

Glenrock WYOMING
T
31
N
R82W R71W

is provided by the shales that overlie the transgressive
surfaces of erosion and further divide the stratigraphic
sequences into individual parasequences or parase-
quence sets. The geometries of these compartments are
defined by the intersection of the shales (either by
onlap or truncation) with the Rozet unconformity or
paleosol. The third and smallest scale of coincident
stratigraphic and fluid compartmentalization is pro-
vided by the distribution, geometry, and stacking of
individual lithosomes within each of the parase-
quences sets. Lithosome geometries are highly
variable and reflect variations in depositional environ-
ment and sediment type and supply.
As a result of these three scales of stratigraphic com-
partmentalization, nearly all sandstones within the
Muddy Sandstone are enclosed by low-permeability
rocks, and therefore meet the first condition for total
capillary seal closure. The proximity of the Muddy
Sandstone to potential source rocks (the Mowry Shale
and possibly the Skull Creek Shale) and the generally
limited size of Muddy Sandstone reservoirs provide
favorable conditions for the reservoirs to completely
fill with hydrocarbons. Stratigraphically, therefore, the
Muddy Sandstone is strongly predisposed to the for-
mation of internal reservoir-scale fluid-pressure com-
partments. Observations indicate that with one
exception, all of the Muddy Sandstone fields in the
deep part of the Powder River Basin have the charac-
teristics of fluid-pressure compartments; that is, they
are anomalously pressured, depletion-drive reservoirs
that lack free-water legs.
The one exception is Lazy B Field (T49N R74W;
Figure 8). It is interesting to note that this field is in
close proximity to the Amos Draw field (T51N R75W,
 Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure Compartments 233

AMOS DRAW WILD HORSE CREEK LAZY B

AMOS DRAW #3 1-27 1-10P LOWERY
29-51N-75W 27-50N-74W 10-49N-74W
~5600 psi 2237 psi 3416 psi
NW SE

|||||||








,,,,,,,,

zzzzzzz
yyyyyyyy

{{{{{{{{
||
{{

 {


|{

9500

yyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy


{{{{{{{{
|||||||
TOP OF MUDDY
UPPER Kmd

,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyy
ROZET
10,000 UNCONF

,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyy ,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
ROZET UNCONF 9600
LB UNCONF

,,,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyyyy ,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyy
LOWER MUDDY
SK UNCONF 9800
LB UNCONF

,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyy
,,
yy
|,
z{
y


? ?
overpressured SK UNCONF

Gr Sp
,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,
yyyyyyyy
,,
yy
?

,,
yy
10,100
SOIL ZONE normally

,,
yy
pressured
SUB-UNCONFORMITY MARINE SS
9900
VALLEY-FILL/TRANSGRESSIVE DEPOSITS
PERFORATED INTERVAL

Figure 9. Cross section showing the stratigraphic relationships of the Muddy Sandstone between the Amos
Draw and Lazy B fields.

Figure 8), a highly overpressured gas condensate
reservoir at the same depth that produces from the
same stratigraphic zone within the Muddy Sandstone
(Figure 9). Lazy B, however, is normally pressured to
underpressured, produces high-gravity oil (51° API,
1314 GOR), and contains both a gas cap and an
oil/water contact (Wyoming Geological Association,
1981). Mercury injection capillary pressure data from
Amos Draw suggest that the seal (a paleosol) can trap
an ~630-m (~2100-ft) gas column or a 540-m (1800-ft)
oil column (Jiao, 1992). Because the sandstone reser-
voir in Amos Draw field has ~255 m (850 ft) of closure,
it is well below the maximum calculated holding
capacity of 540–630 m (1800–2100 ft) for the seal. The
reservoir in Lazy B, in contrast, has ~660 m (~2200 ft)
of closure and exceeds the maximum calculated hold-
ing capacity of the seal. Even though the Lazy B reser-
voir is volumetrically smaller than the Amos Draw
reservoir, it has more closure because it is linearly
shaped and oriented with its long axis perpendicular
to structure. It is also possible that the holding capac-
ity of the top seal in the area of Lazy B field has been
reduced. Lazy B field coincides with the Springen
Ranch lineament (Figure 8). Subtle basement block
movement along this lineament is believed to have
controlled reservoir rock deposition and preservation
(Gustason, 1988). Any later movements along this
basement block fault may have caused fracturing in
the overlying seal and reduced its holding capacity.
Whatever the reason, the holding capacity of the seal
in the Lazy B field apparently is not sufficient to
allow the field to be either filled with hydrocarbons
or overpressured, as is Amos Draw field. It is less rea-
sonable to assume that, unlike all the other Muddy
Sandstone fields in the “deep” Powder River Basin,
there were insufficient hydrocarbons available to fill
the Lazy B field reservoir.
Studies throughout the basin indicate that, like the
Muddy reservoirs, many of the other Cretaceous reser-
voirs identified as fluid-pressure compartments are
enclosed by low-permeability rocks; these low-perme-
ability rocks are also potential source rocks, and the
structural closure of the reservoirs is limited. For more
on stratigraphic and fluid-pressure compartmentaliza-
tion in the Muddy, see Martinsen (1995).
PERMO-PENNSYLVANIAN SECTION
The Permo-Pennsylvanian Minnelusa is currently
the largest producer of hydrocarbons in the Powder
River Basin, and is second only to the Tensleep Forma-
tion (its partly chronostratigraphic equivalent) in
terms of hydrocarbon production for the state of
Wyoming. Cumulative production is >200 million bbl
of oil (Moore, 1983; Clayton and Ryder, 1984) and
comes mainly from oil fields in the northern Powder
River Basin (Campbell, Crook, and Johnson counties).
Nearly all the Minnelusa fields are partly to entirely
stratigraphic in origin. Although discrete fluid
compartments have been identified in the Permo-
Pennsylvanian section (McBane, 1984; Sheppy, 1986;
Martinsen, 1992), there is no zone of regional over-
pressuring, and only a few questionable anomalous
234 Martinsen

(A) Figure 10. (A) Structure

contour map of the Powder

y,{{y,




40 45 50 55 60 5
9 MONTANA
WYOMING
River Basin on the top of
0' the Niobrara Formation

-2
00
10 (modified from Maughn,

0
55
A 1990). Also displayed are the


,,,

20
0' Upper distribution of oil fields that
Minnelusa produce from the Minnelusa,
Production
the thickness of the upper
5 Minnelusa, the regressive
SC
50 phase outline of the Lusk
-60
embayment during upper


,,,

00
Minnelusa time, and
1 lineament data (Clayton and

+2
Ryder, 1984, their figure 3).

00
0
0' 1
40 Isopach values are taken
45
-2 0

from Trotter (1984, his figure








,,,
00

9); lineament data are from

5
Slack (1981) and Martinsen
Tensleep
Sandstone and Marrs (1985); Lusk
Lusk
Production
Embayment
embayment boundaries are
40
based on Fryberger (1984).

,,,
zz
yyy





,,,

0
00
+2

10
-80
00

35 S. DAKOTA
NEBRASKA



||
{{{ 
10
,0 00
-

Middle A'
Minnelusa
30 Production 30

{| 

0
00
+2

80 75 70 65 60

000 Structural elevation, in feet, top of the Niobrara Formation

+2
' Thickness, in feet, upper Minnelusa member
200
Precambrian Lusk Embayment

SC
South Coyote Creek lineament

pressures have been recorded (Heasler et al., 1995). Fluid compartments within the Minnelusa typi-
Furthermore, although the Minnelusa is significantly cally are identified by varying pressure draw-down
lower in the stratigraphic section than Cretaceous histories within fields, by the presence of virgin
rocks, hydrocarbons within it typically are low-gravity pressures in in-fill wells, and by varying water
(average <30° API), low-GOR (<100) oils, and thus do chemistries (McBane, 1984; Sheppy, 1986; Tyler and
not appear to be more mature than the Cretaceous Modroo, 1986). It is possible, however, that fluid
hydrocarbons (See MacGowan et al., 1993). Minnelusa compartments identified in this manner only appear
fields typically have mappable oil/water contacts, lack to be isolated because not enough time has elapsed
basal seals, and commonly have water drives that for pressure variations formed as a result of fluid
result in high per-well recovery of oil in place. removal during production to equilibrate. This pos-
In several fields having depletion-drive reservoirs, sibility is supported by longer term data, which indi-
a tar mat has been recognized and proposed as the cate at least some fields (primarily lower “B” sand)
basal seal (Trotter, 1984). The presence of a tar mat that experienced rapid initial pressure drops are in
indicates degradation of oils, either by water-washing pressure continuity with other fields (P. Slack, 1993,
or bacteria, and suggests that water below the oil col- personal communication). Therefore, although the
umn in those fields is probably meteoric in origin and Minnelusa, like the Cretaceous section, is strati-
thus in hydrodynamic continuity with the surface graphically complex and contains numerous
water system. stratigraphically trapped hydrocarbon accumulations,
 Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure Compartments 235

{y,{y,,,,



(B) Figure 10. (B) Structure
40 45 50 55 60 5 contour map of the Powder
MONTANA River Basin showing the
WYOMING
distribution of oil fields

-2
00
10 that produce from the

,,,






0'

55 Minnelusa, the thickness

20

-4
0 Upper of the middle Minnelusa,
00 Minnelusa the regressive phase outline
Production
of the Lusk embayment
0'
30 ' 5 during middle Minnelusa
300
time, and the line of cross

{ ,,,





50
-60 section shown in Figure 11
00
(Clayton and Ryder, 1984,
their figure 3). Isopach

+2
Lusk 1

00
values are from Trotter

0
Embayment
1
(1984, his figure 9); Lusk

,,,






45
-2 0

embayment boundaries
00

are based on Desmond

5
et al. (1984).
Tensleep
Sandstone
Production

,,,






40

yyy
zz
0
00
+2

10
-80
00

35 S. DAKOTA

{,y{{{
,,,




yyy


zz
||
NEBRASKA

10
,0 00
-

Middle
Minnelusa
30 Production

,
yz{| ,
30
0
00
+2

80 75 70 65 60

000 Structural elevation, in feet, top of the Niobrara Formation

+2
' Thickness, in feet, middle Minnelusa member
300

Precambrian Lusk Embayment

the reservoir and production characteristics of Min- The Minnelusa is composed of several lithologies,
nelusa fields are very different from those of Creta- including sandstone, carbonate, and evaporite, and is
ceous fields. the product of numerous transgressive-regressive
cycles of alternating shallow-marine to eolian deposi-
Regional Stratigraphy and Depositional Setting tion. Lithofacies within the upper and middle members
are very similar, except that the middle member con-
The Minnelusa varies from 195 m to >375 m tains numerous thin but widespread radioactive, car-
(650 ft–>1250 ft) in thickness, and has been informally bonaceous black shales. These black shales can be
divided into three members simply referred to as traced throughout much of the southeastern two-thirds
upper, middle, and lower Minnelusa (Foster, 1958). of the Powder River Basin, and have been identified as
The contacts between the three members are uncon- possible hydrocarbon source beds for the Minnelusa
formable, and numerous disconformities are believed (Tromp, 1981; Tromp et al., 1981; Clayton and Ryder,
to exist within each of the members (Moore, 1983; 1984). Several authors (Moore, 1983; Desmond et al.,
Desmond et al., 1984; Fryberger, 1984; Trotter, 1984). 1984; Fryberger, 1984) have suggested that the Persian
The majority of the oil fields produce from the upper Gulf tidal flat (sabkha) deposits described by Shinn
member, although significant production also comes (1983) are a modern analog for the Minnelusa.
from the middle member (Figure 10A, B). The lower Gross lithofacies distributions within both the
member is relatively barren of oil. upper and middle Minnelusa were influenced by a
236 Martinsen
paleogeographic feature called the Lusk embayment
(Figure 10A, B). Because of the very low topographic
relief of the area, small changes in relative sea level
produced large changes in the lateral extent of the
embayment. During transgressive periods, this
embayment extended across most of what is now the
Powder River Basin and was the site of extensive sub-
tidal carbonate deposition. During regressive periods,
it contracted extensively to form a smaller, more lin-
ear, northwest-trending embayment, and sand dunes
migrated out across the now-exposed carbonate flats.
The Lusk embayment alternately expanded and con-
tracted many times during Minnelusa deposition and
produced a high-periodicity alternation of sandstone,
carbonate, and evaporite that resulted in vertical parti-
tioning of the formation.
For the most part, the carbonates and evaporites
deposited within the Lusk embayment comprise seals,
whereas the dominantly aeolian-deposited sandstones
comprise the majority of the reservoirs. Beyond the
maximum transgressive extent of the Lusk embay-
ment, the vertical lithologic succession of the
Minnelusa is very sand rich. Wherever the Lusk
embayment was continuously present, the entire verti-
cal lithologic succession consists of low-permeability
rocks that effectively separate sandstone reservoirs
present to the east of the embayment from those to the
west. During upper Minnelusa time, the northern
boundaries of the Lusk embayment during regressive
phases are located in the north-central Powder River
Basin, and appear to coincide with the Springen Ranch
lineament (Figure 11). Therefore, only the southern
area of the Powder River Basin has a continuous verti-
cal succession of low-permeability rocks separating
eastern from western areas of porous and permeable
sandstones in the upper Minnelusa. During middle
Minnelusa time, the northern boundaries of the Lusk
embayment were north of the Powder River Basin,
even during regressive phases, so an area of low-
permeability rocks exists across the entire basin, which
effectively separates eastern areas of porous and per-
meable sandstone from western areas.
Types and Characteristics of Stratigraphic
Compartments
The intercalation of various clastic, carbonate, and
evaporite lithologies that typifies the Minnelusa, plus
numerous intraformational unconformities, have
resulted in a highly complex Minnelusa stratigraphy
in which multiple reservoir-trap combinations are
expected (Mallory, 1967; Desmond et al., 1984; Fry-
berger, 1984; Trotter, 1984; Desmond, 1985). However,
although this complex stratigraphy has resulted in a
high degree of vertical partitioning, lateral partition-
ing of the sandstone reservoirs is less extensive. In the
western and northern portions of the basin (areas of
Tensleep and upper Minnelusa production; Figure
10A, B), the large dune fields deposited extensive sand
sheets that do not have an abundance of lateral seals.
The Opeche unconformity, which forms the upper
contact for the Minnelusa, often shows considerable
relief; however, although numerous beds pinch out
beneath the Opeche unconformity, these pinchouts
commonly occur parallel to structural dip, and thus
have little closure. Relatively few terminations occur
perpendicular to structural dip.
Although less extensive than vertical seals, several
kinds of lateral seals are present in the Minnelusa. In
the southern and eastern portions of the basin (area of
middle Minnelusa production; Figure 10B), where
sand supply was more limited, dunes are often iso-
lated (similar to “starved” ripples), and there is a
higher proportion of low-permeability interdunal and
shallow-marine sediment. Thus, reservoirs in this area
are more likely to be enclosed in low-permeability
rocks. Major lithofacies changes along the western
edges of dune complexes provide good lateral seals in
the northeastern portion of the basin. In the northern
portion of the basin, relief along the Opeche unconfor-
mity shows locally isolated dune deposits in the
uppermost Minnelusa, especially in areas where the
unconformity cuts down through beds of carbonate or
evaporite. Lateral seals also occur where cementation
has severely reduced primary porosity and permeabil-
ity within depositionally continuous sandstones. Such
diagenetically formed seals have been recognized as
providing traps for several Minnelusa oil fields (Fry-
berger, 1984; George, 1984). Although both calcite and
anhydrite cementation are pervasive within the Min-
nelusa, most of the known upper Minnelusa oil fields
lack bottom seals (J. Dolson, 1994, personal communi-
cation) and have oil/water contacts, which suggests
that cementation did not result in isolation of many oil
reservoirs.
In summary, the Minnelusa is a highly complex
stratigraphic unit, dominantly containing stratigraphi-
cally confined sandstone reservoirs rather than iso-
lated sandstone reservoirs. Although stratigraphically
isolated sandstones may exist throughout the Min-
nelusa, for the most part only middle Minnelusa reser-
voirs in the southeastern Powder River Basin are both
stratigraphically isolated and productive, and have
been identified as fluid-pressure compartments. Obvi-
ously, the development of pressure compartments in
the Minnelusa is dependent on more than strati-
graphic complexity, including enclosure of high-
porosity, high-permeability rocks by relatively
low-permeability rocks.
Stratigraphic Compartments, Source Rocks,
and Oil Migration Routes
Multiple source rocks for the Minnelusa Formation
oil fields have been proposed, and hydrocarbons with
varying genetic profiles have been identified. Until the
1980s, long-distance migration of oil from the Phos-
phoria Formation of western Wyoming into eastern
Wyoming was believed to be the only source of Min-
nelusa oil (Sheldon, 1967; Stone, 1967). Subsequently,
Tromp (1981) and others (Clayton and Ryder, 1984;
Momper and Williams, 1984; James, 1989) identified
the organic-rich black shales within the middle Min-
nelusa as an indigenous source for the oils.
 Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure Compartments 237

,,,,,,,,,,

DAKOTA
SOUTH
WYOMING NEBRASKA

,,,
yyy
yyyyyyy
,,,,,,,,
yyyy
,,,
B

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,
,
,,,,, ,,
,,,,
,,,,,, ,,,,,,
,,,,, ,,
NORTH

,,,,,,,,,,
,,, ,,,
46 N R 64 W
B'
55 N W 49 N R 68 W 42 N R 62 W 37 N R 62 W SOUTH

yy
,, yyyy
,,,,
,,,
yyy ,,,,
yyyy
39 N R 61 W

,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
51 N 67 W 12 S R E

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

EGG FM
Minnekahta

GOOSE
mbr

,
,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,,
,,,,, ,,
,,,,,
,,,
,,,,,
,
,,,,,
, ,,
,,,,
,
,,, , e
Opeche

nd A
yyy
,,,
yy,,,
,,yyy
,,,,
yyyy on
e

st
nd B
on

,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
yyyyyy
,,,,,,y
,

PERMIAN
Shale

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,
st

sa

ne
to
e
sa
nd C
on

ds
st

n
e
sa
rs
upper

ve
sa

,, yyy
,,,
,,,,,,,,
on
mbr

,,,,,,,,
,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,
, ,,,
,,,,,, ,
C

MINNELUSA FM
st eo
e
on
nd L
,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
middle

PENNSYL-
sa
, , y,y, ,,,,,,,
,,,

VANIAN
mbr

,,,,,,,,
lower
mbr
EXPLANATION

SIPPIAN
MISSIS-
Sandstone Dolomite Anhydrite Shale Shale Unconformity
and and (black
limestone siltstone and gray) FEET METERS
(red and green) 200 500
100
25 MILES

SCALE 50 KILOMETERS

Figure 11. Northwest-southeast well-log cross section through the Minnelusa Formation showing erosional
truncation of upper Minnelusa sandstones to the northwest and facies terminations to the southeast. Note that,
with the exception of the Leo sands, sandstones are not enclosed by low-permeability rocks. Line of section
shown in Figure 10B (Clayton and Ryder, 1984, their figure 2).

The fact that many sandstones within the Min-
nelusa are laterally continuous parallel to structural
dip makes long-distance migration tenable. Within the
Powder River Basin, Minnelusa production occurs in
three distinct geographic areas (Figure 10A, B). In the
western Powder River Basin, production is all struc-
turally controlled and is from the upper Minnelusa. In
the northeastern part of the basin, the fields produce
mostly from the upper Minnelusa, and all occur in a
fairway whose southern boundary coincides with the
northern “regressive” phase boundary of the Lusk
embayment. In the southeastern Powder River Basin,
the fields typically produce from the middle Min-
nelusa (Leo sands) and geographically coincide with
the best development of the organic-rich black shales.
Stratigraphically and geographically, this distribution
of oil fields accommodates a model that entails long-
distance migration for upper Minnelusa oils (western
and northeastern areas of production) and a local,
indigenous source for middle Minnelusa production
(southeastern area).
Within the context of this model, hydrocarbons
migrating eastward from western Wyoming would
have first filled structural accumulations in the west-
ern Powder River Basin, such as Reno and Reno East.
After filling these structural traps, additional migrat-
ing hydrocarbons would have spilled updip to the east
until they encountered the western margin of low-
permeability facies deposited within the Lusk embay-
ment. These low-permeability rocks provided an effec-
tive barrier that prevented the hydrocarbons from
migrating further east (i.e., no upper Minnelusa pro-
duction in the southeastern Powder River Basin).
Instead, the low-permeability facies deflected the
migrating hydrocarbons to the northeast, where they
accumulated in various stratigraphic and combined
structural-stratigraphic traps in what is now the north-
eastern Powder River Basin (Figure 10A). Stratigraph-
ically isolated reservoirs in the upper Minnelusa
generally were excluded from the long-distance
migration route, and therefore did not fill. Today,
many of these stratigraphically isolated reservoirs are
either wet or tight. Productive reservoirs that appear
to be stratigraphically isolated (e.g., a dune sandstone
surrounded by dolomite) could have been filled as a
result of fractures providing migration pathways.
Truly fluid-enclosed reservoirs may also exist in reser-
voirs diagenetically isolated after migration and accu-
mulation by either cementation or tar-mat formation
below the hydrocarbon-water contact. These types of



,,



,,
,,,,








,
,,,,













,
,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,









238

,
,,



,
,,,,
Martinsen


 

,,,,,,

 
,,,, ,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,
,,,,,,,











,,
,,,,,,
,,,
Opeche


 ,,
,,,,,,,,,
, ,,,

Upper Minnelusa
,
,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,,,










 

,
,,,
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,






 ,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,













,, 
,,,y,
, 
, y,y,
,,,,,,,,,
,

,
y
y
,
y

Middle Minnelusa
,,,,,






,

,
,,,,,,,,,





,
 
,

,,
,,,,,,,,, Migration path

,, Sandstone Opeche shale Oil accumulation

,,
,,

Tightly cemented Tight carbonates Organic-rich

sandstone black shale Unconformity

Figure 12. Schematic representation of the various types of stratigraphic traps in the Minnelusa
Formation.

reservoirs could correspond to pressure compart-
ments, and could be overpressured by the cracking of
oil to gas within the reservoir. According to Mac-
Gowan et al. (1993), this probably only occurred in the
deepest parts of the Powder River Basin.
Middle Minnelusa reservoirs are unlikely to have
been filled by long-distance migration of hydrocar-
bons for a number of reasons. First, hydrocarbons
migrate updip along the tops of carrier beds and not
throughout the entire thickness of the carrier beds
(Schowalter, 1979). Unless there are low-permeability
beds within the Minnelusa that are continuous from
western to eastern Wyoming, any hydrocarbons
migrating from western Wyoming most likely would
have been within the upper Tensleep/upper Min-
nelusa interval, and not within the middle Minnelusa.
Furthermore, even if hydrocarbons did migrate from
the west within the middle Minnelusa interval, they
would have been prevented from entering eastern
middle Minnelusa sandstone reservoirs by the low-
permeability facies of the Lusk embayment (which,
within the middle Minnelusa, extend north-to-south
across the entire Powder River Basin) (Figure 10B).
It is reasonable to assume that the intraformational
black shale in the middle Minnelusa is the most likely
hydrocarbon source for the fields in the southeastern
Powder River Basin. Oils expelled under high pres-
sure from these black shales were injected into the
most proximal porous and permeable reservoir beds,
which include both the stratigraphically confined and
the stratigraphically isolated dune sandstones of the
middle Minnelusa. Most of the data suggesting reser-
voir compartmentalization within the Minnelusa per-
tain to middle Minnelusa reservoirs (e.g., Buck Creek
Field) (Martinsen, 1992).
Thus, although the ratio of stratigraphically isolated
to confined reservoirs is much lower in the Minnelusa
than in most of the Cretaceous rocks, stratigraphically
isolated reservoirs do occur. However, only where
these reservoirs are closely associated with potential
source rocks (middle Minnelusa member of the south-
eastern Powder River Basin) has evidence of fluid
 Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure Compartments
compartmentalization been found. A diagrammatic
summary of types of stratigraphically defined oil
fields in the Minnelusa is presented in Figure 12.
CONCLUSIONS
Both the Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone and the
Permo-Pennsylvanian Minnelusa Formation display a
high degree of stratigraphic complexity. While this
complexity resulted almost exclusively in the forma-
tion of sandstone reservoirs enclosed by low-perme-
ability rocks in the Muddy Sandstone, it created
mostly stratigraphically confined sandstone reservoirs
in the Minnelusa, only locally resulting in stratigraph-
ically isolated reservoirs. Furthermore, whereas the
majority of Muddy Sandstone hydrocarbon reservoirs
comprise fluid-pressure compartments, only a
few compartments have been identified within the
Minnelusa, much fewer than the number of strati-
graphically isolated sandstones that probably exist.
However, the conditions under which fluid-pressure
compartments within each of these two formations
occur are similar; these compartments occur only
where stratigraphic, structural, or diagenetic variations
have resulted in not overly large volumes of porous
and permeable rock encased in low-permeability rock,
and where reservoirs are closely associated with iden-
tified source rocks. The majority of reservoirs filled by
long-distance migration of hydrocarbons have geome-
tries that are conducive to confining fluid flow, not
isolating fluid systems, and generally comprise con-
ventional traps; only rarely can a reservoir be charac-
terized as a fluid-pressure compartment. Maintenance
of anomalous pressure over significant periods of geo-
logic time is possible within fluid-pressure compart-
ments, whereas conventional traps are more typically
characterized by normal pressure.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Robert Berg, John Dolson,
John Kaldi, W. Richard Moore, Paul Slack, James R.
Steidtmann, and John Warme for their help in review-
ing and revising this manuscript. Kathy Kirkaldie pro-
vided useful editorial help, and Allory Deiss drafted
the illustrations. This study was funded in part under
GRI Contract 5089-260-1894.
REFERENCES CITED
Asquith, D.O., 1970, Depositional topography and
major marine environments, Late Cretaceous,
Wyoming: AAPG Bulletin, v. 54, p. 1184–1224.
Berg, R.R., 1975, Capillary pressure in stratigraphic
traps: AAPG Bulletin, v. 59, p. 939–956.
Bethke, C.M., W.J. Harrison, C. Upson, and S.P.
Altaner, 1988, Supercomputer analysis of sedimen-
tary basins: Science, v. 239, p. 261–267.
Clayton, J.L., and R.T. Ryder, 1984, Organic geo-
chemistry of black shales and oils in the Minnelusa
239
Formation (Permian and Pennsylvanian), Powder
River Basin, Wyoming, in Hydrocarbon Source
Rocks of the Greater Rocky Mountain Region:
Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists,
p. 231–253.
Coughlin, J.P., and J.R. Steidtmann, 1984, Depositional
environment and diagenesis of the Teapot Sand-
stone, southern Powder River Basin, Wyoming:
Mountain Geologist, v. 21, p. 91–103.
Desmond, R.J., Jr., 1985, Stratigraphic and depositional
environment of the middle member of the Minnelusa
Formation, Central Powder River Basin, Wyoming:
M.S. thesis, University of Wyoming, 115 p.
Desmond, R.J., J.R. Steidtmann, and D.F. Cardinal,
1984, Stratigraphy and depositional environments
of the Middle Member of the Minnelusa Formation,
Central Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in J.
Goolsby and D. Morton, eds., The Permian and
Pennsylvanian Geology of Wyoming: Wyoming
Geological Association 35th Annual Field Confer-
ence Guidebook: Casper, Wyoming Geological
Association, p. 213–240.
Dolson, J.C., D.S. Muller, M.J. Evetts, and J.A. Stein,
1991, Regional paleotopographic trends and pro-
duction, Muddy Sandstone (Lower Cretaceous),
central and northern Rocky Mountains: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 75, p. 409–435.
Downey, M.A., 1984, Evaluating seals for hydrocarbon
accumulations: AAPG Bulletin, v. 68, p. 1752–1763.
Foster, D.I., 1958, Summary of the stratigraphy of
the Minnelusa Formation, Powder River Basin,
Wyoming, in J. Strickland, ed., Powder River Basin:
Casper, Wyoming Geological Association, p. 39–44.
Fryberger, S.G., 1984, The Permian Upper Minnelusa
Formation, Wyoming: Ancient example of an off-
shore-prograding eolian sand sea with geomorphic
facies, and system-boundary traps for petroleum, in
J. Goolsby and D. Morton, eds., The Permian and
Pennsylvanian Geology of Wyoming: Wyoming
Geological Association Guidebook 35th Annual
Field Conference: Casper, Wyoming Geological
Association, p. 241–272.
George, G.R., 1984, Cyclic sedimentation and deposi-
tional environments of the Upper Minnelusa For-
mation, Central Campbell County, Wyoming, in J.
Goolsby and D. Morton, eds., The Permian and
Pennsylvanian Geology of Wyoming: Wyoming
Geological Association Guidebook 35th Annual
Field Conference: Casper, Wyoming Geological
Association, p. 75–96.
Gill, J.R., and W.A. Cobban, 1973, Stratigraphy and
geologic history of the Montana Group and equiva-
lent rocks, Montana, Wyoming, and North Dakota:
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 776, 37 p.
Gustason, E.R., 1988, Depositional and tectonic history
of the Lower Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone, Lazy B
field, Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in R.
Diedrich, M. Dyka, and W. Miller, eds., Eastern
Powder River Basin—Black Hills: Wyoming Geo-
logical Association 39th Field Conference Guide-
book: Casper, Wyoming Geological Association,
p. 129–146.
240 Martinsen
Gustason, E.R., T.A. Ryer, and S.K. Odland, 1988a,
Stratigraphy and depositional environments of the
Muddy Sandstone, northwestern Black Hills,
Wyoming: Wyoming Geological Association Earth
Science Bulletin, v. 20, p. 49–60.
Gustason, E.R., D.A. Wheeler, and T.A. Ryer, 1988b,
Structural control on paleovalley development,
Muddy Sandstone, Powder River Basin, Wyoming
(abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 72, p. 871.
Heasler, H.P., and R.C. Surdam, 1992, Pressure com-
partments in the Mesaverde Formation of the Green
River and Washakie basins, as determined from
drill-stem test data, in C. Mullen, ed., Rediscover
the Rockies: Casper, Wyoming Geological Associa-
tion Guidebook, p. 207–220.
Heasler, H.P., R.C. Surdam, and J.H. George, 1995,
Pressure compartments in the Powder River Basin,
Wyoming, as determined from drill-stem test data,
in P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals:
AAPG Memoir 61, p. 235–262.
Hobson, J.P., M.L. Fowler, and E.A. Beaumont, 1982,
Depositional and statistical exploration models,
Upper Cretaceous offshore sandstone complex,
Sussex Member, House Creek field, Wyoming:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 66, p. 689–707.
Iverson, W.P., R.S. Martinsen, and R.C. Surdam, 1995,
Pressure seal permeability and two-phase flow, in
P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals:
AAPG Memoir 61, p. 313–319.
James, S.W., 1989, Diagenetic history and reservoir
characteristics of a deep Minnelusa reservoir, Hawk
Point field, Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in E.B.
Coalson, ed., Rocky Mountain Reservoirs—1989:
Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists,
p. 81–96.
Jiao, Z.S., 1992, Thermal maturation/diagenetic aspects
of the abnormal pressure in Cretaceous shales and
sandstones, Powder River Basin, Wyoming: Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Wyoming, Laramie, 242 p.
MacGowan, D.B., Z.S. Jiao, R.C. Surdam, and F.P.
Miknis, 1993, Normally-pressured vs. abnormally-
pressured compartments in sandstones in the Pow-
der River Basin, Wyoming: a comparative study of
the Muddy Sandstone and the Minnelusa Forma-
tion: Chicago, Gas Research Institute report.
Mallory, W.W., 1967, Pennsylvanian and associated
Rocks in Wyoming: U.S.G.S. Professional Paper,
554–G, p. G1–G31.
Martinsen, R.S., 1992, First quarter report, multidisci-
plinary analysis of pressure chambers in the Pow-
der River Basin, Wyoming and Montana: Chicago,
Gas Research Institute Contract no. 5089-260-1894,
unpublished report.
Martinsen, R.S., 1995, Stratigraphic compartmentation
of reservoir sandstones: examples from the Muddy
Sandstone, Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in P.
Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals: AAPG
Memoir 61, p. 273–296.
Martinsen, R.S., and R.W. Marrs, 1985, Comparison of
major lineament trends to sedimentary rock thick-
nesses and facies distributions, Powder River Basin,
Wyoming, in Remote Sensing for Exploration Geol-
ogy: Proceedings of the Fourth Thematic Confer-
ence, San Francisco, p. 9–19.
Maughn, E.K., 1990, Summary of the ancestral Rocky
Mountains epeirogeny in Wyoming and adjacent
areas: U.S. Geological Society Open-File Report
90-447, 8 p.
Maucione, D., V. Serebryakov, P. Valasek, Y. Wang,
and S. Smithson, 1995, A sonic log study of abnor-
mally pressured zones in the Powder River Basin
of Wyoming, in P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compart-
ments and seals: AAPG Memoir 61, p. 333–348.
McBane, J.D., 1984, Buck Creek field, Niobrara
County, Wyoming, in J. Goolsby and D. Morton,
eds., The Permian and Pennsylvanian geology of
Wyoming: Wyoming Geological Association
Guidebook 35th Annual Field Conference: Casper,
Wyoming Geological Association, p. 111–118.
Merewether, E.A., W.A. Cobban, and E.T. Cavanaugh,
1979, Frontier Formation and equivalent rocks in
eastern Wyoming: The Mountain Geologist, v. 16,
p. 67–102.
Momper, J.A., and J.A. Williams, 1979, Geochemical
exploration in the Powder River basin: Oil and Gas
Journal, p. 129–134.
Moore, W.R., 1983, The nature of the Minnelusa–
Opeche contact in the Halverson field area, Powder
River Basin, Wyoming: The Mountain Geologist,
v. 20, p. 113–120.
Powley, D.E., 1982, Pressures, normal and abnormal:
AAPG Advanced Exploration Schools Unpublished
Lecture Notes, 48 p.
Powley, D.E., 1990, Pressures and hydrogeology in
petroleum basins: Earth Science Reviews, v. 29,
p. 215–226.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–760.
Shinn, E.A., 1983, Tidal flat environment, in P. Scholle,
D. Bebout, and C. Moore, eds., Carbonate deposi-
tional environments: AAPG Memoir 33, p. 172–210.
Sheldon, R.P., 1967, Long-distance migration of oil in
Wyoming: Mountain Geologist, v. 4, p. 53–65.
Sheppy, R.J., 1986, Slattery field, Powder River Basin,
Wyoming: a multidisciplinary interpretation of a
complex Minnelusa (Permian) field: Wyoming Geo-
logical Association Symposium, Rocky Mountain
Oil and Gas Fields: Casper, Wyoming Geological
Association, p. 245–256.
Slack, P.B., 1981, Paleotectonics and hydrocarbon
accumulation, Powder River Basin, Wyoming:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 65, p. 730–743.
Smith, D.A., 1966, Theoretical considerations of seal-
ing and non-sealing faults: AAPG Bulletin, v. 50,
p. 363–374.
Stone, D.S., 1967, Theory of Paleozoic oil and gas accu-
mulation in Big Horn Basin, Wyoming: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 51, p. 2056–2114.
Tillman, R.W., and R.S. Martinsen, 1984, The Shannon
shelf-ridge sandstone complex, Salt Creek anticline,
Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in R. Tillman and
 Stratigraphic Controls on the Development and Distribution of Fluid-Pressure Compartments
C. Siemers, eds., Siliciclastic shelf sedimentation:
SEPM Special Publication 34, p. 85–142.
Tillman, R.W., and R.S. Martinsen, 1987, Sedimento-
logic model and production characteristics of
Hartzog Draw field, Wyoming, a Shannon shelf-
ridge sandstone, in R. Tillman and K. Weber, eds.,
Reservoir sedimentology: SEPM Special Publica-
tion 40, p. 15–112.
Tromp, P.L., 1981, Stratigraphy and depositional envi-
ronment of the “Leo Sands” of the Minnelusa For-
mation, Wyoming and South Dakota: M.S. thesis,
University of Wyoming, Laramie, 69 p.
Tromp, P.L., D.F. Cardinal, and J.R. Steidtmann, 1981,
Stratigraphy and depositional environments of the
“Leo Sands” in the Minnelusa Formation, Wyoming
and South Dakota, in Energy Resources of
Wyoming: Casper, Wyoming Geological Associa-
tion, p. 11–21.
241
Trotter, J.F., 1984, The Minnelusa revisited, in
J. Goolsby and D. Morton, eds., The Permian and
Pennsylvanian geology of Wyoming: Wyoming
Geological Association Guidebook 35th Annual
Field Conference: Casper, Wyoming Geological
Association, p. 127–152.
Tyler, D.L., and A.C. Modroo, 1986, High Road field,
Campbell County, Wyoming: Wyoming Geological
Association Symposium, Rocky Mountain Oil and
Gas Fields, p. 233–243.
Wyoming Geological Association, 1981, Oil and gas
fields symposium, Powder River Basin: Casper,
Wyoming Geological Association, 472 p.
Wyoming Geological Association, 1991, Mineral
resources of Wyoming: Casper, Wyoming Geologi-
cal Association, p. xii.
Wyoming Oil & Gas Commission, 1991: Casper,
Wyoming Oil and Gas, 52 p.
 Jiao, Z.S., and R.C. Surdam, 1997, Characteristics of
anomalously pressured Cretaceous shales in the
Laramide Basins of Wyoming, in R.C. Surdam,
ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum system:
Chapter 14 AAPG Memoir 67, p. 243–253.

Characteristics of Anomalously Pressured

Cretaceous Shales in the Laramide Basins
of Wyoming
Z.S. Jiao
R.C. Surdam
Institute for Energy Research, University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Most of the anomalously pressured Cretaceous shales in the Laramide
basins of Wyoming (LBW) are overpressured and form basinwide, dynamic
pressure compartments. The driving mechanism of the overpressuring is the
generation and storage of liquid hydrocarbons that subsequently react to
gas. This results in the conversion of the fluid-flow system from a single-
phase to a multiphase regime in which capillarity controls the relative
permeability, resulting in elevated displacement pressures within the shales.
The boundary between the normally pressured (i.e., pressure gradient
ranging from 0.433 to 0.444 psi/ft, single-phase regime) and anomalously
pressured (i.e., pressure gradient 0.433 psi/ft or 0.444 psi/ft, multiphase
regime) Cretaceous shales is marked by significant differences in the geo-
chemical and geophysical properties of the shales. The top boundary of the
anomalously pressured zone is characterized by a marked decrease in sonic
velocity and significant changes in the production index (PI), clay diagenesis
(illite/smectite), vitrinite reflectance (Ro), nuclear magnetic resonance spec-
tra (NMR), aromaticity, and displacement pressure of the Cretaceous shales.
In this paper, we document and attempt to characterize the fundamentally
different geophysical and geochemical properties of the anomalously pres-
sured Cretaceous shales below the pressure boundary in the LBW.

ANOMALOUSLY LOW hydrocarbon generation, migration, and accumulation,

SONIC VELOCITIES
Because of their widespread occurrence and unique
chemical and physical nature, the Cretaceous shales in
the Laramide basins of Wyoming (LBW) (Figure 1) have
played a definitive role in basin fluid/rock evolution,
and the development of reservoir characteristics and
anomalous pressure. Surdam et al. (1995, 1997) have
demonstrated that Cretaceous shales below a depth of
~8000 ± 2000 ft (2440 ± 610 m) are typically anomalously
pressured in the central portions of these basins. In the
basin centers, the top of the anomalously pressured
zone is transitional [1000–2000 ft (305–610 m) thick] and

243
244 Jiao and Surdam
WYOMING
45
Bighorn
44
Basin
Wind River
Latitude
43 Basin
Green
42 River Washakie
Basin Basin
41
111 110 109 108 107
Longitude
typically occurs within the Upper Cretaceous shales
(i.e., Steele, Cody, or Lewis), persisting down to the
lowermost organic-rich shale in the Cretaceous. Below
the anomalously pressured zone in the Powder River
and Wind River basins, the shales are, for the most part,
normally pressured.
As indicated by the typical sonic logs from seven
basins shown in Figures 2–5, the Cretaceous shales
(i.e., the Skull Creek, Mowry, Frontier, Niobrara, and
Steele) in the LBW display anomalously low sonic
velocities. Three plots were constructed for each figure
and, from left to right, represent the following:
• Sonic velocity filtered for lithology. The filtering is
accomplished by using gamma-ray logs, which are
very useful in separating shaly lithologies from
sandy ones in the LBW, and results in only fine-
grained, clastic lithologies being represented.
• The sonic velocity profile after a decompaction
correction is applied. The decompaction correc-
tion assumes that sonic velocity increases expo-
nentially with burial and is constrained by the
highest observed sonic velocity value in the sonic
logs (i.e., typically ~5000 m/s).
• The anomalous sonic velocity profile. This profile
is derived by taking the difference between the
observed sonic velocity and the calculated sonic
velocity (trend representing normal compaction).
While the decompacted sonic velocity profile is
obtained by using curve-fitting techniques, this
profile is obtained by difference. For more detail,
see Surdam et al. (1997).
Figure 1. Index map of the
Laramide basins of
Wyoming (LBW).
Powder
River
Basin
50 miles
106 105
A marked decrease in sonic velocity, or increase in
sonic transit time, has conventionally been attributed
to overpressure, but some of the shales in the LBW
exhibiting the reversal are actually underpressured. In
addition, shales with anomalously low sonic velocities
are usually characterized by undercompaction and
abnormally high porosity, but this has not been
observed in the Cretaceous shales in the LBW.
Although one could infer from the decompacted sonic
logs that all the Cretaceous shales in the LBW are
undercompacted (Figures 2–5), these shales are actu-
ally characterized by normal compaction, normal to
low porosity, and low permeability <8000 ±2000 ft
(2440 ±610 m) (where basinwide anomalously pres-
sured compartments have been investigated).
For instance, the measured porosity of the Creta-
ceous shales in the Powder River Basin is 11.7% at 5000
ft (1520 m) depth, and rapidly decreases to 2.2% at
10,000 ft (3050 m) depth. The measured permeability is
0.012 md at 5000 ft (1520 m) depth and 0.004 md at
10,000 ft (3050 m) depth (Table 1). The measured
porosity of the Cretaceous shales in the Washakie
Basin is 5.5% at 5000 ft (1520 m) depth, and decreases
to 2.1% at 11,000 ft (3350 m) depth. The measured per-
meability is 0.013 md at 5000 ft (1520 m) depth and
0.008 md at 11,000 ft (3350 m) depth (Table 1). These
low-permeability shales provides potential seals for
hydrocarbon/pressure compartments in the Creta-
ceous shale and sandstone sections in the LBW.
Because undercompaction and abnormally high
porosity are not observed in the Cretaceous shales
with anomalously low velocities in the LBW, and
 Characteristics of Anomalously Pressured Cretaceous Shales in the Laramide Basins of Wyoming 245

Sonic Velocity After Decompaction Correction Anomalous Velocity

Powder River Basin
0 0 0

500 500 500

1000 1000 1000

1500 1500 1500

2000 2000 2000

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Depth (m)
2500 2500 2500

3000 3000 3000

3500 3500 3500

4000 4000 4000

4500 4500 4500

5000 5000 5000

7000 5000 3000 4500 3500 2500 1500 1000 500 0 -500 -1000
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 2. Typical sonic velocity vs. depth plots for the Powder River Basin.

because the shales can be either overpressured or
underpressured, other factors must be affecting
sonic velocity in these shales. Surdam et al. (1997),
among others, suggest that fluid type, effective rock
stress, lithology, matrix compaction, salinity, and
bed thickness can also affect sonic velocity. Surdam
et al. (1997) also suggest that in the LBW, the gas
content of fine-grained rocks has a greater impact on
compressional wave velocity than does any
observed porosity change. Thus, variations in fluid
composition, particularly at gas saturations >15%
(Timur, 1987), are likely to be, at least in part, a cause
of the observed sonic velocity reversals observed in
the LBW (Figures 2–5).
These observations, exploration and drilling expe-
rience in the Laramide basins, and pore pressure

Sonic Velocity After Decompaction Correction Anomalous Velocity

Bighorn Basin
0 0 0

500 500 500

1000 1000 1000

1500 1500 1500

2000 2000 2000

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

2500 2500 2500

3000 3000 3000

3500 3500 3500

4000 4000 4000

4500 4500 4500

5000 5000 5000

7000 5000 3000 4500 3500 2500 1500 1000 500 0 -500 -1000
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 3. Typical sonic velocity vs. depth plots for the Bighorn Basin.
246 Jiao and Surdam

Sonic Velocity After Decompaction Correction Anomalous Velocity

Wind River Basin
0 0 0

500 500 500

1000 1000 1000

1500 1500 1500

2000 2000 2000

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Depth (m)
2500 2500 2500

3000 3000 3000

3500 3500 3500

4000 4000 4000

4500 4500 4500

5000 5000 5000

7000 5000 3000 4500 3500 2500 1500 1000 500 0 -500 -1000
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 4. Typical sonic velocity vs. depth plots for the Wind River Basin.

measurements such as repeat formation tests (RFTs) and
drill-stem tests (DSTs) (Heasler et al., 1995; Surdam et
al., 1995) indicate that the observed sonic velocity (tran-
sit time) reversals mark the boundary between normally
pressured (i.e., pressure gradient ~0.433 psi/ft), water-
saturated rocks and underlying, anomalously pressured
(i.e., pressure gradient > or <0.433 psi/ft), gas-saturated
rocks. In the Powder River, Bighorn, Wind River, and
Washakie basins of Wyoming (Figures 2–5), the rever-
sals correlate well with the boundary between normally
pressured and overpressured Cretaceous shales. The
sonic velocity trends and patterns are similar for all the
anomalously pressured Cretaceous shales in the LBW,
whether they are overpressured or underpressured.

Sonic Velocity After Decompaction Correction Anomalous Velocity

Washakie Basin
0 0 0

500 500 500

1000 1000 1000

1500 1500 1500

2000 2000 2000

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

2500 2500 2500

3000 3000 3000

3500 3500 3500

4000 4000 4000

4500 4500 4500

5000 5000 5000

7000 5000 3000 4500 3500 2500 1500 1000 500 0 -500 -1000
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 5. Typical sonic velocity vs. depth plots for the Washakie Basin.
 Characteristics of Anomalously Pressured Cretaceous Shales in the Laramide Basins of Wyoming 247

Table 1. Displacement Pressure (Pd) and Sealing Capacity (H) of the Cretaceous Shales, Powder River and
Washakie Basins.

Depth Porosity Permeability Pd (Gas/Water) Sealing Capacity (H)

(ft) φ (%) K (md) (psi) (ft) (gas column)
Powder River Basin
5500 11.7 0.012 400 600
7900 5.2 0.059 1300 2000
8000 5.6 0.013 1500 2300
8800 2.9 0.012 1800 2700
9900 2.7 n/a 2800 4300
10,000 2.2 0.004 3000 4600
13,000 2.2 0.004 4000 6100

Washakie Basin
5000 5.5 0.013 1600 2400
7300 4.6 0.009 1900 2900
10,000 1.3 0.007 2200 3300
10,500 5.2 0.035 2000 3000
11,000 2.1 0.008 2200 3300
14,000 3.0 0.009 2000 3000

It is interesting to note that the anomalously low
velocities observed in these basins could have been
recorded at the time of either maximum burial or over-
pressuring. It is possible that the pressure imprint (i.e.,
the anomalously low sonic velocity) at the time of
maximum burial could have been maintained even if
the rock volume was subsequently uplifted and
eroded, and the rocks became underpressured as a
result of these processes.
Clay Diagenesis
The diagenesis of mixed-layer illite/smectite clays
during progressive burial is widely recognized as an
important empirical diagenetic geothermometer
(Burst, 1969; Hower et al., 1976; Boles and Franks,
1979; Hower, 1981; Pytte and Reynolds, 1989). The dia-
genetic trend in illite/smectite (I/S) clay is known to
be temperature dependent and may be related to
regional hydrocarbon generation (Bruce, 1984; Hagen
and Surdam, 1984). Several authors (Hower, 1981;
Pytte and Reynolds, 1989) indicate that the main com-
positional and structural changes in the I/S burial dia-
genetic sequence are: (1) an increase in illite layers; (2)
an increase in interlayer potassium; (3) an increase in
the amount of aluminum substituted for silicon in the
tetrahedral layer; and (4) release of Mg2+, Fe2+, Ca2+,
Si 4+, Na +, and water. The released water can make
≤35% of the volume of the smectite crystallite (Petty
and Hower, 1972).
In the LBW, these compositional and structural
changes had a significant impact on the porosity and
permeability of the Cretaceous shales and on the
development of basinwide pressure compartments.
Released cations likely also affected the porosity and
permeability of adjacent sandstones due to the precip-
itation of quartz, chlorite, kaolinite, and late carbonate
cement.
As shown by a sample suite from the Powder River
Basin of Wyoming (Figure 6), the major diagenetic
events that occurred in the LBW were the transforma-
tion of smectite to illite and of kaolinite to chlorite, and
the ordering of the mixed-layer I/S clays. Figure 6
shows the x-ray diffraction patterns of the clay-size frac-
tion from the Mowry Shale between ~3600 ft (1100 m)
and 14,000 ft (2440 m) present-day depth in the Pow-
der River Basin. Figure 7 shows the percentage of illite
in the mixed-layer illite/smectite clays from the Creta-
ceous shales in the LBW. Generally, illitization of the
smectite becomes significant at ~8000 ft (2440 m) pres-
ent-day depth and is largely complete by 9500 ft (2900
m) present-day depth (Figure 7). This interval coin-
cides well with the transition between normally pres-
sured, water-saturated Cretaceous shales and
anomalously pressured, hydrocarbon-saturated Creta-
ceous shales in the LBW. The high percentage of illite
present in the shallow section of the Washakie Basin
was caused by extensive uplift and erosion (Figure 7).
Organic Geochemistry
Organic geochemical analyses performed on cut-
tings from the Cretaceous shales in the LBW include
vitrinite reflectance (R o ), anhydrous pyrolysis
[reported as production index (PI); Tissot and
Welte, 1984], and solid-state 13C nuclear magnetic
resonance (reported as NMR spectra and carbon
aromaticity).
Vitrinite reflectance is a measure of organic matter
thermal maturity. The liquid oil generation window is
generally thought to occur from an Ro of ~0.5%–0.7% to
1.0%–1.3% (Tissot and Welte, 1984). Oil is thermally
cracked to wet gas at an Ro of 1.3%–2.0%. In the LBW,
R o increases slowly from 0.47% at ~1000 ft (305 m)
depth to 0.6% at 9000 ft (2740 m) depth, where the
anomalously pressured Cretaceous shale section is
248 Jiao and Surdam

Figure 6. X-ray
diffractograms of ethylene-
glycolate treated samples
(<0.5-µm fraction) of the
Mowry Shale, Powder River
Basin. With increasing
burial depth, smectite alters
to illite in the mixed-layer
illite/smectite clays as
indicated by the 5.2°2θ
peak shifting to 6.6°2θ.
The structure of the
mixed-layer illite/smectite
clays changes from random
to ordered at ~3000 m, as
indicated by the advent of
the 6.6°2θ peak. The content
of chlorite also increases
with burial.

present. Vitrinite reflectance increases rapidly below
this depth, from 0.6% at 9000 ft (2740 m) to 1.7% at
15,000 ft (4570 m) (Figure 8). Thus, there is likely a
different rapid thermal maturation regime for Creta-
ceous shales above, than for those below, 9000 ft
(2740 m) depth.
Production indices are calculated as S 1 /S 1 + S 2 ,
where S1 = amount of hydrocarbon already present
before pyrolysis, and S 2 is the amount of hydrocar-
bon generated during pyrolysis. Like Ro, the PI of the
Cretaceous shales in the LBW increases slowly from
0.03 at 1000 ft (305 m) depth to 0.1 at 9000 ft (2740 m)
depth (Figure 9). Below this depth, PI increases
rapidly from 0.1 at 9000 ft (2740 m) depth to 0.4 at
14,000 ft (4270 m) depth (Figure 9). The PI values also
appear to indicate that shales <9000 ft (2740 m) pres-
ent-day depth in the LBW have an accelerated geot-
hermal gradient and a different thermal maturation
regime than shales above this depth.
Organic material from the Cretaceous shales in the
Laramide basins was also analyzed by solid-state 13C
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) by using cross-
polarization with magic angle spinning (MAS) and
high-power decoupling. Samples with low total
organic carbon (TOC) values were analyzed without
performing kerogen-isolation procedures, as these
procedures are time-consuming and often alter the
composition and structure of the kerogen (Vandergrift
 Characteristics of Anomalously Pressured Cretaceous Shales in the Laramide Basins of Wyoming
0 0
2000
4000
6000
Depth (ft)
8000
10000
12000
Powder River
Bighorn
14000
Wind River
Washakie
16000
0 20 40 60 80
Illite in the I/S (%)
Figure 7. Plot of percent illite in the mixed-layer
illite/smectite clays vs. present-day depth for the
Cretaceous shales in the LBW. Color version of this
figure appears on p. 213.
et al., 1980). Instead, the samples were prewashed in
an acid solution to remove oxides, hydroxides, and
carbonates, all of which can contain paramagnetic
nuclei that can reduce the signal-to-noise ratio.
Additionally, use of a large-volume sample spinner
facilitated the analysis of low TOC samples without
performing kerogen isolation.
For a typical NMR spectrum, the x-axis scale (in
parts per million) is the chemical shift, a measure of
the magnetic field strength required to cause a para-
magnetic nucleus (here, 13C) to produce a resonance
signal. A paramagnetic nucleus that is shielded by
electrons produces a signal that is shifted upfield
(right) on the chemical-shift scale; a paramagnetic
nucleus that is deshielded by electrons produces a sig-
nal that is shifted downfield (left). In typical kerogen
NMR spectra, the broad band between 0 and 60 ppm
is associated with aliphatic carbons in branched and
straight chains and with naphthanic structures. The
broad band between 100 and 200 ppm is associated
with aromatic and carbonyl carbon structures. Thus,
NMR spectra can be used to study the abundance of
249
Powder River
2000 Bighorn
Wind River
Washakie
4000
6000
Depth (ft)
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
100 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
R o (%)
Figure 8. Plot of vitrinite reflectance (Ro) vs. present-
day depth for the Cretaceous shales in the LBW.
Color version of this figure appears on p. 213.
the 13 C nuclei in the various structural and func-
tional groups in kerogen and changes in kerogen
structure associated with thermal maturation (Sur-
dam and Crossey, 1985).
Figure 10A–D shows the 13C NMR spectra of Creta-
ceous shales from various depths in the LBW. The 13C
NMR spectra have dominantly broad bands due to
aliphatic and aromatic carbon structures. The first
major upfield peak is the resonance signal from the
carbon in aliphatic functional groups. The major
downfield peak is carbon in aromatic functional
groups; signals from carbon in the oxygenated func-
tional groups (phenol and carbonyl, respectively) are
observed on the downfield side of this peak and are
present only in very small quantities in these shales,
even at very shallow depths (Figure 10A–D).
With progressive burial or thermal maturation, a
decrease occurs in the peak area of the aliphatic func-
tional group and an increase occurs in the peak area
and sharpness of the aromatic functional group. This
trend reflects changes in the kerogen structure due to
thermal maturation. Carbon aromaticity (Figure 11)
250 Jiao and Surdam

PRODUCTION INDEX SEALING CAPACITY AND

Laramide Basin, WY CAPILLARY SEALS
0 Shales have highly ductile clay matrices, which
Powder River cause them to have some of the lowest permeability
Bighorn values (10 –22 to 10 –18 md) among the various rock
2000 types under normal compaction (Best and Katsube,
Wind River 1995). Because of their relative impermeability, shales
Washakie are the most common seals present for hydrocar-
bon/pressure compartments; in fact, North (1985)
4000 indicates that shales act as seals for sandstone reser-
voirs in more than 60% of the known giant oil fields.
Certain petrophysical and flow properties of a rock
determine the height of hydrocarbon column that can
6000 be supported by a hydrocarbon/pressure seal, or the
Depth (ft)

sealing capacity. Necessarily, then, the sealing capac-

ity is a function of pore radius and fluid characteris-
8000 tics. Smith’s (1966) equation is used in this study for
calculating the sealing capacity of Cretaceous shales:

10000
H=
( PdB – PdR )
0.433( ρ w – ρ h )
(1)

12000 where H = maximum hydrocarbon column in feet that

14000
16000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
PI, fraction
Figure 9. Plot of the production index (PI) vs.
present-day depth for the Cretaceous shales in
the LBW. Color version of this figure appears on
p. 212.
ranges from below this depth, increasing to only 83%
at 14,000 ft (4270 m) depth. By 9000 ft (2740 m) depth,
the aliphatic carbon peak is almost gone, and kerogen
has virtually exhausted its capacity to generate liquid
hydrocarbons and has little capacity to generate
gaseous hydrocarbons. This geochemical evidence
indicates that the Cretaceous shales in the LBW were
at one time exposed to much higher temperatures,
which is consistent with the Ro and PI data.
The organic geochemistry values of these Creta-
ceous shales are characterized by fairly low gradients
with depths to ~8000 ±1000 ft (2440 ±610 m) present-
day depth, where steeping gradients occur. This is also
the depth at which there is a rapid steeping of the pres-
sure/depth gradient in the Cretaceous sandstones in
the LBW (Heasler et al., 1995; Surdam et al., 1995).
Thus, the changes in the geochemistry and the onset of
the anomalous pressure appear to be genetically
linked.
a seal can support, PdB = subsurface displacement pres-
sure is psi of the seal rock, PdR = subsurface displace-
ment in psi of the reservoir rock, ρ w = subsurface
density in g/cm3 of water, ρh = subsurface density of
the hydrocarbon, and 0.433 = units conversion factor.
In our investigation, 30 bulk shale samples from the
Cretaceous section in the LBW were subjected to high-
pressure mercury injection tests (Figure 12). The injec-
tion pressure curve (plateau portion) was extrapolated
to 0% mercury saturation (Figure 12) and, using
Schowalter’s (1979) nomograms, this pressure was
converted to produce the displacement pressure (Pd ),
the minimum pressure to start mercury moving
through a sample, for the subsurface gas/water and
oil/water systems. Results are shown in Table 1. For
the gas/water system, the sealing capacity of the Cre-
taceous transgressive shales is 600 ft (183 m) (gas col-
umn) at a present-day depth of 5500 ft (1670 m) and
rapidly increases to 2150 ft (655 m) at 8000 ft (2440 m)
depth and 6150 ft (1875 m) at 13,000 ft (3960 m) depth.
Displacement pressure also shows a significant
increase with burial. At a present-day depth of 13,000 ft
(3960 m), transgressive shales can withstand a differ-
ential pressure of 4000 psi.
Sneider et al. (1991) proposed a classification of
hydrocarbon seal type based on sealing capacity
(Table 2). According to this classification, the sealing
capacity of the Cretaceous shales in the LBW increases
exponentially with increasing depth of burial. Note
that the increase in sealing capacity coincides with
progressive clay diagenesis as the structure of mixed-
layer I/S clay changes from random to ordered at
~8000 ft (2440 m) to 10,000 ft (3050 m) depth (Figure 6);
in other words, the sealing capacity of the Cretaceous
shales changes from B to A type (Table 1).
 Characteristics of Anomalously Pressured Cretaceous Shales in the Laramide Basins of Wyoming 251

Figure 10. 13C nuclear

Powder Washakie magnetic resonance
(NMR) spectra of Mowry
River Basin Shale samples from
Basin depths of 3000 ft (910 m)
to 18,000 ft (5490 m) in
4900 ft the LBW. Note that the
3085 ft aliphatic carbon peak (the
7441 ft right-hand major peak)
4010 ft diminishes or disappears at
9159 ft <10,000 ft (93,050 m) depth.
5720 ft
10663 ft
8377 ft
13659 ft
9230 ft
18420 ft

9695 ft
300 200 100 0 -100
11425 ft ppm

Bighorn
300 200 100 0 -100
Basin
ppm
Wind River 3015 ft
Basin 4100 ft
4530 ft
10350 ft 10500 ft
12440 ft 11010 ft

14280 ft 14060 ft

300 200 100 0 -100 300 200 100 0 -100

ppm ppm

Calculations by Iverson et al. (1995) indicate that on
the basis of single-phase fluid flow, even with an
assumed permeability of only 1 nd, a pressure differ-
ential will dissipate in 1 m.y. for a large reservoir, or
0.01 m.y. for a small reservoir. However, results from
thermal maturation modeling indicate that overpres-
sured compartments in the LBW have existed for at
least 40 m.y. (Jiao, 1992; Surdam et al., 1995).
Investigation of the fluid-flow regimes of the Creta-
ceous shales in the LBW has helped to account for the
maintenance of this pressure differential through geo-
logic time. For instance, the vertical trends of Ro, PI,
clay diagenesis, and NMR spectra indicate that above
9000 ft (2740 m) depth, few hydrocarbons remain in the
shales, and that below this depth, significant quantities
of hydrocarbons have been generated and retained by
the shales. Above ~9000 ft (2740 m) depth in the LBW,
the Cretaceous shales are normally pressured and
dominantly under water drive (i.e., a single-phase
fluid-flow system). Below this depth, the shales are
characterized by a multiphase fluid-flow system
(oil/water or gas/oil/water), are dominantly under gas
drive, and are typically overpressured (i.e., a multi-
phase fluid-flow system). With the addition of hydro-
carbons to the system, these low-permeability
Cretaceous shales become orders of magnitude more
effective as overpressured media than when they were
in a single-phase (water) fluid-flow system. In fact,
only in a multiphase system could displacement pres-
sures measured in the laboratory be of the same order
of magnitude as those observed in the Cretaceous sys-
tem in the Powder River Basin. The relative permeabil-
ity of the shales has more control over the system than
their absolute permeability; in other words, the rela-
tive permeability is the effective permeability charac-
terizing the fluid-flow system in the Cretaceous shales
252 Jiao and Surdam

Carbon Aromaticity Laramide Basin, WY

Laramide Basin, WY
100000
0
Powder River 50000
Bighorn
2000 Wind River
Washakie 9000
4000
4000

Hg Pressure, psi
6000
Depth (ft)

800

8000 300
Skull Creek, 7908 ft
Skull Creek, 7909 ft
10000 70 Mowry, 5430 ft
Mowry, 7885 ft
Mowry, 9906 ft
12000 20 Mowry, 10008 ft
Mowry, 13388 ft
Fuson, 11419 ft
6
14000 Lewis, 5076 ft
Lewis, 10440 ft
Lewis, 14392 ft
16000 1
0.6 0.8 1.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0
Aromaticity, fraction Hg Saturation, %
Figure 11. Plot of carbon aromaticity vs. present-day Figure 12. Plot of mercury saturation vs. injection
depth for the Cretaceous shales in the LBW. pressure for transgressive shales from the LBW.

in these basins. Thus, in a multiphase system, capillary
pressure becomes very important in the formation of
the pressure seals and compartment boundaries.
CONCLUSIONS
Inorganic and organic geochemical evidence from
the Cretaceous shales in the Laramide basins of
Wyoming (LBW) indicates that fundamental changes
occur in the rock/fluid system between the present-
day burial depths of 8000 ft (2440 m) and 10,000 ft
(3050 m). Changes are observed in (1) the organic
geochemistry of the source rock related to thermal
maturation and oil generation, expulsion, and con-
version to gas (i.e., Ro, PI, NMR spectra, and carbon
aromaticity); (2) the level of clay diagenesis (e.g., illi-
tization and chloritization); and (3) the formation
pressure (i.e., DST and RFT measurements). These
changes occur at the same depth interval as regional
pressure compartmentalization within the Cretaceous
shales in the LBW. In addition, these changes are asso-
ciated with a rise in the geothermal gradient within
such pressure compartments. It is likely that the mech-
anism of compartmentalization is capillarity resulting
from the establishment of a multiphase fluid-flow sys-
tem. In a single-phase fluid-flow system (water), the
Cretaceous shales act as low-permeability fluid-flow
barriers, but in a multiphase fluid-flow system
(oil/gas/water), the low-permeability fluid-flow barri-
ers convert to capillary seals, which can hold the
observed pressure differential for a geologically signif-
icant period of time in the LBW.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded through the Gas Research
Institute under Contract 5091-221-2146. The original
document was reviewed by Kathy Kirkaldie (Institute
 Characteristics of Anomalously Pressured Cretaceous Shales in the Laramide Basins of Wyoming 253

Table 2. A Classification of Hydrocarbon Seal Type by Sealing Capacity.*

Type Sealing Capacity (H)

A H>300 m (>1000 ft)
B H>150 m but <300 m (>500 ft but <1000 ft)
C H>30 m but <150 m (>100 ft but <500 ft)
D H>15 m but <30 m (>50 ft but <100 ft)
E H<15 m (<50 ft)
F Waste zone rocks
*From Sneider et al., 1991.

for Energy Research). Allory Deiss (IER) generated or
improved on all figures in this document.
REFERENCES CITED
Best, M.E., and T.J. Katsube, 1995, Shale permeability
and its significance in hydrocarbon exploration: The
Leading Edge, p. 165–170.
Boles, J.R., and S.G. Franks, 1979, Clay diagenesis in
Wilcox sandstones of southwest Texas, implications
of smectite diagenesis on sandstone cementation:
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 49, p. 55–70.
Bruce, C.H., 1984, Smectite dehydration—its relation
to structural development and hydrocarbon accu-
mulation in the northern Gulf of New Mexico Basin:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 68, pp. 673–683.
Burst, J.R., Jr., 1969, Diagenesis of Gulf Coast clay sed-
iments and its possible relationships to petroleum
migration: AAPG Bulletin, v. 53, p. 487–502.
Hagen, E.S., and R.C. Surdam, 1984, Maturation his-
tory and thermal evolution of Cretaceous source
rocks of the Big Horn Basin, Wyoming and Mon-
tana, in J. Woodard, F. Meisser, and J. Clayton,
eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of the Greater
Rocky Mountain Region: Denver, Colorado, Rocky
Mountain Association of Petroleum Geologists,
p. 321–338.
Heasler, H.P., R.C. Surdam, and J.H. George, 1995,
Pressure compartments in the Powder River Basin,
Wyoming and Montana, as determined from drill-
stem test data, in P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compart-
ments and seals: AAPG Memoir 61, p. 235–262.
Hower, J., 1981, Shale diagenesis, in F.J. Longstaff, ed.,
Short course in clay diagenesis and the resource
geologists: Toronto Mineralogical Association of
Canada, p. 60–80.
Hower, J., E.F. Eslinger, M.E. Hower, and E.A. Perry,
1976, Mechanism of burial and metamorphism of
argillaceous sediments, 1, Mineralogical and chemi-
cal evidence: Geological Society of America Bul-
letin, v. 87, p. 725–737.
Iverson, W.P., R.S. Martinsen, and R.C. Surdam, 1995,
Pressure seal permeability and two-phase flow, in
P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments and seals:
AAPG Memoir 61, p. 313–319.
Jiao, Z.S., 1992, Thermal maturation/diagenetic
aspects of the abnormal pressure in Cretaceous
shales and sandstones, Powder River Basin,
Wyoming: Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Wyoming, 242 p.
North, F.K., 1985, Petroleum geology: Boston, Allen
and Unwin, 607 p.
Petty E.A., Jr., and J. Hower, 1972, Late stage dehydra-
tion in deeply buried pelitic sediments: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 56, p. 2013–2021.
Pytte, A.M., and R.C. Reynolds, Jr., 1989, The thermal
transformation of smectite to illite, in N. Naesar and
T. McCullock, eds., Thermal history of sedimentary
basins: New York, Springer-Verlag, p. 133–140.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–776.
Smith, D.A., 1966, Theoretical consideration of sealing
and nonsealing faults: AAPG Bulletin, v. 50,
p. 363–374.
Sneider, R.M., K. Stolper, and J.S. Sneider, 1991, Petro-
physical properties of seals: AAPG Bulletin, v. 75,
p. 673–674.
Surdam, R.C., and L. Crossey, 1985, Mechanisms of
organic-inorganic interactions in sandstone/shale
sequences; relationship of organic matter and min-
eral diagenesis: SEPM Short Course Notes 17,
p. 177–232.
Surdam, R.C., Z.S. Jiao, and J. Liu, 1995, Anomalous
pressure regime in the Washakie Basin: Gas
Research Institute, Topical Report GRI-95/0390,
24 p.
Surdam, R.C., Z.S. Jiao, and H.P. Heasler, 1997, Anom-
alously pressured gas compartments in Cretaceous
rocks of the Laramide basins of Wyoming: a new
class of hydrocarbon acumulation, in R.C. Surdam,
ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum system: AAPG
Memoir 67, p. 199–222.
Timur, A., 1987, Acoustic logging, in H. Bradley,
ed., Petroleum engineering handbook: Dallas,
Texas, Dallas Society of Petroleum Engineers,
p. 51-1–51-52.
Tissot, B.P., and D.H. Welte, 1984, Petroleum forma-
tion and occurrence; 2nd edition: Berlin, Springer-
Verlag, 699 p.
Vandergrift, G.F., R.E. Winans, and E.P. Horowitz,
1980, Quantitative study of the carboxylic acids in
the Green River oil shale bitumen: Fuel, v. 59,
p. 627–633.
 Engelder, T., and J.T. Leftwich, Jr., 1997, A pore-pressure
limit in overpressured South Texas oil and gas
fields, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the
petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 255–267.

Chapter 15
◆

A Pore-Pressure Limit in Overpressured

South Texas Oil and Gas Fields
Terry Engelder
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

John T. Leftwich, Jr.

Old Dominion University,
Norfolk, Virginia, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
One way to simplify the characterization of pore pressure, Pp, in deep,
overpressured basins is to divide oil and gas fields into stratified zones,
based on average pressure-depth trends that are approximately linear. With
this approximation, each zone is assigned a constant pressure-depth gradi-
ent. In the shallow portion of South Texas oil and gas fields (i.e., zone ONE),
Pp has a hydrostatic gradient, whereas in the uppermost overpressured por-
tions of these fields (i.e., zones TWO and THREE), Pp is characterized by gra-
dients that exceed the lithostatic trend of 1 psi/ft (22.6 MPa/km) (Leftwich
and Engelder, 1995). At greater depth (i.e., zone FOUR), Pp increases along a
gradient of about 0.9 psi/ft (20.3 MPa/km). The transition between zones
THREE and FOUR defines the depth at which Pp reaches a limit that is
85%–90% of the lithostatic (i.e., vertical) stress. Because a Pp gradient of ~0.9
psi/ft (20.3 MPa/km) is maintained throughout pressure zone FOUR in sev-
eral South Texas fields, the Pp limit is a regional phenomenon. Two condi-
tions leading to a Pp limit involve a cyclic leakage of pore fluid through zone
FOUR. In both cases, leakage is governed by a balance between Pp and the
minimum horizontal total stress, Sh. One condition favors leakage of pore
fluid through zone FOUR upon the opening of existing joints or the propa-
gation of new joints by natural hydraulic fracturing. The other condition
favors leakage along faults following refracturing during slip events. The
difference between these conditions is that leakage through joints can regu-
late Pp at a constant value through repeated cycles, whereas leakage by fault
slip leads to an ever-increasing Pp as Sh increases through repeated cycles.

255
256 Engelder and Leftwich
INTRODUCTION
Starting with Dickinson’s (1953) compilation of
pore pressure, Pp , in the Louisiana Gulf Coast region, it
became apparent that Pp in sedimentary basins rarely,
if ever, exceeds total vertical stress, Sv, arising from the
weight of overburden. Vertical stress is also called the
lithostatic stress; when Pp = Sv, the pore pressure is at
lithostatic pressure. An interesting detail of Dickin-
son’s (1953) compilation is that Pp is generally less than
lithostatic pressure even at the maximum depth of
sampling. Because mechanisms for generating abnor-
mal Pp are capable of generating pressures equal to
lithostatic pressure (Sahay and Fertl, 1989), the geolo-
gist is left to presume that some mechanism in the
Louisiana Gulf Coast region allows the draining of
pore fluid before pressures reach lithostatic levels.
Leakage will occur if the pressure of the hydrocarbon
exceeds the capillary entry pressure (i.e., the sealing
capacity) of either a cap rock or a fault zone seal (Berg,
1975; Schowalter, 1979; Vavra et al., 1992). A second
explanation for draining pore fluid at Pp < Sv is that
high Pp causes the propagation of natural hydraulic
fractures (Hubbert and Willis, 1957; Secor, 1965;
Engelder and Lacazette, 1990). Hydraulic fracturing
would add to the porosity and bulk permeability of
the rock and, hence, allow Pp to relax by draining pore
fluid into the new fracture porosity. A third possibility
is that fault refracturing during slip under the influ-
ence of low effective normal stress allows pore fluid to
drain at Pp < S v. Refracturing opens a local zone of
high permeability along the fault, allowing pore fluid
to leak up the fault (Sibson, 1992).
In this paper, we use Pp data compiled by Leftwich
and Engelder (1995) from a number of South Texas oil
and gas fields to further refine our understanding of
the upper bound for Pp found in the interconnected
porosity of overpressured rocks in sedimentary
basins. We shall accomplish this by developing a
sense for the variation of Pp with depth within several
South Texas fields. We then discuss mechanisms that
may operate to limit Pp at levels less than lithostatic
pressure.
GEOLOGY AND PORE PRESSURE IN
SOUTH TEXAS OIL AND GAS FIELDS
Our analysis draws on pore pressure data from
seven fields located in the Tertiary oil- and gas-pro-
ducing trends of South Texas, geologically a part of
the Rio Grande Embayment (Figure 1). During the
Eocene and Oligocene, onshore South Texas was
characterized by rapid deltaic sedimentation and a
complex system of coastward-dipping syndeposi-
tional growth faults that become progressively
younger to the east and toward the Gulf (Galloway
et al., 1982). The thickest sequences of the
Eocene–Oligocene deltaic sedimentation are progra-
dational wedges of sand deposited during the Late
Paleocene–Early Eocene (Wilcox) and the mid- to late
Oligocene (Frio-Vicksburg). During deposition of the
Frio-Vicksburg, the Rio Grande Embayment was
filled by the Norias delta system, which deposited
thick sections of sand throughout the area.
Pressure vs. Depth Profiles
The Pp data in this paper were taken from fields in
the Frio-Vicksburg trend. Leftwich (1993) compiled
pore pressure–depth (Pp–z) data largely from original
shut-in bottom-hole pressure (BHP) measurements
recorded in numerous wells within each field. These
data were recorded by the various operators during
the completion and production phases of each well,
and are available from Petroleum Information Service
of Houston, Texas. In some fields, repeat formation
tester (RFT) and multitester (WLT) pressure data sup-
plemented the BHP data.
The Pp–z data were used to define Pp zones within
South Texas oil and gas fields. In general, high-quality
Pp–z data from each well in a given field follow the
same trends because the fields have relatively small
[≈500 psi (3 MPa)] differences in original pressures
due to structural relief or faulting across a field. Some
larger interfield faults in South Texas act as seals sepa-
rating larger Pp differences [>500 psi (3 MPa)]. This is
in contrast to fields elsewhere in the world where
much larger pressure differences across faults are
detected within fields (Weedman et al., 1992; Grauls
and Baleix, 1994; Hart et al., 1995). Leftwich (1993)
used only original preproduction Pp data and was
careful to exclude low Pp data taken after a particular
zone had experienced some production drawdown.
In the absence of large structural relief, we inter-
preted Pp data that fell below a given Pp–z trend by
more than 500 psi (3 MPa) as indicative of production
drawdown. Pressure data that were determined to be
defective or drawn down were left off the final plots,
but the number of excluded data is indicated in cap-
tions (e.g., Figure 2). Otherwise, 500 psi (3 MPa) dif-
ferences across fields are due to the structural relief
common in many South Texas fields. Detailed pres-
sure records are not available for any of the BHP
data; therefore, evaluation of the quality for each test
is not possible.
Pore Pressure Zones Within South Texas Fields
Leftwich and Engelder (1995) argue that oil and gas
fields of the northern Gulf of Mexico may be divided
into stratified layers or zones. In analyzing Pp–z data
from each field, Leftwich and Engelder (1995) identi-
fied clusters of data to which lines could be fit. There-
fore, the Pp–z data were divided into three or four
clusters characterized by a constant Pp gradient line.
These linear trends are established by interpolating
pressure data between sand bodies and through inter-
layered shale. At the scale of individual sand bodies
and interlayered shale beds, the pressure-depth profile
is probably not linear, but it is the general trend that is
important for our analysis. The linear trend of Pp data
from individual zones in a single well can have a cor-
relation coefficient as high as 0.99 (Leftwich and
 A Pore-Pressure Limit in Overpressured South Texas Oil and Gas Fields
Ann Mag-type field
Alazan-type field
Texas
d ren
en
Tr
nd
e
rg Tr
Tre
bu io
s Fr4
ck
x
lco
Vi
Wi
1 6
5 2
7 4. REDFISH BAY
Roll-over
Anticline
100 km 3
Structures
Engelder, 1995). Pressure zones are reported for other
basins of the world where Pp data extrapolate in a lin-
ear fashion between sand bodies (Dainelli and Vig-
nolo, 1993). However, these zones are not related to
pressure compartments as proposed by Powley (1990).
Pressure zone boundaries in the oil and gas fields of
South Texas are further based on the depth to under-
compaction, a poorly understood phenomenon that is
a characteristic of shales commonly associated with
overpressure basins (Leftwich and Engelder, 1995).
The depth to the top boundary of the undercompacted
zone is identified using a combination of conductivity,
sonic, and density logs (Hottman and Johnson, 1965).
The top boundary of undercompaction is defined as
an abrupt increase in electrical conductivity, an
increase in sonic travel time, and a drop in density, all
of which are associated with a retention of pore water
in shales (Fertl, 1976; Magara, 1978).
Using the distribution of zones, Leftwich and
Engelder (1995) argue that there are two types of fields
in the Tertiary portion of South Texas. These are dis-
tinguished based on whether the top of undercom-
paction and the top of abnormal Pp correspond.
Tertiary fields have pressure-depth profiles that are
characterized by Pp gradients showing either three
(i.e., the Alazan-type field where the depth to the top
of undercompaction is the same as the depth to the
top of abnormal pressure) or four (i.e., the Ann Mag-
type field where the depth to the top of undercom-
paction is deeper than the depth to the top of abnormal
pressure) linear segments. These linear segments con-
stitute the basis on which pressure zones are identified
on South Texas fields. Pressure zone ONE, found in the
257
Figure 1. Map of Gulf
Coast oil and gas fields
for which pressure zone
FOUR gradients have been
compiled (Leftwich and
Engelder, 1995). Ann
Salt Dome Mag-type and Alazan-type
Dominated fields are distinguished in
Structures this map.
d
eT
nd en
oc
Mi
1. ANN MAG
2. EL PAISTLE
3. MONTE CHRISTO
5. RITA
6. SARITA-SARITA EAST
7. S.E. RITA
shallow portion of Gulf Coast sediments, has a normal
hydrostatic gradient of approximately 0.45 psi/ft (≈10
MPa/km) (Figure 2). Pressure zone TWO has a gradi-
ent on the order of 1.00 psi/ft (≈22.6 MPa/km) and is
located between the top of abnormal pressure and a
deeper top to undercompaction. The presence of zone
TWO is characteristic of the Ann Mag-type field. Zone
THREE, located in abnormally pressured rocks below
the top of undercompaction, shows a gradient in
excess of 2.00 psi/ft (>45.2 MPa/km). Without excep-
tion, the Pp gradient is much steeper below the top of
undercompaction, even though abnormal Pp may
occur above the top of undercompaction.
If the top of undercompaction and the top of abnor-
mal pressure correspond, then the field is missing
pressure zone TWO, and formation pressure increases
precipitously at the top of abnormal pressure. This
occurs in Alazan-type fields like the Sarita-Sarita East
and Red Fish Bay fields (Figures 3, 4).
PORE-PRESSURE LIMITS IN
PRESSURE ZONE FOUR
We suggest that the transition dividing pressure
zones THREE and FOUR (point λ in Figures 2–5) rep-
resents a natural limit to pore pressure in South Texas
fields. Pore pressure at the transition is normalized by
dividing the magnitude of Pp by Sv . The ratio of fluid
pressure to overburden stress is known as λ in the geo-
mechanics literature (Hubbert and Rubey, 1959; Suppe
and Wittke, 1977). When λ refers to the transition point
between pressure zones THREE and FOUR, we call λ
258 Engelder and Leftwich

PRESSURE (PSI) Figure 2. Geopressure profile

for the Monte Christo field,
Hidalgo County, Texas.
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 Pressure zones ONE through
FOUR are located on the
0 geopressure profile. The
Monte Christo field is a poor
example of the correlation
MONTE CHRISTO between the top of undercom-
2000 paction and the boundary
between pressure zones TWO
and THREE. Leftwich and
Engelder (1995) show data for
several fields where this cor-
4000 relation is much better (100
BHP measurements from 87
wells with 11 data points are
0.46 psi/ft
excluded).
Pressure
6000 Zone
ONE
DEPTH (FT)

8000
---------Top of Abnormal Pressure 8300'
Pressure 1.23 psi/ft
Zone
TWO
10000 -----Top of Undercompaction 9850'
Pressure
Zone 3.71 psi/ft λ
THREE

12000 Sv
Pressure
Zone 0.71 psi/ft
FOUR
14000

Pore Pressure Limit λ = 0.91

16000

the geostatic ratio. In many cases an exact figure for
lithostatic stress is unknown, so we assume a litho-
static gradient of 1 psi/ft (22.6 MPa/km). Making this
assumption means that λ specifying the Pp limit in
Figures 2–6 is slightly low (≈1%–3%), largely because
the low density of sediments in the upper 3 km
of basins generates a lithostatic gradient of slightly
<1 psi/ft.
Interpretation of the point λ as the Pp limit relies
heavily on data from a deeper zone (FOUR), where the
pressure segment is poorly constrained for many
South Texas fields because there are so few Pp data
from that portion of the fields. Monte Christo is an
Ann Mag-type field with four zones (Figure 2). Zone
FOUR is constrained by a cluster of data at about
11,000 ft (3.4 km) and then three data points down to
16,000 ft (4.9 km). These Pp data suggest that zone
FOUR has a gradient of 0.70 psi/ft (15.8 MPa/km) in
the Monte Christo field. Sarita-Sarita East is an
Alazan-type field with three pressure zones: pressure
zone FOUR is well constrained and has a pressure gra-
dient of 0.91 psi/ft (20.6 MPa/km) (Figure 3). In both
the Monte Christo and Sarita fields, Pp increases
rapidly with depth through pressure zone THREE
until reaching an abrupt transition at the boundary
above zone FOUR.
We suggest that a sharp transition in Pp is present
at the point λ even when pressure zone FOUR is
poorly defined, as is the case for the Red Fish Bay field
(Figure 4). Here, pressure zone FOUR is defined by
three data points following a gradient of 1.13 psi/ft
(25.6 MPa/km), a gradient that will eventually inter-
sect the Sv. Several other fields also have a sharp transi-
tion between pressure zones THREE and FOUR in the
 A Pore-Pressure Limit in Overpressured South Texas Oil and Gas Fields 259

PRESSURE (PSI) Figure 3. Geopressure profile

for the Sarita-Sarita East
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 Field, Kenedy County, Texas.
This is an Alazan-type field
in which the top of under-
0 compaction and the top of
abnormal pressure are found
SARITA - SARITA EAST at the same depth.

2000

4000
0.43 psi/ft

6000
Pressure
Zone
DEPTH (FT)

ONE
8000

-------Top of Abnormal Pressure 9200'

----------Top of Undercompaction 9350'
10000

Pressure
2.56 psi/ft
Zone λ
THREE
12000 Sv

Pressure
Zone 0.91 psi/ft
14000 FOUR

Pore Pressure Limit λ = 0.90

16000

South Texas region. In some cases, the transition is
defined indirectly. For example, in our compilation
of Pp data from the El Paistle field of Kenedy County,
Texas, we were able to obtain numerous high-quality
pressure data down to about 9200 ft (2.8 km) and nine
data points below 11,800 ft (3.6 km) (Figure 5). The
data below 11,800 ft (3.6 km) follow a Pp gradient typ-
ical of pressure zone FOUR. We have only one data
point for a 2600-ft (0.8-km) interval through a critical
portion of the geopressure profile (pressure zones
TWO and THREE). The top of abnormal Pp is indi-
cated by three data points near a depth of 8700 ft
(2.6 km). These three data points below the top of
abnormal pressure indicate that pressure zone TWO
has a gradient of 1.18 psi/ft (26.7 MPa/km). Electric
logs indicate that the top of undercompaction is at a
depth of 10,900 ft (3.3 km). Based on our experience
with Ann Mag-type fields, we predict that zone TWO
extends to the top of undercompaction. Having
drawn pressure zone TWO on Figure 5, we predict a
minimum gradient for zone THREE of 2.90 psi/ft
(65.5 MPa/km) and, at the transition between zones
THREE and FOUR, λ = 0.79.
In summary, we were able to identify a Pp limit at
the point λ in seven fields of South Texas (Figure 6).
The geostatic ratio varies between 0.79 in the El Pais-
tle field to 0.91 in the Monte Christo field, with an
average of 0.86. The gradients for pressure zone
FOUR show a variation from 0.71 psi/ft (16.0
MPa/km) in the Monte Christo field to 1.13 psi/ft
(25.6 MPa/km) in the Red Fish Bay field. On average,
the Pp gradient in pressure zone FOUR, the deepest
zone in South Texas, is 0.86 psi/ft (19.9 MPa/km) for
Tertiary shales in the Gulf of Mexico.
260 Engelder and Leftwich

PRESSURE (PSI) Figure 4. Geopressure profile

for the Red Fish Bay field,
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 Nueces County, Texas. This is
an Alazan-type field with the
0 top of undercompaction above
the top of abnormal pressure.
RED FISH BAY
2000

4000
0.46 psi/ft

6000
DEPTH (FT)

8000 ----Top of Undercompaction 8183'

-------Top of Abnormal Pressure 9100'

10000
3.06 psi/ft λ

12000 Sv
Pressure 1.13 psi/ft
Zone
FOUR
14000

Pore Pressure Limit λ = 0.87

16000

DISCUSSION A composite plot of all Pp data from pressure zone

In the South Texas fields, Pp increases rapidly below
the top of abnormal pressure to reach the Pp limit within
~3000 ft (1 km). The Pp gradient of pressure zone THREE
immediately above the transition to zone FOUR is at
least 2 psi/ft (45.2 MPa/km), and in some fields it may
exceed 4 psi/ft (90.4 MPa/km). The transition to zone
FOUR is abrupt in all cases and occurs at a geostatic ratio
between 0.79 and 0.91, but the depth of the point λ varies
among the South Texas fields between 10,500 ft (3.2 km)
and 12,300 ft (3.8 km) (Figure 6). Because geostatic ratio
is similar from field to field in South Texas, we presume
that this similarity is significant and has a physical
explanation that is common among the fields. Our inter-
pretation is that the average geostatic ratio (λ) of ~0.9 is a
measure of the natural leakoff pressure from pressure
zone FOUR, deep within fields of South Texas.
FOUR of South Texas shows the same trend as the 0.86
psi/ft (19.9 MPa/km) average calculated above (Fig-
ure 7). Our data set is consistent with Dickinson’s
(1953) compilation of Louisiana Gulf Coast fluid-pres-
sure data. Both compilations leave little doubt that
fluid pressure does not exceed the lithostatic stress, Sv,
in that area of the Gulf Coast. In fact, Dickinson’s data
rarely fall above the 0.95 psi/ft (20.3 MPa/km) pres-
sure gradient line. The combination of Dickinson’s
(1953) data with our South Texas data suggests that
the limit for fluid pressures in both the Texas and
Louisiana Gulf Coast areas falls near the 0.9 psi/ft
pressure gradient line.
In searching for a mechanism to explain a natural
leakoff pressure from South Texas fields, other obser-
vations are important. Below the point λ, the Pp gradi-
ent in zone FOUR in all seven South Texas gas fields
 A Pore-Pressure Limit in Overpressured South Texas Oil and Gas Fields 261

PRESSURE (PSI) Figure 5. Predicted geopressure

profiles from the El Paistle
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 field, Kenedy County, Texas.
The predicted shape of the
0 geopressure profile is based
on the large vertical separation
between the top of abnormal
EL PAISTLE pressure and the top of
undercompaction. Such
2000 separation suggests that the
El Paistle field is an Ann
Mag-type field.

4000
0.43 psi/ft

6000
DEPTH (FT)

8000
Top of Abnormal Pressure 8700'
Predicted
Pressure 1.18 psi/ft
10000
Zone
TWO ----Top of Undercompaction 10900'

12000 Predicted
Pressure 2.90 psi/ft λ Sv
Zone
THREE
0.80 psi/ft
14000

Pore Pressure Limit λ = 0.79

16000

comes close to 0.9 psi/ft when the gradient is defined
by more than five data points. This means that what-
ever pathway is available for leakage, it does not
maintain the hydraulic continuity necessary to estab-
lish a hydrostatic gradient (≈0.46 psi/ft) below the
zone THREE–FOUR transition. Consequently, the
rocks in pressure zone FOUR do not have the
hydraulic conductivity of a porous sandstone or other
attributes of a pressure compartment (Powley, 1990).
Rather, it appears that a dynamic system is at work
where fluid pressure is maintained at the level of the
Pp limit. Leakage is slow and probably governed by the
dynamic balance between Pp and some mechanism to
relieve the pressure. Mechanisms that might allow
high pressure along a gradient of ~0.9 psi/ft include
capillary leakage through pore throats, selective leak-
age along through-cutting faults, and leakage through
a network of joints.
Leakage Through Pore Throats
In the fields of South Texas, pressure zone FOUR
is found within a thick shale section of the Vicksburg
Formation. If leakage along the same gradient
(0.9 psi/ft) over several thousand feet in several
fields is controlled by capillary pressure, then each
of the fields must consist of rocks with roughly the
same pore-throat architecture. This seems to be the
case in South Texas because zone FOUR falls within
the Vicksburg Formation. However, the thick shale
section of the Vicksburg often begins at the top of
pressure zone THREE (Leftwich and Engelder, 1995).
Furthermore, the transition between zones THREE
and FOUR is not marked by a noticeable change in
lithology or any other characteristic that would sug-
gest a unique zone FOUR pore-throat architecture.
Because a steeper pressure gradient would favor
262 Engelder and Leftwich

λ = P /S
p v
Figure 6. Plot of pore-
pressure limit and the
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
gradient of pore pressure
10000
in pressure zone FOUR for
seven oil and gas fields in
P =S South Texas. The vertical
p h
10500 ANN MAG
line is a prediction for Sh in
South Texas, assuming that
leakage by joint opening
limit (ft)

MONTE CHRISTO
RED FISH BAY
takes place.
11000
RITA
p
depth to P

11500
SE RITA

12000 SARITA

EL PAISTLE

12500
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
pore pressure gradient (psi/ft)

λ AT PORE PRESSURE LIMIT

GRADIENT OF ZONE FOUR

leakage against capillary pressure, it is zone THREE ratio of effective stress, k of Matthews and Kelly
that may drain by leakage through pore throats. If a (1967), is controlled by friction
pressure gradient of 2.0–4.0 psi/ft is required for
leakage against capillary pressure, leakage through  1 
–2

pore throats seems unlikely as the mechanism lead-
ing to the pore-pressure limit and the 0.9 psi/ft gra-
dient for pressure zone FOUR.
Selective Leakage Along Faults
Shale sections of the Vicksburg have occasional
sand layers that provide higher permeability chan-
nels to faults. These are the layers from which most
of the zone FOUR Pp data come. The 0.9 psi/ft Pp gra-
dient of zone FOUR indicates that these through-cut-
ting faults do not maintain open communication
from one sand layer to the next. If the faults leak
episodically, they act as a valve that opens and closes
(Sibson, 1992). A fault may open to fluid flow when
it refractures during slip, but then heal to keep the
overpressured section from draining completely.
The fault-valve process offers some hope of identify-
ing a mechanism for regulating Pp at some value less
than lithostatic pressure. Regulation of Pp by leakage
of pore fluid upward along faults is governed by at
least two important considerations: Pp at the time of
fault slip and the interaction between Pp and Sh.
Zoback and Healy (1984) propose that the shallow
Earth is in a constant state of brittle failure along
favorably oriented planes. In such a scenario, the
( )
Sh – Pp
k= =  µ2 + 1 2 + µ (1)
Sv – Pp  
where µ = the coefficient of static friction. At hydro-
static pore pressure with µ = 0.85, Sh = 0.59Sv, consis-
tent with leakoff data from normally pressured
portions of the Gulf of Mexico (Zoback and Healy,
1984). In sedimentary basins, rock friction acts as a
governor, limiting differential stress, σd = Sv–Sh and
thereby controlling S h. However, Pp has an equally
important role in setting the level of Sh. The idea is
that in actively subsiding basins dominated by nor-
mal faulting, the vertical stress, Sv, increases by sedi-
mentary loading until σ d becomes large enough to
initiate frictional slip on listric normal faults. Slip will
act to laterally compress sediments of the basin,
thereby increasing Sh and decreasing σd. The value of
σd at which frictional slip occurs is controlled by the
frictional strength of the faults (i.e., µ) as expressed
by the equation
(
σ d = 2 µ σ n – Pp ) (2)
where σn = the total normal stress across the fault zone
and σn–Pp = the effective normal stress across the fault
 A Pore-Pressure Limit in Overpressured South Texas Oil and Gas Fields 263

Pressure or Stress (psi) Figure 7. A composite plot

of all pressure zone FOUR
Pp data from the seven
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 fields of South Texas as
0 listed in Figure 6.

2000 SOUTH TEXAS

4000

6000
Depth (ft)

8000

10000

12000 Pressure Sv
Zone
FOUR
14000

16000
P p = 0.8 S v
P p = 0.9 S v

zone. Equation 2 is a simplification assuming that
faults have no cohesive strength. An increase in Pp
causes a decrease in effective normal stress, and thus
slip occurs at a smaller σd. We can rewrite equation 2
in terms of total horizontal and vertical stress:
–2
 1 

(
Sh =  µ 2 + 1 ) 2 + µ

(Sv – Pp ) + Pp
Equation 3 predicts that S h becomes relatively
higher in overpressured parts of sedimentary basins,
as is seen in leakoff pressure data from several basins
of the world (Engelder and Fischer, 1994).
Our premise is that leakage along faults is periodic
and takes place mainly after faults slip. The situation
during and after faulting is illustrated on a Pp-Sh-time
plot for a typical South Texas field where, prior to slip at
the beginning of cycle a, Pp = 0.90S v below the zone
THREE–FOUR transition (Figure 8A). At the moment of
fault slip, Sh is higher than Pp according to equation 3.
For the example illustrated in Figure 8, µ = 0.85 and pre-
slip Sh = 0.92Sv. Studies of fault mechanics suggest that
fault slip is arrested as a consequence of the shear-stress
drop during faulting (Scholz, 1990). For normal faulting,
this shear-stress drop takes place with an increase in Sh ,
as indicated by a modest increase in post-slip stress to
Sh = 0.94Sv after slip during cycle a. Following fault slip,
the enhanced fault-zone permeability allows the fault to
partially drain sandstone and maybe interlayered shales
of pressure zone FOUR. The effect of poroelastic con-
(3)
traction (as discussed below) is shown as a simultaneous
drop in S h (Figure 8A). Unless the fault eventually
reseals, the pressure in the interconnected sandstone
layers will reequilibrate at a hydrostatic gradient.
The present abnormally high Pp of zone FOUR is
consistent with faults resealing and the sandstones
recharging, as indicated by an increased Pp during the
latter part of cycle a. Immediately upon resealing in
post-slip time, the state of stress and Pp along the nor-
mal fault do not favor further slip. After the fault
reseals, either stress or Pp or both must recover for
another slip cycle: Sv could increase with further basin
filling, Sh could decrease with downbasin slumping, or
Pp can be recharged through such mechanisms as the
continued generation of hydrocarbons. Because three
variables operate independently, it would seem fortu-
itous that each should return to its previous values for
each repeated slip event.
264 Engelder and Leftwich
If sedimentation rate and tectonic deformation are
slow relative to the recharging of Pp, they would not
effect a change in Sh and Sv between slip cycles. In this
case, Pp would be the only independent variable con-
trolling slip events and Sh will fluctuate with Pp as a
poroelastic response. If so, Sh increases to its post-slip
value with gradually increasing Pp , as shown in the
latter part of cycle a (Figure 8A). Note that cycle b
starts at a higher Pp because Sh is at a higher level than
at the start of cycle a. Recharging Pp will periodically
reactivate slip, with each reactivation cycle at an incre-
mentally higher Sh. This process will not regulate Pp in
zone FOUR at a gradient near 0.9 psi/ft because fric-
tional slip always maintains Sh at a level above Pp. To
illustrate this point, we take the derivative of Sh with
respect to Pp in equation 3 to derive
–2
∆Sh  1 
∆Pp
(

)
= 1 –  µ2 + 1 2 + µ

(4)
Equation 4 indicates that, in the absence of sedi-
mentation and tectonics, Sh increases at a rate less than
Pp and that the two converge at S v . The difference
between Pp and Sh is smaller at the beginning of cycle b
than at the beginning of cycle a. In summary, in order
to maintain a Pp gradient at 0.9 psi/ft by leakage
through fault slip, a combination of three independent
variables (Pp, Sv , and S h) must act in unison. Other-
wise, the interaction between Pp and Sh will eventually
drive Pp to a lithostatic pressure.
Leakage Through a Network of Joints
We may appeal to a second mechanism to regulate
Pp at a limit less than lithostatic pressure. Like leakage
by fault slip, the Pp limit by leakage through joints is
governed by a failure criterion involving Pp necessary
to open joints and the interaction between Pp and Sh.
The criterion for opening joints (i.e., cracks) is taken
from linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). The
governing equation for joint propagation is based on
the crack-tip stress intensity factor (K), which charac-
terizes the crack-tip stress field. For cracks loaded
solely by a far-field tensile stress (σt ) normal to the
crack, the crack-tip stress intensity factor is given by
K I = Yσ t πc (5)
where Y and c are parameters characterizing the shape
and size of the crack; tensile stresses are positive; and
the I denotes pure tensile loading (i.e., mode I; Lawn
and Wilshaw, 1975; Broek, 1986). The LEFM criterion
for the initiation of crack propagation states that a
crack will extend, thus increasing its size, when the
stress intensity at the tip of the crack reaches some crit-
ical value. This critical value of stress intensity is
denoted KIc, and is commonly referred to as fracture
toughness. The parameters controlling the initial prop-
agation of macroscopic joints from smaller cracks (i.e.,
flaws) are found by substituting KIc for KI and rear-
ranging equation 5 to derive an equation that gives the
tensile stress necessary to initiate growth of a flaw of
any size and idealized shape:
K Ic
σf = (6)
Y πc
Here the crack-normal tensile stress σf is referred
to as the fracture stress for a given flaw (i.e., the tensile
stress necessary to extend a flaw).
When fractures are driven by abnormal fluid pres-
sures, the process is called natural hydraulic fracturing
(Secor, 1965, 1969; Engelder and Lacazette, 1990). The
stress available to initiate a natural hydraulic fracture
is referred to as the driving stress (σ ∆; Pollard and
Segall, 1987) and is given by
σ ∆ = Pp + σ 3 (7)
where Pp = the ambient pore pressure in the rock and
σ3 = the minimum principal remote total stress, with
compressive stress being negative. Note that in the
context of LEFM, natural hydraulic fracturing takes
place if Pp exceeds the minimum principal total stress
by an amount equal to the fracture stress (σf ) of the
rock as given by equation 6. For the formation of ver-
tical fractures, σ 3 is equivalent to S h, the minimum
total horizontal stress, and a general initiation crite-
rion for vertical natural hydraulic fracturing is
obtained by substituting σ f for σ ∆ and rearranging
equation 7 to arrive at
 K Ic 
Pp = Sh +   (8)
 Y πc 
Equation 8 illustrates that vertical natural hydraulic
fractures can initiate only when the ambient pore pres-
sure equals the sum of the rock fracture stress and the
minimum total horizontal stress acting to keep flaws
closed. If flaws are pervasive joints with a large length,
2c, the second term of equation 8 goes to zero, thus
implying that joints open and leak when Pp = Sh .
Like leakage by fault slip, our premise is that leak-
age through a joint network is periodic and takes place
mainly when Pp ≥ Sh . The situation during and after
joint opening and propagation is illustrated on a Pp-
Sh-time plot for a typical South Texas field where Pp
prior to joint opening is 0.90Sv below the zone THREE–
FOUR transition (cycle w in Figure 8B). One difference
between leakage by joint opening and by fault slip is
that when Pp = 0.90Sv, Sh is lower at joint opening than
at fault slip (0.90S v vs. 0.92S v). As in fault slip, the
enhanced permeability from joint opening up to the
zone THREE–FOUR transition may allow the section
below to reequilibrate at a hydrostatic gradient before
resealing during cycle w.
Like leakage during fault slip, Sh changes by poro-
elastic behavior. With a drop in Pp, poroelastic relaxation
 A Pore-Pressure Limit in Overpressured South Texas Oil and Gas Fields 265

LEAKAGE BY FAULT SLIP Figure 8. (A) Theoretical

pressure-stress-time plot
slip & illustrating the change in
fracture Sv = lithostatic stress pore pressure, Pp, and least
horizontal stress, Sh,
pressure & stress

before and after frictional

slip on a fault-cutting
Sh pressure zone FOUR.
(B) Theoretical pressure-
stress-time plot illustrat-
ing Pp and Sh before and
recharge Sh = 0.9 Sv after opening of joints
leak
through pressure zone
Pp seal FOUR.
cycle a cycle b cycle c cycle d
A
time

LEAKAGE BY JOINT OPENING

Sv = lithostatic stress
pressure & stress

crack &
open

Sh = 0.9 Sv
Sh

Pp leak recharge

B cycle w cycle x cycle y cycle z

seal
time

allows a drop in S h (Biot, 1941; Kümpel, 1991).
According to the theory, a shrinkage ∆V of the rock
with initial volume, V, is induced by an decrease in
pore pressure, ∆Pp,
∆V
= αβ∆Pp
V If α = 1 and ν = 0, a change in Pp will induce the
where ∆V is controlled by the Biot coefficient of
effective stress, α, and the compressibility of the rock,
β (Detournay et al., 1989). Assuming that volume
strain is zero where the compressibility is β =
(1/V)(∆V/∆Pc), equation 9 may be rewritten as
∆Pc = α∆Pp
where Pc is the confining pressure (Segall, 1992). For
α < 1, a change in Pp causes a smaller change in Pc. An
exact equation may be derived for ∆Sh/∆Pp for total
horizontal stress under uniaxial strain conditions:
v 1 – 2v
Sh = Sv + α Pp
1– v 1– v
where ν is the drained Poisson ratio. Rewriting equa-
tion 11, we find that
∆Sh 1 – 2v
=α (12)
∆Pp 1– v
(9)
same change in Sh. Otherwise, changes in Sh are smaller
than changes in Pp , as is the case for frictional slip and
primeval elasticity. Anderson et al. (1973) were among
the first to suggest that poroelastic behavior was an
important element in the stress–pore pressure inter-
play leading to variation in leakoff pressure.
The sign of the net change in Sh distinguishes the
fault-slip leakage from joint leakage (Figure 8). Signifi-
(10)
cantly, after the closing or sealing of joints, poroelastic
behavior will drive the Sh back to its starting position
for another cycle of both joint opening and fault slip.
This happens because Pp increases faster than S h .
Unlike fault slip, where slip causes Sh to operate inde-
pendently of Pp in returning to a post-slip value, dur-
ing joint opening, Sh operates in concert with Pp so that
only one independent parameter operates. The depen-
(11)
dent variable, Sh, does not show a net change unless
266 Engelder and Leftwich
helped by distant tectonics. If the mechanism for regu-
lating Pp is leakage through open joints, then Pp serves
as a measure of the least stress in South Texas, with Pp
= 0.86Sv (Figure 6).
Further Remarks
Until better in-situ data are obtained, the nature of
the mechanism for leakage from and subsequent seal-
ing within pressure zone FOUR will remain debatable.
Little is known about whether or not the thick shale
section of South Texas contains joints or microfrac-
tures such as those seen in the Travis Peak Formation
of East Texas (Laubach, 1988, 1989). Likewise, the
shales of South Texas may contain smaller scale but
more pervasive faults such as those seen in the chalks
of the North Sea (Cartwright, 1994). The discovery of
either of these two deformation mechanisms will have
a great bearing on our interpretation of leakoff from
and subsequent sealing within pressure zone FOUR.
CONCLUSIONS
The geostatic ratio in the deep Gulf Coast basin of
South Texas is reached at depths between 10,500 and
2300 ft (3.2–3.8 km), as indicated by Pp data from seven
gas fields. This maximum is characterized by a geosta-
tic ratio that averages 0.86 among the seven fields. Our
interpretation is that the point λ marks pressure
required for the slow leakoff of fluids in the deep basin
by either leakage after fault slip or leakage through nat-
ural hydraulic fractures, or both. This situation
requires a mechanism for self-sealing to prevent Pp
from draining to a hydrostatic gradient. The difference
between leakage after fault slip and leakage by jointing
is that the Sh does not return to its pre-slip magnitude
upon recharging of the reservoir, whereas this is the
case for recharging following leakage by jointing.
Although leakage by fault slip cannot be ruled out as a
mechanism for maintaining a Pp gradient greater than
hydrostatic in pressure zone FOUR, leakage by jointing
is a simpler model because Sh can vary with Pp through
poroelastic relaxation and recharging.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by Contract 5088-260-
1746 from the Gas Research Institute and Penn State’s
Seal Evaluation Consortium. We thank Mark Fischer,
Bill Higgs, Bruce Hart, and David McConaughy for
constructive reviews of an early version of this paper.
REFERENCES CITED
Anderson, R.A., D.S. Ingram, and A.M. Zanier, 1973,
Determining fracture pressure gradients from well
logs: Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 26,
p. 1259–1268.
Berg, R.R., 1975, Capillary pressure in stratigraphic
traps: AAPG Bulletin, v. 59, p. 939–956.
Biot, M.A., 1941, General theory of three-dimensional
consolidation: Journal of Applied Physics, v. 12,
p. 155–164.
Broek, D., 1986, Elementary engineering fracture
mechanics: Boston, Martinus Nijhoff, 516 p.
Cartwright, J.A., 1994, Episodic basinwide hydrofrac-
turing of overpressured Early Cenozoic mudrock
sequences in the North Sea Basin: Marine and
Petroleum Geology, v. 11, p. 587–607.
Dainelli, J., and A. Vignolo, 1993, Regional assessment
of sealing faults through pore-pressure analysis in
the northern Adriatic: First Break, v. 11, p. 287–294.
Detournay, E., A. Cheng, J-C. Roegiers, and J.D.
McLennan, 1989, Poroelasticity considerations in in
situ stress determination by hydraulic fracturing:
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Min-
ing Science, v. 26, p. 507–513.
Dickinson, G., 1953, Geological aspects of abnormal
reservoir pressures in Gulf Coast Louisiana: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 37, p. 410–432.
Engelder, T., and M.P. Fischer, 1994, Influence of poro-
elastic behavior on the magnitude of minimum hor-
izontal stress, Sh , in overpressured parts of
sedimentary basins: Geology, v. 22, p. 949–952.
Engelder, T., and A. Lacazette, 1990, Natural hydraulic
fracturing, in N. Barton and O. Stephansson, eds.,
Rock joints: Rotterdam, A.A. Balkema, p. 35–44.
Fertl, W.H., 1976, Abnormal formation pressures: New
York, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 382 p.
Galloway, W.E., D.K. Hobday, and K. Magara, 1982,
Frio Formation of the Texas Gulf Coast Basin—
depositional systems, structural framework, and
hydrocarbon origin, migration, distribution, and
exploration potential: The University of Texas at
Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology Report of
Investigations 122, 78 p.
Grauls, D.J., and J.M. Baleix, 1994, Role of overpres-
sures and in situ stresses in fault-controlled hydro-
carbon migration: a case study: Marine and
Petroleum Geology, v. 11, p. 734–742.
Hart, B.S., P.B. Flemings, and A. Deshpande, 1995,
Porosity and pressure: role of compaction disequilib-
rium in the development of geopressures in a Gulf
Coast Pleistocene basin: Geology, v. 23, p. 45–48.
Hottman, C.E., and R.K. Johnson, 1965, Estimation of
formation pressures from log-derived shale proper-
ties: Journal of Petroleum Technology, p. 717–722.
Hubbert, M.K., and W.W. Rubey, 1959, Role of fluid
pressures in mechanics of overthrust faulting: I,
Mechanics of fluid-filled porous solids and its
application to overthrust faulting: Geological Soci-
ety of America Bulletin, v. 70, p. 115–166.
Hubbert, M.K., and D.G. Willis, 1957, Mechanics of
hydraulic fracturing: Journal of Petroleum Technol-
ogy, v. 9, p. 153–168.
Kümpel, H.-J., 1991, Poroelasticity: parameters
reviewed: Geophysical Journal International, v. 105,
p. 783–799.
Laubach, S.E., 1988, Subsurface fractures and their
relationship to stress history in East Texas Basin
sandstone: Tectonophysics, v. 156, p. 37–49.
 A Pore-Pressure Limit in Overpressured South Texas Oil and Gas Fields
Laubach, S.E., 1989, Paleostress directions from the
preferred orientation of closed microfractures
(fluid-inclusion planes) in sandstone, East Texas
Basin, U.S.A.: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 11,
p. 603–612.
Lawn B.R., and T.R. Wilshaw, 1975, Fracture of brittle
solids: London, Cambridge University, 204 p.
Leftwich, J.T., 1993, The development of zones of
undercompacted shale relative to abnormal subsur-
face pressures in sedimentary basins: Ph.D. disser-
tation, Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, Pennsylvania, 442 p.
Leftwich, J.T., and T. Engelder, 1995, The characteris-
tics of geopressure profiles in the Gulf of Mexico
Basin, in P. Orteleva, ed., Pressure compartments:
AAPG Memoir 61, p. 119–129.
Magara, K., 1978, Compaction and fluid migration:
practical petroleum geology: New York, Elsevier
Scientific Publishing Co., 319 p.
Matthews, V.M., and J. Kelly, 1967, How to predict for-
mation pressure and fracture gradient: Oil and Gas
Journal, v. 65, p. 92–106.
Pollard, D.D., and P. Segall, 1987, Theoretical displace-
ments and stresses near fractures in rock: with
applications to faults, joints, veins, dikes, and solu-
tion surfaces, in B. Atkinson, ed., Fracture mechan-
ics of rock: Orlando, Academic Press, p. 227–350.
Powley, D.E., 1990, Pressures and hydrogeology in
petroleum basins: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 29,
p. 215–226.
Sahay, B., and W.H. Fertl, 1989, Origin and evaluation
of formation pressures: Dordrecht, Kluwer Acade-
mic Publishers, 292 p.
Scholz, C.H., 1990, The mechanics of earthquakes and
267
faulting: New York, Cambridge University Press, 439 p.
Schowalter, T.T., 1979, Mechanics of secondary hydro-
carbon migration and entrapment: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 63, p. 723–760.
Secor, D.T., 1965, Role of fluid pressure in jointing:
American Journal of Science, v. 263, p. 633–646.
Secor, D.T., 1969, Mechanics of natural extension frac-
turing at depth in the Earth’s crust; in A.J. Baer and
D.K. Norris, eds., Proceedings, Conference on
Research in Tectonics (Kink Bands and Brittle
Deformation): Geological Survey of Canada Paper
68-52, p. 3–48.
Segall, P., 1992, Induced stresses due to fluid extrac-
tion from axisymmetric reservoirs: Pure and
Applied Geophysics, v. 139, p. 535–560.
Sibson, R.H., 1992, Implications of fault-valve behav-
ior for rupture nucleation and recurrence: Tectono-
physics, v. 211, p. 283–293.
Suppe, J., and J. Wittke, 1977, Abnormal pore-fluid
pressures in relation to stratigraphy and structure
in the active fold-and-thrust belt of northwestern
Taiwan: Petroleum Geology of Taiwan, v. 14,
p. 11–24.
Vavra, C.L., J.G. Kaldi, and R.M. Sneider, 1992, Geo-
logical applications of capillary pressure: a review:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, p. 840–850.
Weedman, S.D., A.L. Guber, and T. Engelder, 1992,
Pore pressure variation within the Tuscaloosa
trend: Morganza and Moore-Sams Fields, Louisiana
Gulf Coast: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 97,
p. 7193–7202.
Zoback, M.D., and J.H. Healy, 1984, Friction, faulting,
and in situ stress: Annals of Geophysics, v. 2,
p. 689–698.
 Maucione, D.T., and R.C. Surdam, 1997, Seismic response char-
acteristics of a regional-scale pressure compartment bound-
ary, Alberta Basin, Canada, in R.C. Surdam, ed., Seals, traps,
and the petroleum system: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 269–281.
Chapter 16
◆

Seismic Response Characteristics of a

Regional-Scale Pressure Compartment
Boundary, Alberta Basin, Canada
Debi T. Maucione
Exxon Exploration Company
Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

Ronald C. Surdam
Institute for Energy Research, University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Acoustic impedance contrast “dim spots” (previously described as the
“fuzzy effect” in Maucione, 1993) have been associated with anomalously
pressured hydrocarbon accumulations in the Powder River Basin of
Wyoming (Boyd et al., 1996a, b). It is important to know if the observations
made in the Powder River Basin apply to anomalously pressured hydrocar-
bon accumulations in other Rocky Mountain Laramide basins. In order to
test the applicability of these concepts in another basin, a ~58 km (36 mi)
long seismic profile from the Alberta Deep Basin of western Canada has
been constructed and analyzed. The profile crosses various pressure bound-
aries, but the reservoir geometry and seismic acquisition and processing
parameters remain nearly constant throughout the length of the profile.
These parameters may thus be eliminated as causes of seismic anomalies
that could falsely indicate anomalous pressures.
Anomalous pressures in the Alberta Deep Basin were originally identified
using well log and production information. However, using seismic data
acquired and processed to detect character response changes other than
those associated with structural features, one can easily observe deviation
from the expected increase in velocity with depth. Understanding the exact
character of anomalous seismic responses requires knowledge of some geo-
logic data, including rock properties (e.g., lithology and velocity) and depo-
sitional environments present in a similar geologic setting (i.e., another
Laramide basin). Additionally, integration of well log and production infor-
mation corroborates the seismic character response changes associated with
a regional-scale pressure boundary. However, it is important to note that
identification of areas of anomalous pressure using seismic data is not
dependent on well information.

269
270 Maucione and Surdam

In the present study, four seismic response characteristics of the seismic

data from the Alberta Deep Basin indicated that a regional-scale pressure
compartment boundary, separating areas of normal and anomalous pres-
sure, was present in the basin. Two of these characteristics can be
observed in a routine processing flow. The other two characteristics can
be observed only after an extremely detailed velocity analysis.

INTRODUCTION direction are of noticeably better quality, both in fre-

The application of seismic reflection data to identify
and delineate pressure boundaries has been discussed
for years (Pennebaker, 1968). Because it is a multivari-
ate problem, unique solutions are difficult to obtain.
For example, one could argue that a difference in seis-
mic velocity response is caused by a change in lithol-
ogy, results from fluid saturation characteristics, or
reflects a change in pressure regime. The answer is not
one of these options exclusively, but rather is a combi-
nation of factors. Previous work has shown that
regional-scale pressure boundaries can be determined
from well-log data (Wang, 1992; Jiao et al., 1994; Mau-
cione et al., 1994; Surdam and Jiao, 1994). Recent work
(Boyd et al., 1996a, b; Maucione, 1996) shows that the
same boundaries can be mapped by using surface seis-
mic data. The following discussion will illustrate one
successful example of pressure boundary description
by two-dimensional (2-D) seismic reflection data.
The study area is located in a portion of the Western
Canada Basin referred to as the Northwest Plains of
the Alberta Basin and includes coverage into a region
called the Deep Basin (Masters, 1984). A profile trend-
ing approximately south-southwest was constructed
over a distance of ~58 km (36 mi) through an area that
includes parts of the Wapiti contract (Figure 1). It is
immediately south and slightly east of the well-known
Elmworth Field (Masters, 1984).
METHODOLOGY
Two 120-fold, regional Vibroseis™ seismic lines
were combined with part of a third line to form a profile
~58 km (36 mi) in length. Table 1 shows representative
acquisition parameters for the three lines that form the
profile. The profile trends north-northeastward; it is at
an oblique angle to the basin’s structural axis (Figure
2). It also parallels nearly half of a gas/pressure profile
(Figure 3) constructed from well logs by Jiao and Sur-
dam (1996).
The northernmost regional seismic line, Line 1, is
most nearly oriented in the direction of the basin’s
structural strike. The middle seismic line, Line 2, is ori-
ented in the basin’s dip direction. The southernmost
regional line, Line 3, is again oriented nearly in the
basin’s strike direction. The data acquired in the dip
quency range and amplitude, than the data acquired
in the strike direction.
Because the pressure compartment boundary was
not determined to be associated with a reservoir inter-
val but rather with a thick shale sequence, a discussion
of resolution will not be given here. Using the three-
eighths wavelength criteria (Yilmaz, 1987) with an aver-
age velocity of 3333 m/sec and a frequency of 32 Hz,
the minimum detectable thickness is 39 m (128 ft).
Because the shale section is at least three times thicker
than the minimum detectable thickness, resolution of
the stratigraphic interval is not a problem (see Mau-
cione, 1996).
The 2-D seismic data were processed to preserve
amplitude information and to determine detailed
velocity functions. Line 3 contained industrial noise;
therefore, a reduced frequency range was passed
(12.5–17–45–60 Hz), compared with Lines 1 and 2
(8–12–65–85 Hz). A general description of the process-
ing flow is illustrated in Figure 4.
These lines were processed with nearly identical
steps. The seismic data were obtained in such a way as
to maintain identical field acquisition parameters. It is
encouraging to see consistent results from velocity
functions hand-selected every 125 m (410 ft) over a
distance of ~61 km (36 mi). The velocity functions at
the points where the seismic lines tie to each other
were checked to ensure that they were identical, in
order to prevent the formation of discontinuities when
the lines were tied together.
VARIATIONS IN SEISMIC CHARACTER
AS INDICATORS OF A PRESSURE
COMPARTMENT BOUNDARY
A number of conventional techniques can be used
in nonstandard ways to obtain detailed velocity and
stratigraphic information from seismic data. Changes
in velocity can signal changes in lithology, porosity,
density, pressure regime, fluid saturation, and temper-
ature (Sheriff, 1992). The 2-D seismic data such as that
used in this study can provide a continuous sampling
[common depth point spacing of 12.5 m (41 ft)] and
yield a more accurate picture of lateral variation than a
prediction made by interpolating between wells. The
detailed velocity function that was created during data
 Seismic Response Characteristics of a Regional-Scale Pressure Compartment Boundary 271

T Figure 1. Location map of

73 the study area with the
T CONTRACTS OF THE seismic profile indicated by
72
ELMWORTH ELMWORTH/WAPITI the thick line. Arrow points
CONTRACT AREA
Reserve based T
Grande 71
AREA along general line of seis-
Prairie mic profile. Modified from
T
70
Smith (1984).
N
T
69

WAPITI CONTRACT AREA T

Reserve based 68

T
67

T
British Columbia

66
Alberta

T
65
GOLD CREEK SOUTH
CONTRACT AREA T
Deliverability KARR
64
CONTRACT
AREA T
Deliverability 63
R 13 R 12 R 11 R 10 R9 R8 R7 R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1 W6

processing was hand-selected every 125 m (410 ft) hor- (3500–3900 m/sec) in the next 800 msec. This increase
izontally and at ~30-msec intervals vertically through is 40% of what it was in the first 800 msec. If this
the section of interest. When picking velocities from change were caused by a processing artifact, it would
semblance coherency plots, it is typically possible to occur at the same time on each line.
distinguish velocities at 30-msec intervals (see Mau-
cione, 1996, appendix D).
Table 1. Data Acquisition Parameters, Line 1.
Velocity Variations Company Enertec Geophysical
Stacking Velocity Services
Crew 176
During seismic processing, a change in the typical Date August 1993
stacking velocity analysis semblance plot can be Location T65-68N, R07W6
observed on individual gathers. In the region where Source Vibroseis, 4, Hemi 48, 30 m
the Lower Cretaceous is predominantly water satu- Sweeps 6/station, 8 sec, 12–90 Hz
rated and normally pressured, the velocity semblance Shooting Direction South-North
plot has more variation than in the anomalously pres- Spread Split: –3025 to –50 m,
sured, gas-saturated area (Figure 5). In Figure 5, the 50–3025 m
velocities in the Cretaceous section, ~1000–1500 msec, Gap 2 stations (50 m)
vary from 3400–4000 m/sec, but the velocities in Fig- Shot Point Interval 25 m
ure 6 are nearly constant, 3500–3600 m/sec, over the Seismometer Group
same time interval. Interval 25 m
A normal move-out (NMO) velocity was used to Seismometer Groups 9/group, inline, 3.125 m
correct the quasi/hyperbolic primary reflection to Seismometers Mark L15/L10, 14 Hz,
time alignment with zero source-receiver offset. For a 60% damping
horizontally stratified medium, the velocity required Amplifiers DFS-Vx2, 48 dB pre-amp
for NMO correction (also called stacking velocity), is gain
equal to the root mean squared (RMS) velocity (Yil- Filters low = out, high = 128 Hz
maz, 1987). Filter Ramps none
As seen in Figures 5 and 6, the typical velocity 60 Hz Notch out
range for rocks in the Cretaceous section is 3300–3600 Sample Rate 2 msec
m/sec. This corresponds to the blue-green portion of Record Length 4 sec
the velocity color scale in Figure 7. A marked color Line Length ~15.5 mi
gradient change occurs in the velocity function at Number of Traces 244,680
~800 msec. Whereas it took only 800 msec for the Maximum Fold 120
velocities to increase through half of the total spec- Disk File Size 1.06 Gb
trum (2500–3500 m/sec), the increase is much less
272 Maucione and Surdam

Figure 2. Schematic
diagram of the Deep Basin
location in relation to the
Disturbed Belt in Alberta,

a
British Columbi
Canada. From Smith (1984).

Alberta

Fort St. John

ELMWORTH/WAPITI
AREA
Grande Prairie

Edmonton
D
D

E
E
IS

P
T

BA
U
R

SI
B

\
E

N
D
BE

Calgary
LT

0 50 100 mi

0 100 km

However, as shown in Figures 7–9, the change does
not always occur at the same time. Figure 7 is a portion
of the velocity function for Line 1 plotted as stacking
velocity vs. two-way traveltime (TWTT). The color
scale represents velocities ranging from 2500 m/sec in
purple to 4500 m/sec in red. Figures 8 and 9 are the
velocity functions determined for lines 2 and 3. The
horizontal and vertical scales and the velocity color
gradient scale are the same as in Figure 7. The bound-
ary between normally pressured (magenta to blue-
green) and anomalously pressured (green to yellow)
sections can be seen in all these figures. Although the
general character of the velocity functions pictured in
Figures 7 to 9 is similar, there are some differences. For
instance, the boundary’s TWTT increases as one
moves south (toward the basin center ) along the pro-
file. Adjusting lines to individual datums is one reason
for such differences; Line 1 datum is 875 m (2870 ft), Line
2 datum is 1076 m (3530 ft), and Line 3 datum is 1090 m
(3580 ft). More significantly, the boundary's TWTT
increase is also consistent with the fact that these strati-
graphic units are more deeply buried as one moves
southward toward the basin axis (Line 1 to Line 3).
Interval Velocity
Interval velocity provides a useful correlation with
sonic logs when the velocity is made a function of
depth rather than TWTT. Using a smoothed gradient
 Seismic Response Characteristics of a Regional-Scale Pressure Compartment Boundary
S N
2000
4000
Depth, ft
1
6000
8000 2
3 2. Cadotte
10000
5 15 25
Distance, mi
Increasing Anomalous Pressure/Gas Saturation
method provided by the processing software, Pro-
MAX, the stacking velocity was used to calculate an
associated interval velocity. (The smoothed gradient
method will not create large velocity discontinuities
between blocked intervals, as does the Dix equation,
which calculates the velocity between two parallel
reflectors, given the associated stacking velocities.)
Figure 10 illustrates the same region and bound-
aries as in Figure 7, but it plots interval velocity vs.
depth. This display clearly shows that the interval
velocity (as determined by conversion of stacking
velocity vs. TWTT to interval velocity vs. depth)
increases steadily with depth until ~1500 m (4920 ft),
the predicted pressure compartment top boundary.
Figure 11 is a similar interval velocity vs. depth dis-
play for Line 3. Although the horizontal and vertical
scales are similar to those in Figure 10, the velocity
scale now ranges from 2500 to 5000 m/sec. Line 3 is
from a deeper portion of the basin, and it contains a
greater thickness of Tertiary cover. Both characteris-
tics contribute to the thicker section present in the
steadily increasing velocity function zone. In Figure
11, the normally increasing section is present from 0
to 2000 m (0–6560 ft) depth. The area shown in Figure
11 is ~19.4 km (12 mi) from that in Figure 10, but
despite this distance, a similar change in velocity
function occurs when crossing the top pressure com-
partment boundary.
Stacked Section
Comparison of a stacked seismic section that is dis-
played without automatic gain control (AGC) (Figure
12) with a seismic section that is displayed with AGC
(Figure 13) reveals an obvious lack of reflection ampli-
tude (no yellow or red present) in the upper normally
273
Figure 3. An anomalous
pressure/gas profile
constructed from sonic logs
(Jiao and Surdam, 1996).
The left half of the profile
parallels the seismic profile
in this study.
1 Cardium
3. Falher
35 45 55
pressured section (0–1150 msec). Since amplitude
information was preserved during processing (the
only amplitude corrections applied were a surface
amplitude correction and a spherical divergence cor-
rection), the correlation of this amplitude response
change with the location of the top of the regional-
scale anomalous pressure boundary is interesting. Jiao
and Surdam (1996; their figure 34) show that the top of
the anomalously pressured section is in the shale sec-
tion of the Upper Cretaceous between the Cardium
and Cadotte formations. When the top predicted by
the amplitude change in seismic response is converted
to depth, one calculates 1780 m (5842 ft), as compared
with ~1767 m (5900 ft) predicted from well logs (Mau-
cione, 1996).
INTEGRATION OF WELL
INFORMATION
In order to determine which stratigraphic interval is
associated with the pressure compartment boundary,
the thickness of geological units must be known. This
information was determined using well logs, which
are the best source available to this study. Ten wells
with log suites consisting of deep resistivity, gamma-
ray, sonic, bulk density, and compensated neutron
porosity logs were examined. A stratigraphic correla-
tion was constructed. Using sonic and density logs
and the tops determined by the stratigraphic correla-
tion, synthetic seismograms were generated for the
wells. Each well log was adjusted to its kelly bushing
(KB) as datum, and visually matched to the seismic
data. The reflection coefficient series was convolved
with a wavelet extracted from the final stacked section.
274 Maucione and Surdam

Patch and order master and slave traces

Filter, Spherical divergence correction
Surface consistent amplitude correction
Air blast attenuation (air wave and ground roll)
Trace edits

Load survey and navigation information

Establish geometry
CDP sort
Quality check CDP and shot gathers

First break mutes

Semblance velocity analysis to pick NMO velocities
3-D delay time refraction statics (incl. elev. statics)
Spiking and predictive decon, surface consistent
(shot and receiver)

Velocity analysis using constant velocity stacked gathers

Merge velocity functions
Smooth merged function; horiz.=50 CDPs, vert.=150 ms
Velocity analysis using IVA
Hand select function every 10 CDPs (125 m)
Residual statics correction using Maximum Power
Autostatics; two horizons

Offset bin sort

Common offset F-K DMO
IVA on DMO corrected CDPs
Final stack

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the processing flow used for this data. The data sets from all
three lines followed this path. CDP = common depth point; DMO = dip move-out; IVA =
integrated velocity analysis.

This section did not have automatic gain control
(AGC) applied, and the wavelet was extracted from
the seismic section where the well tied to the seismic
line. Using these well ties, the stratigraphic horizons
of interest were interpreted. This enables the identi-
fication of intervals in terms of both time and depth.
Another method of generating synthetic seismo-
grams was also used, but with less success (see Mau-
cione, 1996).
Many people avoid associating changes in stacking
velocity with geologic features. In this study, there is
good correlation between the predictions given by
interval velocity and those from sonic logs. Since inter-
val velocity was determined from stacking velocity,
and interval velocity can be associated with geologic
features, one can further associate stacking velocity
with geologic features in this study area.
It seems likely that there is a physical reason
beyond the changeover from mechanical compaction
to chemical compaction to account for this velocity
gradient change. The first change in gradient, at ~800
msec, can be identified in terms of stratigraphic units
 Seismic Response Characteristics of a Regional-Scale Pressure Compartment Boundary
Figure 5. A velocity coherence plot illustrating sem-
blance velocities in a region where the Lower
Cretaceous section (between arrows, 1000–1500
msec) is predominantly water saturated and normal-
ly pressured. Here the semblance velocities vary
between 3400 and 4000 m/sec.
by using the synthetic seismograms generated from
the well-log data. It corresponds to a thick shale sec-
tion in the Upper Cretaceous Kaskapau Formation. As
mentioned, this is a likely candidate for the pressure
compartment top boundary.
Another marked change in color gradient occurs at
~1600 msec. Integrated stratigraphic information indi-
cates that this change coincides with a major unconfor-
mity that separates the Cretaceous section from
the underlying Jurassic and older rocks. The pre-
Cretaceous section differs greatly in lithology from the
post-Jurassic because it contains abundant carbonates.
Carbonate rocks in this depth range that lack porosity
275
Figure 6. A velocity coherence plot similar to Figure
5, except from a region where the Lower Cretaceous
section (between arrows) is gas saturated and anom-
alously pressured. The velocity variation in the sec-
tion is virtually eliminated, and the average velocity
for this section is significantly lower than the equiv-
alent section in Figure 5.
have considerably faster stacking velocities than sand
and shale. The nearly solid red color “below” 1700
msec represents velocities of ≥4500 m/sec. Since a typ-
ical carbonate velocity is about 6000 m/sec, carbonates
would be seen in red using this velocity scale.
DISCUSSION
This paper presents four distinct methods of detect-
ing a pressure compartment boundary through use of
2-D reflection seismic data: examination of (1) stacked
sections, (2) velocity semblance coherency plots,
276 Maucione and Surdam

Figure 7. A portion of the

stacking velocity function
for Line 1. As seen in
Figures 5 and 6, velocities in
the Cretaceous section range
from 3300 to 3600 m/sec (the
blue-green portion of the
velocity color scale). A
marked color gradient
change occurs at 800 msec.
This change occurs in a
thick shale section of the
Upper Cretaceous Kaskapau
Formation. The top pressure
compartment boundary is
marked by the dotted line at
the blue-green color change
(~800 msec).

(3) stacking velocities, and (4) interval velocities. The
first two methods do not require extensive additional
work beyond a typical processing flow. Comparison
of the final stacked section display, with and without
AGC applied, is very simple; it requires only that the
data be processed to preserve amplitude and dis-
played without the additional scaling factors that are
usually applied to aid interpretation. The reduction in
velocity below the pressure boundary is easily observ-
able on semblance plots during processing if one takes
into consideration the particular characteristics that
constitute a “normal” difference in sand and shale
velocities and velocity responses in the study area. The
velocity difference between sands and shales is greatly
reduced (Figure 6), as shown by a lack of impedance
contrast, or a “dim spot.” Such observation does not
require time-intensive processing steps, such as
detailed velocity analysis or migration.
After integration of the well data, synthetic seismo-
grams, and seismic data, the location of this regional-
scale pressure compartment boundary is confirmed
and further refined. In the study area, the compart-
ment boundary corresponds to the Kaskapau shale
section in the Upper Cretaceous, where a marine
incursion is associated with a maximum flooding sur-
face and argillaceous sediments (Leckie, 1989). This

Figure 8. Illustration of the

top pressure compartment
boundary for a portion of
the stacking velocity func-
tion for Line 2. The vertical,
horizontal, and velocity
scales have been kept con-
stant.
 Seismic Response Characteristics of a Regional-Scale Pressure Compartment Boundary 277

Figure 9. Illustration of the

top pressure compartment
boundary for a portion of
the stacking velocity func-
tion for Line 3. The vertical,
horizontal, and velocity
scales have been kept
constant. Note that as one
moves southward in the
basin, Line 1 to Line 3,
the top pressure compart-
ment boundary occurs at
increasing travel time. This
is consistent with the fact
that as one approaches the
basin axis, the deeper
(increased travel time) the
stratigraphic unit is found.

event is likely synchronous with the early Turonian
maximum transgression of the Cretaceous Interior
Seaway evident on the eustatic curve (Haq et al., 1987).
This type of surface is a time line. While the surface
represents an event in time (Posamentier and Allen,
1994), it connects different stratigraphic units as deter-
mined by lithology (Figure 14). Thus, if the boundary
is actually a time surface, it will appear to cut across
traditional stratigraphic boundaries. This can explain
how a top compartment boundary can cut across
stratigraphy when its location is predicted by log data,
but appear horizontal when predicted by seismic data.
The maximum flooding surface in the Kaskapau
shale is present at 1500 m (4920 ft) in Figure 10 and
shown in Figure 11. Below this depth, the interval
velocity decreases slightly and then remains nearly
constant (at this scale) down through the rest of the
Cretaceous section. The lower interval velocities (yellow-
green color) present at ~2600–2700 m (8530–8860 ft)
depth correspond to the depth range of some of the
lower Falher member reservoir units. This lower inter-
val velocity area could indicate increased porosity, gas
saturation, or an increase in the amount of anomalous
pressure.

Figure 10. The same region

and boundaries as seen in
Figure 7, but with interval
velocity in terms of depth
instead of stacking velocity
in terms of time. Below the
top pressure compartment
boundary, shown by the
dotted line at 1500 m, the
interval velocity remains
constant or decreases
slightly. The area of
significantly lower interval
velocities (yellow-green)
corresponds to the depth of
the lower Falher units. This
lower-interval-velocity area
could indicate increased
porosity, gas saturation,
or increased anomalous
pressure.
278 Maucione and Surdam
Further comparison of Figures 10 and 11 indicates
that there is more variation in the interval velocity
below the top boundary of anomalous pressure in Fig-
ure 10 than in Figure 11. In fact, nearly horizontal
stripes of common velocity alternating between 4500
and 4000 m/sec are present in Figure 10. In contrast,
below the top boundary (~2000 m depth) in Figure 11,
the interval velocity remains nearly constant. This dif-
ference may be due to a less variable stratigraphic sec-
tion (Maucione, 1996). The densities in this part of the
Cretaceous section do not vary along the profile (shale
≈ 2.35, sand ≈ 2.65). The calculated porosities (Mau-
cione, 1996) average 10%–15% (includes all lithologies:
sand, shale, and coal). Farther south in this study area,
from Line 1 to Line 3, the lithology contains finer
grained constituents and is less varied, and sand depo-
sition has been more restricted, which also may result in
Figure 11. Representation similar
to that in Figure 9, with the interval
velocity function from a portion of
Line 3. A similar interval velocity
response is seen below the top
pressure compartment boundary.
less velocity variation. In addition, finer grained rocks
that are buried deeper have less bulk storage capacity,
and therefore give increased seismic velocities.
Picking a very detailed velocity function requires
extensive velocity analysis, as well as many iterations
and the use of several methods (Figure 4) to obtain the
most detailed and consistent results. However, if the
result of this additional effort leads to the reliable
identification of a feature such as the top of a pressure
compartment boundary, it is worthwhile. Recent stud-
ies have demonstrated that the largest hydrocarbon
reserves are located within ~610 m (2000 ft) of the top
of a pressure compartment boundary (Leach, 1994). If
seismic data can be used to target this highly success-
ful region near this top boundary before incurring the
additional expense of drilling a well, the economic
value of a prospect could be much improved.
Figure 12. A portion of
the final stacked section
along Line 1 displayed
without automatic gain
control (AGC) applica-
tion. Note that there is a
lack of reflection ampli-
tude (yellow and red
areas) from the surface
down to ~1200 msec.
The purple horizon is
the Cardium sandstone
and the green horizon
corresponds to the
Dunvegan Formation.
The change in reflec-
tion amplitude seen
here occurs between
these geologic units.
 Seismic Response Characteristics of a Regional-Scale Pressure Compartment Boundary 279

Figure 13. The same dia-

gram as in Figure 12, except
displayed with automatic
gain control (AGC) applied.
When AGC is used, the lack
of reflection amplitude in
the shallower section is not
seen. Although AGC is usu-
ally applied to data before
interpretation, this is one
example where comparison
of the stacked section with
and without AGC applied
can clearly illustrate a fun-
damental seismic response
characteristic— lack of
reflection amplitude.

High

7
6
5
4
3
2
1

A. Relative
7 Sea Level
6 Low
5 Maximum
4 Flooding
Time
Depth

Surface
3
2

Landward Seaward

B.
7

5
Time

4
Maximum Flooding Surface

Landward Seaward

Figure 14. Illustration of the difference between a maximum flooding surface represented in terms
of (A) depth and (B) time. (After Posamentier and Allen, 1994). If a boundary or seal is associated
with a maximum flooding surface, it will appear as a time line on a seismic section, but will seem
to cut across lithological boundaries established on the basis of traditional borehole
information such as core descriptions.
280 Maucione and Surdam
CONCLUSIONS
Recent studies of pressure compartments have
shown that the greatest amount of hydrocarbon
reserves are located within ~610 m (2000 ft) of the top
of a pressure compartment boundary (Leach, 1994).
Our study has illustrated four seismic response char-
acteristics that can be used to identify a pressure com-
partment boundary in the Alberta Deep Basin. There
are two necessary conditions for such identification.
First, the seismic data must be processed to preserve
amplitude information and examined without apply-
ing scaling factors such asAGC (automatic gain con-
trol). Second, the time and effort to determine an
extremely detailed velocity function may be necessary
to allow the other three observations: velocity sem-
blance coherency plots, stacking velocity, and interval
velocity variations. Although four variations are
shown here, one method, interval velocity, is superior
to the others. When the top boundary is determined
using interval velocities calculated from seismic
response, the top boundary can be consistently identi-
fied. The average error in the seismic prediction is only
8% of that of the sonic log interval velocity (Maucione,
1996). Thus, seismic interval velocities are reliable
indicators of a pressure compartment boundary in the
Alberta Deep Basin. If seismic data can be used to
delineate such a high-success region before drilling a
well, economic value is added to the prospect (Mau-
cione, 1996).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Funding for this study was provided by the Insti-
tute for Energy Research, University of Wyoming,
under Gas Research Institute Contract No. 5089-260-
1894. Canadian Hunter Exploration Ltd. provided the
seismic and well data used in this study, as well as
access to extensive databases for the Alberta Basin and
personal expertise. Ward-X Data Services Ltd. pro-
vided field tape copies of the seismic data. Advance
Geophysical Co. ProMAX 2-D was used to process the
seismic data, and GeoQuest IES was used for interpre-
tation. Special thanks go to Sharon Kubichek for her
help with seismic data processing.
REFERENCES CITED
Boyd, N.K., S.W. Kubichek, H.P. Heasler, S.B. Smith-
son, and R.C. Surdam, 1996a, Seismic response of
abnormally pressured gas compartments, Powder
River Basin, Wyoming, in R.C. Surdam, principal
investigator, Natural gas resource characterization
study of the Mesaverde Group in the Greater Green
River Basin, Wyoming: a strategic plan for the
exploitation of tight gas sands: Gas Research Insti-
tute Topical Report, p. 5–28.
Boyd, N.K., S.W. Kubichek, and S.B. Smithson, 1996b,
Remapping the boundary between gas-saturated
and water-saturated rocks in the Northeast Elm-
worth Field, Alberta Basin, in R.C. Surdam, principal
investigator, Natural gas resource characterization
study of the Mesaverde Group in the Greater Green
River Basin, Wyoming: a strategic plan for the
exploitation of tight gas sands: Gas Research Insti-
tute Topical Report, p. 53–72.
Haq, B.U., J. Hardenbol, and P.R. Vail, 1987, Chronol-
ogy of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic:
Science, v. 235, p. 1156–1167.
Jiao, Z.S., and R.C. Surdam, 1996, Pressure regime in
the vicinity of the Elmworth Area, Western Canada
Basin, in R.C. Surdam, principal investigator, Nat-
ural gas resource characterization study of the
Mesaverde Group in the Greater Green River Basin,
Wyoming: a strategic plan for the exploitation of
tight gas sands: Gas Research Institute Topical
Report, p. 29–40.
Jiao, Z.S., H.Q. Zhao, and R.C. Surdam, 1994, Pressure
compartmentalization in Cretaceous shales and
sandstones in the Washakie and Denver basins:
Annual report on contract No. 5089-260-1894, mul-
tidisciplinary analysis of pressure chambers in the
Powder River Basin, Wyoming and Montana: a
new, innovative exploitation strategy for gas accu-
mulations within pressure compartments: Chicago,
Gas Research Institute, p. 39–82.
Leach, W.G., 1994, Distribution of hydrocarbons in
abnormal pressure in south Louisiana, U.S.A., in
W.H. Fertl, R.E. Chapman, and R.F. Hotz, eds.,
Studies in abnormal pressures: developments in
petroleum science, 38: New York, Elsevier,
p. 391–428.
Leckie, D.A., 1989, Upper Zuni Sequence: Upper Cre-
taceous to Lower Tertiary, in B.D. Ricketts, ed.,
Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, a case history:
Calgary, Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists,
p. 269–281.
Masters, J.A., 1984, Lower Cretaceous oil and gas in
Western Canada, in J.A. Masters, ed., Elmworth,
case study of a deep basin gas field: AAPG Memoir
38, p. 1–33.
Maucione, D.T., 1993, Seismic reflection delineation of
abnormally pressured zones in the Powell Field of
the Powder River Basin, Wyoming: Master’s thesis,
University of Wyoming, Laramie, 143 p.
Maucione, D.T., 1996, Geologic significance and poten-
tial economic impact of seismic signatures in pres-
sure compartments: a study of the Cadotte and
Falher reservoirs in the Alberta Deep Basin,
Canada: Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, 297 p.
Maucione, D.T., V. Serebryakov, P. Valasek, Y. Wang,
and S.B. Smithson, 1994, A sonic log study of abnor-
mally pressured zones in the Powder River Basin of
Wyoming, in P. Ortoleva, ed., Basin compartments
and seals: AAPG Memoir 61, p. 333–348.
Pennebaker, L.S., Jr., 1968, Seismic data indicate depth,
magnitude of abnormal pressures: World Oil,
v. 166, no. 7, p. 73–77.
Posamentier, H., and G. Allen, 1994, Siliciclastic
sequence stratigraphy—concepts and applications:
AAPG Short Course 10 Notes, 89 p.
Sheriff, R.E., 1992, Petrophysical and geophysical
 Seismic Response Characteristics of a Regional-Scale Pressure Compartment Boundary
background basic petrophysics and geophysics, in
R. E. Sheriff, ed., Reservoir geophysics: Investiga-
tions in Geophysics 7, p. 37–49.
Smith, R.D., 1984, Gas reserves and production perfor-
mance of the Elmworth/Wapiti area of the Deep
Basin, in J.A. Masters, ed., Elmworth—case study
of a deep basin gas field: AAPG Memoir 38,
p. 153–172.
Surdam, R.C., and Z.S. Jiao, 1994, Executive summary:
anomalously pressured gas accumulations in Creta-
ceous Rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming:
281
annual report on contract No. 5089-260-1894, multi-
disciplinary analysis of pressure chambers in the
Powder River Basin, Wyoming and Montana: a
new, innovative exploitation strategy for gas accu-
mulations within pressure compartments: Chicago,
Gas Research Institute, p. 5–38.
Wang, Y., 1992, Velocity study of overpressured zones in
the Powder River Basin of Wyoming using sonic logs:
Master’s thesis, University of Wyoming, Laramie, 92 p.
Yilmaz, O., 1987, Seismic data processing: Tulsa, Soci-
ety of Exploration Geophysicists, 526 p.
 Surdam, R.C., 1997, A new paradigm for gas explo-
ration in anomalously pressured “tight gas sands”
in the Rocky Mountain Laramide Basins, in R.C.
Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum sys-
tem: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 283–298.
Chapter 17
◆

A New Paradigm for Gas Exploration in

Anomalously Pressured “Tight Gas Sands” in
the Rocky Mountain Laramide Basins
Ronald C. Surdam
Institute for Energy Research, University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
A significant portion of the Cretaceous shales in the Rocky Mountain
Laramide Basins (RMLB) are overpressured on a basinwide scale. The
change of pressure regime from normally pressured to overpressured coin-
cides with marked changes in the geochemical and geophysical properties of
the Cretaceous rock/fluid system. Sandstone bodies within the overpres-
sured shale section are subdivided stratigraphically and diagenetically into
relatively small, isolated, gas-saturated, anomalously pressured compart-
ments. The driving mechanism of the pressure compartmentalization is the
generation and storage of liquid hydrocarbons that subsequently react to
gas, converting the fluid-flow system to a multiphase regime in which capil-
larity controls permeability.
A new exploration paradigm and an exploitation strategy have been creat-
ed that significantly reduce exploration risk in the RMLB. Two elements cru-
cial to the development of prospects in the deep, gas-saturated portions of
the RMLB are (1) the determination and, if possible, three-dimensional eval-
uation of the pressure boundary between normal and anomalous pressure
regimes and (2) the detection and delineation of porosity/permeability
“sweet spots” (i.e., areas of enhanced storage capacity and deliverability) in
potential reservoir targets below this boundary. Certainly there are other
critical aspects, but completion of these two tasks is essential to the success-
ful exploration for the unconventional gas resources present in anomalously
pressured rock/fluid systems in the RMLB.

INTRODUCTION anomalously pressured (pressure gradient ≠0.40–

0.50 psi/ft) rock/fluid systems (Surdam et al., 1995,
Only recently have techniques been developed to 1997). Numerous gas discoveries made in the West-
examine in detail the boundary between normally ern Canada Basin in the last decade demonstrate that
pressured (pressure gradient = 0.40–0.50 psi/ft) and the delineation of this pressure boundary is an

283
284 Surdam
Figure 1. Index map showing the locations of most
of the Rocky Mountain Laramide Basins (RMLB).
important aspect in searching for unconventional gas
accumulations in basins characterized by anom-
alously pressured sections (Surdam et al., 1995). For
example, Leach (1994), using an enormous database
in the Louisiana Gulf Coast, demonstrated that the
majority of oil and gas discoveries are within 2000 ft
(610 m) of the top of the anomalous pressure (i.e., the
pressure boundary). Surdam et al. (1995) have shown
that 80% of the gas production from Cretaceous rocks
in the Rocky Mountain Laramide Basins (RMLB)
(Figure 1) is from an interval extending from the
pressure boundary down to 2000 ft (610 m) below
this boundary (Figure 2). Surdam et al. (1995) suggest
that establishing the shape of the top of the anom-
alously pressured rock can be critical in the detection
of commercial gas accumulations (Figure 3). Positive
relief on the pressure boundary surface commonly
can be correlated to commercial gas accumulations
(Figure 4).
In addition, unlike conventional gas accumulations
(e.g., with gas cap, oil leg, and oil/water contact),
accumulations associated with anomalously pres-
sured regimes (e.g., depletion drive) like those in the
RMLB (Figure 1) are not necessarily constrained by
either structural closure or stratigraphic pinch-out.
Consequently, when conventional exploration tech-
nology is used in the search for these unconventional
gas accumulations, results can be disappointing and
costly. Thus, delineating zones of enhanced storage
capacity (i.e., porosity) and deliverability (i.e., perme-
ability), or “sweet spots,” is also an important part of
the new exploration paradigm.
In order to demonstrate the applicability of a new
exploration paradigm, this chapter will focus specifi-
cally on the Cretaceous sandstones of the Mesaverde
Group in the Washakie Basin, but will be generally
applicable to all basins of the RMLB, which have very
similar fluid-flow characteristics. It is not the goal of
this chapter to provide a detailed overview of the pres-
sure regimes in the RMLB, or even in the Washakie
Basin. Previous research on the Mesaverde Group has
been published in annual and topical technical reports
available through the Gas Research Institute (GRI)
(Surdam et al., 1993, 1995; Iverson, 1995; Jaworoski et
al., 1995).
The aim of this paper is to (1) summarize previous
work on the delineation the pressure boundary in the
Washakie Basin, (2) discuss a methodology for detec-
tion and delineation of hydrocarbon production sweet
spots beneath the basinwide pressure boundaries in
Laramide basins, and, most importantly, (3) discuss
the new exploration paradigm (Figure 3) for basin-
center, or deep-basin gas, in the RMLB.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Washakie Basin is the easternmost subbasin of
the Greater Green River Basin (GGRB). The subbasin
is a symmetrical structural and topographic basin
bounded on the east by the Sierra Madre, on the
north by the Wamsutter arch, on the west by the Rock
Springs uplift, and on the south by Cherokee Ridge
(Figure 5). It is 42 mi (68 km) north-south and 54 mi
(87 km) east-west; its area is roughly 2200 mi 2 (3550
km2). The surface elevation in the basin ranges from
6100 to 8700 ft and averages 7000 ft (2130 m). The dip
of the Cretaceous strata into the basin is approxi-
mately 8° along the eastern flank and 15° along the
western flank (Love, 1970). Precambrian rocks lie at
depths of >32,000 ft (9750 m) at the center of the
Washakie Basin. Approximately 32,000 ft (9750 m) of
Cambrian through Tertiary sedimentary rocks are
present in the deeper part of the Washakie Basin
(Hale, 1961). The deepest part of the Upper Cretaceous
section, in the basin’s center, is at ~14,000 ft (4270 m)
depth (Roehler, 1969).
The present study is concerned with the Upper Cre-
taceous rocks in the basin, which include, from oldest to
youngest, the Mesaverde Group (especially the Almond
Formation), the Lewis Shale, the Fox Hills Sandstone,
and the Lance Formation. The Lewis Shale, which repre-
sents a major marine transgression, is ≤2700 ft (820 m)
thick, and is composed mainly of shale. The shale of the
lowermost Lewis is black, carbonaceous, and biotur-
bated; in places, shell debris is abundant. The Lewis sea
opened eastward into the main part of the North Ameri-
can Interior Seaway (Winn et al., 1985). The maximum
extent of the Lewis transgression was to areas of the
 A New Paradigm for Gas Exploration in Anomalously Pressured “Tight Gas Sands” 285
Distance to Top of Anomalous Pressure, ft

Distance to Top of Anomalous Pressure, ft

Cretaceous Major Gas Reservoir, Bighorn Basin Cretaceous Major Gas Reservoir, Powder River Basin
-5000 -5000
-4000 -4000
-3000 -3000
-2000 -2000
-1000 -1000
0 0
1000 1000
2000 2000
3000 3000
Reservoir: 22 Reservoir: 58
4000 CGP: 776 bcf 4000
CGP: 1456 bcf
5000 5000
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 200 400 600 800
Cumulative Gas Production, bcf Cumulative Gas Production, bcf
Distance to Top of Anomalous Pressure, ft

Distance to Top of Anomalous Pressure, ft

Cretaceous Major Gas Reservoir, Washakie Basin Cretaceous Major Gas Reservoir, Wind River Basin
-5000 -5000
-4000 -4000
-3000 -3000
-2000 -2000
-1000 -1000
0 0
1000 1000
2000 2000
3000 3000
Reservoir: 26 Reservoir: 32
4000 CGP: 1642 bcf 4000
CGP: 863 bcf
5000 5000
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Cumulative Gas Production, BCF Cumulative Gas Production, bcf

Figure 2. Plots of cumulative production vs. distance to the top of the anomalously pressured zone for major
gas reservoirs (>5 bcf) in the Washakie, Powder River, Bighorn, and Wind River basins. Plots indicate that
>80% of the gas production from Cretaceous rocks in these basins is from an interval extending from the pres-
sure compartment boundary down to 2000 ft (610 m) below the boundary.

Rock Springs uplift in the west and the Wind River PRESSURE BOUNDARY
uplift in the north. The Almond Formation is the
uppermost sandstone of the Mesaverde Group (Miller, The trend in acoustic velocity on sonic logs is a con-
1977). It was deposited in marginal-marine and ventional method used to detect anomalous pressure
marine environments during the final transgression of in shales (Powley, 1982, personal communication) and
the Cretaceous seaway into southwestern Wyoming. to delineate the pressure boundary. Typically, a
The Almond ranges in thickness from 300 to 800 ft marked decrease in velocity (i.e., increase in sonic-
(90–240 m) (Roehler, 1990), and is composed of sand- transit time) is interpreted as indicating lower effective
stone, siltstone, shale, and coal beds. rock stress and, hence, overpressuring (Figure 4). Pow-
Depositional patterns in the Upper Cretaceous ley (1982) cites many examples of pressure compart-
Mesaverde Group and the Lewis Shale show a contin- ments delineated on the basis of analyzing trends in
uous trend toward strandline irregularity. The upper transit time from sonic logs. Almost all of the sonic
part of the Lewis Shale and the Fox Hills Sandstone logs from the Washakie Basin have a marked decrease
represent the withdrawal of the Cretaceous seaway in velocity in the deeper part of the well logs similar to
from the area (Law et al., 1986). The overlying Lance that illustrated in Figure 4. Thus, the pressure bound-
Formation was deposited primarily in an alluvial- ary can be neatly mapped regionally using this
plain environment. In response to continued Laramide marked decrease in acoustic velocity.
deformation and the emergence of adjacent foreland In order to study the basinwide configuration of
uplifts, an internal drainage system developed on the overpressuring in the Washakie Basin, three west-east
Lance Formation. A similar trend in the eventual cross sections across the basin were constructed from
development of internal drainage during the Late Cre- 41 sonic logs filtered to include only fine-grained rocks
taceous has been noted in the Uinta Basin of Utah (defined as those intervals with gamma-ray log values
(Fouch et al., 1983). greater than 65° API). Figure 5 shows the locations of
286 Surdam

Figure 3. Schematic
UNCONVENTIONAL CONVENTIONAL
diagram illustrating the
two elements crucial to
hydrocarbon exploration
in gas-saturated, anom-
alously pressured rock:
(1) the pressure boundary
and (2) sweet spots. Gas
accumulations below the
pressure boundary are
al independent of structural
rm ure
no ss closure or stratigraphic
e
"Pressure Seal" pr pinch-out.

s
ou
al re
om su
an res
p "Sweet Spots"

these cross sections, which are denoted T13N, T15N, Velocity from Sonic Logs
and T17N for the townships they occupy. The three
cross sections are of almost equal length and run from
R102W to R91W.
Figure 6A–C provides a better understanding of the 2000
pressure regime in the Upper Cretaceous shales in the
Washakie Basin. These figures show a panel of sonic
logs with the velocities corrected for compaction using
the method outlined by Surdam et al. (1995; Figure 7). 4000
Surdam et al. (1995) outline in detail the detection and
delineation of the regional pressure boundary in this
basin. The following is a brief synopsis of the results
reported: 6000
Depth, m

• In all areas studied away from the Washakie

Basin margin, the onset of anomalous pressures
(the overpressure top) is marked by a transitional 8000
zone of slightly overpressured rocks, ~500–1500 ft
(~152–457 m) thick. It appears that overpressur-
ing within the Cretaceous shales developed
regionally as one basinwide compartment (Law, 10000
1984). In the Washakie Basin, the present-day
depth of the overpressure top ranges from 8000 to
10,000 ft (2440–3050 m).
• Cross section T13N (Figure 6A), in the southern 12000
part of the Washakie Basin, shows that the Upper
Cretaceous Almond Formation is buried to
>14,000 ft (4270 m) depth [equivalent elevation,
14000
–7000 ft (–2130 m)]. The top of overpressuring
cuts across structural and stratigraphic bound-
5000 3000
aries and is not horizontal, but has a wavy form. Velocity, m/s
Toward the west, the top of overpressuring occurs
at about 8000 ft (~2440 m) depth [equivalent ele- Figure 4. Plot of velocity vs. depth for the
vation, –1000 ft (–310 m)], and toward the east at McPherson Springs 14-2 well, Sec. 14, T13N, R94W,
9000 ft (~2745 m) depth [equivalent elevation, Washakie Basin.
 A New Paradigm for Gas Exploration in Anomalously Pressured “Tight Gas Sands” 287

108°

109° 28
N
27

26

25

SIN
24

GREAT DIVIDE BA
42°

ROCK
23

RA LIFT
UP
WL
INS
22

SPRINGS
Rawlins
21

Wamsutter 20
WAMSUTTE
N

R
ASI

AR 19
CH
RB

Rock Springs
IVE

18
EN R

Green River
T17N
GRE

UPLIFT

16

T15N

N
SI
BA
KI

E
14
HA
AS T13N
W

R 111 W 110 108 106 WYOMING 101 99 97 95 IDGE 93 91 89 R 87 W

41° R
T 24 CHEROKEE 12
COLORADO

3 20
R 25 EN R 18 E
UTAH

R 25 E 11
SAND
WAS
H
10
BAS IN

9
0 50 MILES
8

107°
7

Mesaverde Group outcrops

6

T
5
N

Figure 5. Location map of the sonic log profiles collected in the Washakie Basin. The cross sections shown are
T13N, T15N, and T17N.

–2000 ft (–610 m)]. In the eastern portion, some other cross sections. The boundary between nor-
lenticular compartments are shown. mal and anomalous pressure appears horizontal,
• Cross section T15N (Figure 6B), in the central part and occurs at ~11,000 ft (3350 m) depth [equiva-
of the basin, shows the Almond Formation is lent elevation, –2000 ft (–610 m)]. Some lenticular
buried down to 15,000 ft (4570 m) depth [equiva- compartments are shown.
lent elevation, –8000 ft (–2440 m)]. The top of over- • Viewed south to north, the top of overpressuring
pressuring is almost horizontal and occurs at in the Washakie Basin appears to be bowl-shaped,
~10,000 ft (3050 m) depth [equivalent elevation, deeper in the center and shallower at the north
–3000 ft (–910 m)]. and south margins.
• Cross section T17N (Figure 6C), in the northern
part of the basin near the Wamsutter arch, shows In summary, the top of overpressuring in the
that the Almond Formation is buried more shal- Washakie Basin is an uneven surface. Above the over-
lowly there than in other areas of the basin, at pressured zones, there is a transitional zone that is
<13,000 ft (3960 m) present-day depth [equivalent thicker in some areas than in others. Through the use
elevation, –6000 ft (–1830 m)]. The lower part of of the sonic-log panels, the top of the overpressured
the basin appears to narrow more than along the zone can be clearly determined. However, the bottom
288 Surdam

A Velocity Profile, T13N, Washakie Basin

Figure 6. Gridded
After Decompaction Correction velocity profiles, after
4000 W E
decompaction, derived
9500 from a panel of sonic
2000 9350 logs through the
9200 Lower Tertiary and
Upper Cretaceous

Velocity, ft/s
9050

Almo
Elevation, ft

0
8900
stratigraphic section in
the southern Washakie
nd 8750
Basin, Wyoming. (A)
-2000 8600
Decompacted velocity
8450
profile for cross
8300 section T13N, R102W-
-4000
8150 91W. (B) Decompacted
8000 velocity profile for
-6000 cross section T15N,
R102W-91W. (C)
1.8E4 5.4E4 9.0E4 1.3E5 1.6E5 2.0E5 2.3E5 2.7E5 3.1E5 3.4E5 Decompacted velocity
Distance, ft profile for cross
section T17N, R102W-
B Velocity Profile, T15N, After Decompaction
91W. For localities of
cross sections, see
W Washakie Basin, Wyoming E Figures 1–5.
4000

9500
2000 9250
9000

Velocity, ft/s
8750
Elevation, ft

0
8500
AL

8250
-2000
MO

8000
ND

ND

7750
O

-4000
M

7500
AL

7250
-6000 7000

-8000
1.8E4 5.4E4 9.0E4 1.3E5 1.6E5 2.0E5 2.3E5 2.7E5 3.1E5 3.4E5
Distance, ft

C Velocity Profile, T17N, Washakie Basin

4000 W After Decompaction Correction E
9500
2000 9350
9200
Velocity, ft/s

9050
Elevation, ft

0
8900
Al
m

8750
on
d

-2000 8600
8450
8300
-4000
8150
8000
-6000

1.8E4 5.4E4 9.0E4 1.3E5 1.6E5 2.0E5 2.3E5 2.7E5 3.1E5 3.4E5
Distance, ft
 A New Paradigm for Gas Exploration in Anomalously Pressured “Tight Gas Sands” 289

After Decompaction Correction Porosity (%)

0 10 20 30 40 50
0
0 Avg Porosity

2000

Depth (ft x 1000)

5
4000

10 Tight Gas Sand

6000 Sweet Spot
Depth, ft

8000
10000
PZone:
12000
11680-12934
Mesaverde
14000
16000
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Velocity, m/s
Figure 7. Plot of velocity vs. depth corrected for com-
paction for the McPherson Springs 14-2 well, Sec.
14, T13N, R94W, Washakie Basin. Cross-hatching
shows area where rocks are anomalously pressured
and gas saturated.
of the overpressured zone has not been identified
regionally, as only a few wells have been drilled through
the basinwide overpressured shale compartment in the
Washakie Basin. In the paper, the discussion is directed
at the exploration for gas beneath the pressure bound-
ary, in the gas-saturated portion of the column.
SWEET SPOTS
Sweet Spot Definition
As shown in Figure 3, the key to gas production
below the regional pressure boundary is the detection
and delineation of so-called “sweet spots.” In this
paper, sweet spots are defined roughly as those reser-
voir rocks that are characterized by porosity and per-
meability values greater than the average values for
tight sands at a specific depth interval. In other words,
sweet spot sandstones represent enhanced hydrocar-
bon storage and deliverability within a target reservoir
15
Figure 8. Plot of porosity vs. depth for Almond
sandstones from 2300 measurements in the
Washakie Basin. Shaded area shows a sweet spot in
these tight gas sandstones.
interval. Figure 8 is an example of sweet spot sand-
stones in the Almond Formation of the Washakie
Basin. As Iverson (1995) points out, these storage/
deliverability sweet spots translate directly into
enhanced hydrocarbon production.
To illustrate the importance of sweet spots to gas pro-
duction in anomalously pressured rocks, consider the
giant Hoadley gas field in the Western Canada Basin
(Figure 9). As Chiang (1984) pointed out, “[t]he discovery
of the Hoadley gas field not only adds a great amount of
gas reserve in Canada [~10% at 6–7 tcf] but strongly indi-
cates the overlooked potential of both tighter sand reser-
voir rock and sweet spots in it. Prior to discovery, the
Hoadley glauconitic sand bar had been penetrated by
hundreds of wells, none recognizing that this sand bar
complex contains a giant reserve of recoverable gas.” In
brief, the keys to unlocking the hydrocarbon reserves at
Hoadley (6–7 tcf of gas and 350–400 million bbl of con-
densate) were recognizing that (1) a regional pressure
boundary existed and (2) that sand ridges and conglom-
eratic beaches represented sweet spots below the pres-
sure boundary (Figure 10). Once explorationists
recognized these keys, the focus of their efforts shifted
from conventional hydrocarbon accumulations in struc-
tural and stratigraphic traps in the normally pressured,
water-saturated portion of the column to porosity/per-
meability sweet spots below the pressure boundary in
anomalously pressured, gas-saturated rock. The spectac-
ular results of this exploration shift are summarized in
Figure 10. The history of the giant Hoadley gas field dis-
covery is a beautiful example of the importance of sweet
spot delineation and detection when searching for gas
beneath the regional pressure boundary.
Sweet Spot Importance
The importance of porosity/permeability sweet spots
to production in basins characterized by regionally
290 Surdam

Northwest Territories NORMALLY

Gas Well
PRESSURED
mbia
Canadian Sand Ridge
Alberta Shield 0 10 mi
British Colu

UNDER
PRESSURED

Saskatchewan
Peace River

E
IN
Arch

AR
R

M
Elmworth BA
IER

N
RR

O
BA
F o R o Dis

O
G
Edmonton
o t ck

LA
ll s
hi y

o Hoadley
M

OVER
un
tu

ta

PRESSURED
\
rb

ins
ed

Milk River
Be

Calgary Figure 10. Map showing facies of the Hoadley barri-

lt

ss er bar complex. Well distribution is related to the

0 100 200 ra pressure boundaries. Modified from Chiang (1984).
Ar g
t
ee
ch

Miles
Sw

larger volumes than is possible from the sweet spot

Figure 9. Location map showing the largest gas
fields in the Alberta Basin of Canada. Modified
from Chiang (1984).
significant anomalous pressures is undeniable. This is
because sweet spots typically provide a large continu-
ous horizontal fluid conduit into an otherwise inacces-
sible large volume of low-permeability rock (e.g., tight
sandstone). Above the pressure boundary, the rocks
tend to be more porous and permeable due to less bur-
ial and, consequently, less cementation. Also, rocks
above the boundary tend to be in a single-phase fluid-
flow system; here, low-permeability rocks tend to be
flow barriers and not seals, except very locally and in
close proximity to conventional hydrocarbon accumu-
lations. In contrast, rocks below the pressure bound-
ary are in a multiphase fluid-flow system, and
rock-fluid characteristics regionally are dominated by
capillarity. As a consequence, low-permeability rocks
below the pressure boundary, including tight sands,
become capillary seals. Simply stated, these tight
sands give up their fluids only when their displace-
ment or threshold pressures are exceeded. Thus, the
importance of sweet spots becomes apparent; sweet
spots allow the fluid flow in the reservoir volume,
including both the sweet spot and adjacent tight
sands, to be manipulated. For example, pressure dif-
ferentials between a sweet spot and the adjacent tight
sands can be created such that displacement pressures
can be overcome, resulting in the drainage of much
alone. An example of this production mechanism is
shown in Figure 11. As a consequence, fields like the
Standard Draw-Echo Springs not only have produced
more gas than could be stored in the sweet sand (i.e.,
an Almond sandstone), but also show little or no
drawdown after 14 years of production (Figure 12;
Iverson and Surdam, 1995). Iverson (1995) discusses in
detail the significance of reservoir sweet spots to pro-
duction in the Washakie Basin.
Sweet Spot Characteristics
Sweet spots are characterized by important attri-
butes in addition to enhanced porosity and permeabil-
ity. One of these is the tendency of a particular
depositional facies to have the maximum sweet spot
potential in a formation. Typically, in every basin and
targeted reservoir interval, one or two specific deposi-
tional facies will comprise the porosity/permeability
sweet spot. In the Hoadley field, the best reservoir
facies are the eolian beach ridges and conglomeratic
beaches; in the Mesaverde Group in the Washakie
Basin, the group of marine bar sands collectively
known as the Upper Almond bar sands comprise the
sweet spot (Figure 13). Thus, one of the first steps in
evaluating targets for gas production beneath the pres-
sure boundary is the determination of which deposi-
tional facies has highest potential for enhanced storage
capacity and deliverability.
For those basins with production histories, the
size of the sweet spot targets can be determined by
 A New Paradigm for Gas Exploration in Anomalously Pressured “Tight Gas Sands”
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the production mechanism at work in a sweet spot. The threshold pressure of
the sands must be exceeded to allow gas to migrate from the tight, laminated sandstones to the adjacent
porous, permeable sweet sands.
constructing a potentiometric surface map of the basin
(Figure 14). Our potentiometric surface constructions
utilize pressures from drill-stem tests (DSTs). All
available nonzero data are used. Poor tests and data
are indicative of low-permeability rocks and tests too
short to accurately measure pressure. Good tests and
data are indicative of high-permeability rocks. Our
potentiometric surface maps delineate which rocks are
permeable and which are not, and give good approxi-
mations of the size of permeable sweet spots within
the basin of interest (Figure 14).
The degree to which the sweet spots are in fluid
continuity is of particular importance in evaluating
gas column heights and designing well stimulation
strategies. Fluid continuity commonly can be evalu-
ated by considering the initial production pressures of
all available reservoirs from a variety of fields vs.
depth (Figure 15). Typically, reservoirs above the pres-
sure boundary follow a hydrostatic gradient with
depth. Below the pressure boundary, reservoir sand-
stones follow either a single, but different, gradient
with depth, or they exhibit significant scatter.
When the sandstones follow a single gradient, it is
a pressure-depth gradient parallel to the regional
lithostatic gradient but shifted to much lower pres-
sures (Figure 15). In such a case, each reservoir below
291
Lewis Shale
PD = 2000 psi
Upper Almond Bar Sand
PD = 20 psi Pf = 5200 psi
(Pp = 3000 psi) φ = 12%
K = 0.2 md
Lower Almond
Laminated Sands
PD = 400 psi Pf = 5200 psi
(Pp = 4800 psi) φ = 3%
K = 0.002 md
In order for gas to move
from laminated sandstones
to "bar" sand ∆P > 400psi
the pressure boundary is affected not only by the
weight of the water column above the boundary but
also by the weight of the rock and fluid column from
the pressure boundary down to the depth of the reser-
voir. Under these conditions, there is no fluid continuity
between individual reservoirs; they are compartmental-
ized and isolated (Figure 15).
In contrast, if the reservoir sandstones show signifi-
cant scatter from a single gradient below the pressure
boundary, there is a much greater potential for fluid
continuity (connectivity) between individual reser-
voirs or fields. The tendency of connected reservoirs
below the pressure boundary to follow a gas gradient
with depth provides some evidence of this. In other
Laramide basins, we have noted that at and immedi-
ately below the pressure boundary, individual reser-
voirs follow a gas gradient before changing to a
sandstone pressure gradient with greater depth (Fig-
ure 15). This suggests that, in some basins, there is
more reservoir connectivity than at the top of the
anomalously pressured rock.
Relationship of Diagenesis to Sweet Spots
Yin and Surdam (1995) describe in detail the diage-
netic history of Almond Formation sandstones. The
 292 Surdam

1000 cementation (Yin and Surdam, 1995). In contrast, many

of the other depositional facies in the Almond sand-
Gas Production (Bscf/year)

stones lose significant intergranular volume during the

burial due to compaction and grain deformation. Volu-
number of wells metrically, the most damaging cements in Mesaverde
100 Group sandstones are quartz and late dolomite. Another
important factor in porosity damage is the presence and
deformation of ductile lithic framework grains (espe-
cially in shoreface sandstones).
10 To find those Almond sandstones that are charac-
terized by enhanced porosity (i.e., sweet spots), explo-
Champlin #226 rationists should target sandstones where quartz and
late dolomite cementation have been inhibited and
lithic framework grains are sparse. The tidal channel
1 sandstones contain less lithic grains and late dolomite
decline at -0.0545/yr
abandon at 30 MMscf/yr cement than the shoreface sandstones. In addition,
EUR = 55 Bscf at 2068 abundant early calcite cement in the tidal channel
sandstones provided an opportunity for enhancement
0.1 of porosity through its subsequent dissolution. Thus,
1980 1984 1988 1992 the tidal channel sandstones are usually associated
YEAR with permeability sweet spots. However, some quartz-
rich sandstones are tightly cemented by quartz over-
Figure 12. Plot of gas production vs. time showing growths at great depth, where both porosity and
that production has declined much less than expect- permeability have been seriously damaged.
ed in the Standard Draw area. The five most important processes that inhibit
cementation during diagenesis are as follows:

Almond sandstones and, for that matter, all Mesaverde • Grain-rimming clay rims (inhibition of quartz
Group sandstones lose porosity with progressive burial cementation)
at a greater rate than is typical for most sandstones (Fig- • Dissolution of early carbonate cements (preserva-
ure 8). This loss of porosity is the result of both mechan- tion of intergranular volume)
ical compaction and cementation. Some Almond • Overpressuring (compaction retardation)
sandstones (i.e., tidal channel) lose very little intergranu- • Liquid hydrocarbon accumulation (cementation
lar volume (i.e., ~ minus — cement porosity) with pro- abatement)
gressive burial and suffer porosity loss primarily from • Fracturing (porosity/permeability enhancement)

,
,,
,, , ,
,,,
,,,
,,,
,,
,,
W E Figure 13. Diagrammatic
A A'
Lance Fm. Medicine Bow Fm.
cross section showing

,,
,,,
,,,
restored Upper Cretaceous
Fox Hills Ss.

,,,,,
,,,,,, ,,,,
,,
Lewis Sh. rocks across northern Utah
Almond Fm. and southern Wyoming.
Eri Rocks of continental origin
Mesaverde Fm. cso
nS up are shaded; alluvial-plain
s. ro

,,,,,,
,,
,, ,,,
,,,
,,,,
MOXA G Allen Ridge Fm.
Rock d e and marine-shoreline, shelf,
ARCH Springs ver .
slope, and basin sandstone
Adaville Fm. Fm.
sa . Fm
Blair Fm. e ts and siltstone units are
M M

,,,,,,
,,,
,, ,,,,,,,,,
,,,
,,
k
tac shown by dot pattern;
ys marine shale and limestone
Ha
Hilliard Sh. Baxter Sh. are unpatterned. The loca-

,,,,,,,,,,,
Steele Sh. tion of subaerially formed
Fr

unconformities is indicated
on

by the squiggly line.

tie
rF

FEET
Modified from Roehler

,
Fron Niob

,,,,,,,,,
m

1500 tier F rara F

.

WY m. m. (1990).
A' 0 25 MILES
A
UT CO 0
APPROXIMATE SCALES

Marine siltstone and shale Marine and transitional marine sandstone

Non-marine sandstone, siltstone and shale Non-marine to estuarine sandstone

 A New Paradigm for Gas Exploration in Anomalously Pressured “Tight Gas Sands” 293

Figure 14. Contoured potentio-

Hydraulic metric surface of drill-stem test
data from the Mesaverde
Head (feet) Formation in the Washakie Basin.
10000 Modified from Heasler and
42.0° 9000 Surdam (1992).
8000
7000
6000
5000
Latitude

4000
41.5° 3000
2000
1000
0

41.0°

40.5°

109.0° 108.5° 108.0° 107.5° 107.0°

Longitude

Yin and Surdam (1995) have shown that in the Pressure, psi
Mesaverde Group sandstones (including the Almond 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
sandstones) in the Washakie Basin, clay coats are volu- 0
metrically insignificant and dissolution of carbonate Reservoir Pressure
cements is only locally important. Moreover, as Surdam "L Displacement Pressure
et al. (1995) have demonstrated, overpressuring of the ith
0.4

os
Mesaverde Group is coincident with maximum burial ta
33

tic
and the oil-to-gas reaction. As a consequence, overpres- "G
psi

ra
/ft

suring of these rocks occurs relatively late in the burial di

en
history, after the sandstones have suffered extensive 5000
t,
1.
cementation. Thus, fracturing and/or early migration of 0
ps
liquid hydrocarbons appear to be the two processes that i/f
t
Depth, ft

might play a role in enhancing porosity/permeability in

the Mesaverde Group sandstones in the Washakie Basin. Top of Anomalous
Pressure
Relationship of Fracturing and Sh
Regional Lineaments to Sweet Spots a
Pr le
10000 Sa es
Iverson (1995) used oil and gas production data to nd su "D
st re isp
classify oil and gas fields within the Washakie Basin on "
G lac
e ra em
into four categories. Cumulative production of >$500 Pr di
es en en
million constitutes a largest field; $50–$500 million, a su t t
re
significant field; $5–$50 million, a small field; and <$5 G
ra
million, a smallest field. di
en
Figure 16 shows the spatial relationship between t
the regional lineaments and the hydrocarbon accumu- 15000
lations. There is an obvious relationship between the
distribution of hydrocarbon accumulations in fields Figure 15. Pressure profile for the major Cretaceous gas
with >$5 million cumulative production and the most reservoir pressures in the Washakie Basin. Above the
prominent regional lineaments. For example, most of pressure boundary, the reservoir pressure follows a
the accumulations in these fields are either cut or ter- hydrostatic gradient. Below this boundary, the reser-
minated by the lineaments (Figure 16). Conversely, voir pressure is parallel to the regional lithostatic gradi-
few of the smallest fields (<$5 million) are associated ent, but is offset to lower pressures than this gradient.
with mapped regional lineaments (Figure 16).
A good illustration of this relationship is the hydro- Springs field (Figure 17). One lineament forms the
carbon accumulation at the Standard Draw-Echo northernmost limit of production in this field, whereas
294 Surdam
Figure 16. Map showing the relationship between major lineaments and oil/gas fields in the Washakie Basin.
Color coding represents the dollar value of cumulative production of each hydrocarbon field. Note the rela-
tionship between major fields and regional lineaments. Lineaments mark the position of regionally signifi-
cant shear zones characterized by recurrent movement.
a second parallel subsurface lineament cuts through a
saddle in the isopach map of the Almond bar sand-
stone. This saddle coincides with some of the most
productive wells in the field. The coincidence of thin-
ning of the bar sand and position of the geophysical
lineament suggests that basement faults were reacti-
vated during the deposition of the bar sand. The fact
that some hydrocarbon accumulations are bounded by
the lineaments further supports the hypothesis that a
significant cause-and-effect relationship exists
between the regional lineaments and the more signifi-
cant hydrocarbon accumulations in the Washakie
Basin (e.g., sweet spots).
Fracturing of reservoir sandstones adjacent to
these lineaments is prevalent (Dunn et al., 1995).
Moreover, the smaller scale fracturing adjacent to the
regionally prominent lineaments enhances perme-
ability (Figure 18; Dunn et al., 1995). Most impor-
tantly, Jaworowski et al. (1995) have demonstrated
that the regional lineaments and the associated
smaller scale fractures in adjacent sandstones typi-
cally have the same spatial orientation. There is little
doubt that fracturing has improved deliverability in
sweet spot sandstones, and has probably signifi-
cantly improved the connectivity of sweet spot sand-
stones and nearby tighter sandstones.
Relationship of Source Rocks to Sweet Spots
If the relationship between source rocks and reser-
voir rocks is examined, the significance of fracturing
becomes even more evident. García-González et al.
(1993a, b; 1997) demonstrated that coal is the major
source of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in the
Mesaverde Group sandstones in the Washakie Basin
by showing that (1) oil in the coal was generated
during the alteration of desmocollinite and liptinite
macerals into waxy oil and inertinite solid residue;
(2) the waxy oil was initially stored in porous struc-
tures and subsequently in vesicles as the coal
matured under increasing temperature; (3) primary
migration of the oil occurred as the generation of a
sufficient volume of waxy oil microfractured the vit-
rinite-semifusinite vesicles, interconnecting vesicles,
and pores; and (4) the thermal cracking of waxy oil
to gas generated a sufficient volume of gas to frac-
ture the vesiculated coal as pore pressure increased
and allowed expulsion and migration of hydrocar-
bons out of the coal.
Figure 19 summarizes the maturation scenario for
coals in the GGRB and elsewhere. The only way waxy
oil could have been expelled from the coal was either
by reacting to gas, as outlined above, or by tectonically
 A New Paradigm for Gas Exploration in Anomalously Pressured “Tight Gas Sands” 295

R95W R93W R91W Figure 17. Map showing

thickness of the Almond
RED DESERT BASIN bar sandstone in Standard
Sentinel Draw-Echo Springs. Open
Ridge circles indicate wells with
10 Bcf production. Two
regional lineaments from
T Figures 1–16 are shown.
22 The top lineament forms
the northern terminus. The

20
N
bottom lineament inter-
Siberia

40
sects the bar sand on a sad-
Ridge ge dle on the isopach; this
i es Chan
lineament correlates with
the better wells in the field.

10

t
Pinchou
Note that no correlation
T exists between the bar sand
30

0 thickness and the most

c

20
productive wells. Modified
Fa

N from Christiansen, 1995.

0
10

T
20

18
N

30
WASHAKIE BASIN

Gas fields
10' contour interval
0 3 6 miles
]
> 10 Bcf

fracturing the coal during the generation of the oil.
Only fracturing would have resulted in the migration
of oil into adjacent sandstones before diagenesis was
complete and the sandstones became cemented.
Regional lineaments characterized by recurrent move-
ment would have been ideal locations for the early
migration of liquid hydrocarbons out of coals into
adjacent sandstones, which would have resulted in
cementation abatement. Thus, early liquid hydrocar-
bon migration and fracturing (i.e., establishing
source/reservoir connection) were key elements in the
formation of reservoir sweet spots in the Mesaverde
Group sandstones of the Washakie Basin.
NEW EXPLORATION PARADIGM
On the basis of the present discussion of reservoir
sweet spots and previous discussion of pressure
regimes, regional lineaments, fractures, and stratigraphy
(Surdam et al., 1993) a new exploration paradigm has
been constructed that significantly reduces explo-
ration risk for for hydrocarbons in anomalously pres-
sured, gas-saturated rocks beneath the pressure
boundary in the Rocky Mountain Laramide Basins
(RMLB) (Figure 3).
This paradigm, which focuses on the Almond For-
mation in the Washakie Basin, can be used as a basis
for the construction of a new and more innovative
exploitation strategy for gas exploration in anom-
alously pressured “tight gas sands” in the RMLB. The
application of this paradigm depends on the comple-
tion of two crucial tasks: (1) determining and evaluat-
ing, in three dimensions, the boundary between
normal and anomalous pressure and (2) detecting and
delineating porosity/permeability sweet spots.
It is imperative to delineate the position of the
boundary between overlying, normally pressured
rock and the underlying, anomalously pressured rock,
because 80% of the cumulative gas production in each
296 Surdam
Figure 18. Partially cemented (quartz and kaolinite)
fracture in the Upper Almond bar sand, northern
end of the Echo Springs field, Wyoming.
basin of the RMLB comes from the stratigraphic
interval between the pressure boundary and 2000 ft
(610 m) below the boundary (Figure 2). The detection
of any three-dimensional relief on the pressure
boundary is also very important, particularly ele-
vated portions of the surface. For example, Davis
(1984) showed that in the Western Canada Basin,
major anomalously pressured gas accumulations are
associated with relief on the surface of the pressure
boundary. If the pressure boundary surface cuts
across stratigraphic units, it can serve nicely as a seal
or trap updip (Figure 3). Establishing the position of
the pressure boundary has also been shown to be
important in the Louisiana Gulf Coast, which, unlike
the RMLB, has experienced little or no uplift and ero-
sion, but does exhibit anomalous pressures (Leach,
1994). Thus, delineating the pressure boundary is
crucial to any exploration strategy in basins charac-
terized by an anomalously pressured stratigraphic
interval.
Another critical aspect of exploration for gas
below the regional pressure boundary in the RMLB
is the detection and delineation of reservoir sweet
spots, as they typically provide significant continu-
ous horizontal fluid conduits into otherwise inacces-
sible, large volumes of low-permeability rock (e.g.,
tight gas sands). The depositional settings of most of
the basins of the RMLB were highly variable, so a
wide variety of factors control the formation and
position of sweet spots in the anomalously pressured
section; very rarely is only a single factor responsible
for the development of a sweet spot (Surdam et al.,
1995). Because of this, sandstone reservoir systems in
the RMLB are characterized by multiphase fluid-
flow behavior and are dominated by capillarity and
relative permeability; these highly variable sands
give up their fluids only when their displacement
(threshold) pressures are exceeded. Thus, the impor-
tance of reservoir sweet spots becomes apparent;
sweet spots allow the pressure regime and, hence,
the fluid-flow system in the total reservoir volume
Immature Coal
Generation of oil
with storage
COAL or migration
With
Faulting
increasing thermal exposure
BURIAL
WET
GAS
Expulsion of
"wet gas"
(oil ⇒ gas)
DRY
GAS
Expulsion of
"dry gas"
(kerogen ⇒ gas)
Figure 19. Schematic diagram of a typical maturation
scenario for coal. Vertical sequence of blocks on the
left indicates maturation scenario in the absence of
fracturing; the block on the right indicates matura-
tion scenario after fracturing has occurred.
(including both the sweet spot and the adjacent tight
sands) to be manipulated during production.
The following methodology is used to translate
this new exploration paradigm into an exploration
strategy:
• Determination of the position of the pressure
boundary (i.e., the boundary between normal and
anomalous pressure regimes);
• Evaluation of the three-dimensional (3-D)
aspects of the pressure boundary surface, with
special emphasis on areas characterized by posi-
tive relief;
• Determination of which depositional facies have
the greatest potential for enhanced storage capac-
ity and deliverability below the pressure bound-
ary (i.e., which are sweet spots);
• Documentation of the potential determinative ele-
ments that control sweet spot development in the
targeted lithofacies (e.g., fractures, early migra-
tion of liquid hydrocarbons, chlorite rims, over-
pressuring, and dissolution of early carbonate
cement);
• Detection and delineation of sweet spots using
2-D and 3-D models of electric log response and
seismic data.
 A New Paradigm for Gas Exploration in Anomalously Pressured “Tight Gas Sands”
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded through the Gas Research
Institute under Contract No. 5091-221-2146. The origi-
nal document was reviewed by Kathy Kirkaldie.
Graphic assistance was provided by Allory Deiss.
REFERENCES CITED
Chiang, K.K., 1984, The giant Hoadley gas field, South
Central Alberta, in J. Masters, ed., Elmworth—case
study of a deep basin gas field: AAPG Memoir 38,
p. 297–313.
Christiansen, G.E., 1995, Factors influencing differen-
tial natural gas production from the upper Creta-
ceous Upper Almond Formation, Wamsutter arch
area, Sweetwater and Carbon counties, Wyoming:
Master’s thesis, University of Wyoming, Laramie,
Wyoming, 157 p.
Davis, T.B., 1984, Subsurface pressure profiles in gas-
saturated basins, in J.A. Masters, ed., Elmworth—
case study of a deep basin gas field: AAPG Memoir
38, p. 189–203.
Dunn, T.L., W.P. Iverson, B. Aguado, J. Humphreys,
and R.C. Surdam, 1995, Improvements to reservoir
evaluation and characterization, Almond Forma-
tion, Green River Basin, Wyoming, in An engineer-
ing and geologic evaluation of a horizontal gas well
completion in the Almond sandstone-Echo Springs
field, Greater Green River Basin, Wyoming: GRI
Topical Report GRI-95/0066, p. 31–70.
Fouch, T.D., T.F. Lawton, D.J. Nichols, W.B. Cashion,
and W.A. Cobban, 1983, Patterns and timing of syn-
orogenic sedimentation in Upper Cretaceous rocks
of central and northeast Utah, in M. Reynolds and
E. Dolly, eds., Mesozoic paleogeography of the
west-central United States: Rocky Mountain Section
of SEPM, Rocky Mountain Paleogeography Sympo-
sium 2, p. 305–336.
García-González, M., D.B. MacGowan, and R.C. Sur-
dam, 1993a, Mechanisms of petroleum generation
from coal, as evidenced from petrographic and
geochemical studies: examples from Almond
Formation coals in the Greater Green River Basin, in
S. Andrew and B. Strook, eds., Wyoming geology–
past, present and future: Casper, Wyoming,
Wyoming Geological Association Jubilee Anniver-
sary Guidebook, p. 311–324.
Garcia-González, M., D.B. MacGowan, and R.C. Sur-
dam, 1993b, Coal as a source rock of petroleum and
gas—a comparison between natural and artificial
maturation of the Almond Formation coals, Greater
Green River Basin in Wyoming, in D. Howell, ed.,
The future of energy gases: U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 1570, p. 405–437.
García-González, M., R.C. Surdam, and M.L. Lee, 1997,
Generation and expulsion of petroleum and gas from
Almond Formation coal, Greater Green River Basin,
Wyoming: AAPG Bulletin, v. 81, no. 1, p. 62–81.
Hale, L.A., 1961, Late Cretaceous (Montanan) stratig-
raphy, eastern Washakie Basin, Carbon County,
297
Wyoming, in Symposium of Late Cretaceous Rocky,
Wyoming and adjacent area: Wyoming Geological
Association 16th Annual Field Conference Guide-
book, p. 129–137.
Heasler, H.P., and R.C. Surdam, 1992, Pressure com-
partments in the Mesaverde Formation of the Green
River and Washakie basins, as determined from
drillstem test data, in C. Mullen, ed., Rediscover the
Rockies: Casper, Wyoming, Wyoming Geological
Association 43rd Annual Field Conference Guide-
book, p. 207–220.
Iverson, W.P., 1995, Detection and delineation of
porosity “sweet” zones in Mesaverde Group tight
gas sands, in Gas reservoir sweet spot detection and
delineation in Rocky Mountain Laramide Basins:
Chicago, Gas Research Institute, Topical Report No.
GRI-95/0443, Contract No. 5091-221-2146, p. 31–46.
Iverson, W.P., and R. Surdam, 1995, Tight gas sand
production from the Almond Formation, Washakie
Basin, Wyoming, Paper SPE 29559: Proceedings of
the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, Den-
ver, CO, March, 20–22, p. 163–176.
Jaworowski, C., R.C. Surdam, G. Christiansen,
M. Grout, H.P. Heasler, W.P. Iverson, R.S. Martin-
sen, M. Olson, and E. Verbeek, 1995, Natural frac-
tures and lineaments of the east-central Greater
Green River Basin: Chicago, Gas Research Institute,
Annual Report No. GRI-95/0306, Contract No.
5091-221-2146, 81 p.
Law, B.E., 1984, Relationships of source-rock, thermal
maturity, and overpressuring to gas generation and
occurrence in low-permeability Upper Cretaceous
and Lower Tertiary rocks, Greater Green River
Basin, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah, in J. Wood-
ward, F.F. Meissner, and J.L. Clayton, eds., Hydro-
carbon source rocks of the Greater Rocky Mountain
Region: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists,
p. 469–490.
Law, B.E., R.M. Pollastro, and C.W. Keighin, 1986,
Geologic characterization of low-permeability gas
reservoirs in selected wells, Greater Green River
Basin, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah, in C. Spencer
and R. Mast, eds., Geology of tight gas reservoirs:
AAPG Studies in Geology, v. 29, p. 253–269.
Leach, W.G., 1994, Distribution of hydrocarbons in
abnormal pressure in south Louisiana, U.S.A., in
W.H. Fertl, R.E. Chapman, and R.F. Hotz, eds.,
Studies in abnormal pressures: developments in
petroleum science, 38: New York, Elsevier,
p. 391–428.
Love, J.D., 1970, Cenozoic geology of the Granite
Mountains area, Central Wyoming: USGS Profes-
sional Paper 495-C, 154 p.
Miller, F.X., 1977, Biostratigraphic correlation of the
Mesaverde Group in southwestern Wyoming and
northern Colorado, in Exploration frontiers of the
central and southern Rockies: Rocky Mountain
Association of Geologists, p. 117–137.
Roehler, H.W., 1969, Stratigraphy and oil-shale
deposits of Eocene rocks in the Washakie Basin,
Wyoming: Wyoming Geological Association 21st
Annual Field Conference Guidebook, p. 197–206.
298 Surdam
Roehler, H.W., 1990, Stratigraphy of the Mesaverde
Group in the central and eastern Greater Green
River Basin, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah: U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 1508, 52 p.
Surdam, R.C., P. Yin, M. Garcia-González, D.B. Mac-
Gowan, H.P. Heasler, Z.S. Jiao, C. Jaworowski, R.S.
Martinsen, W.P. Iverson, J. Liu, D. Britton, and
G. Christiansen, 1993, Natural gas resource charac-
terization study of the Mesaverde Group in the
Greater Green River Basin: Chicago, Gas Research
Institute, Annual Report No. GRI-93/0423, Contract
No. 5091-221-2146, 452 p.
Surdam, R.C., Z.S. Jiao, and J. Liu, 1995, Anomalous
pressure regime in the Washakie Basin, Wyoming:
Chicago, Gas Research Institute, Topical Report No.
GRI-95/0390, Contract No. 5091-221-2146, 24 p.
Surdam, R.C., Z.S. Jiao, and H.P. Heasler, 1997, Anom-
alously pressured gas accumulations in Cretaceous
rocks of the Laramide Basins of Wyoming: A new
class of hydrocarbon accumulation, in R.C. Surdam,
ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum system: AAPG
Memoir 67, p. 199–222.
Winn, R.D., Jr., M.G. Bishop, and P.S. Gardner, 1985,
Lewis Shale, south-central Wyoming: shelf, delta
front, and turbidite sedimentation: Wyoming Geo-
logical Association 36th Annual Field Conference
Guidebook, p. 113–130.
Yin, P., and R.C. Surdam, 1995, Effects of diagenesis on
petrophysical properties of reservoir rocks, in
D. Jones, ed., Resources of southwestern Wyoming:
Cheyenne, Wyoming, Wyoming Geological Associa-
tion 1995 Field Conference Guidebook, p. 247–254.
 Reid, H.W., 1997, Evaluating seal facies permeability
and fluid content from drill-stem test data, in R.C.
Surdam, ed., Seals, traps, and the petroleum sys-
tem: AAPG Memoir 67, p. 299–312.

Appendix
◆

Evaluating Seal Facies Permeability and

Fluid Content from Drill-Stem Test Data
H.W. Reid
Hugh W. Reid & Associates, Ltd.
Calgary, Alberta, Canada

ABSTRACT
Many facies assumed to act as seals contain stringers of sand and silt that
are potential low-grade reservoir units. The drill-stem tests (DSTs) from
these formations generally show them to be “tight,” but many of the wells in
these “barrier” facies ultimately become commercial producers after comple-
tion. Calculation of the permeability and fluid content of these facies from
DSTs has not been a common practice because the facies often do not pro-
duce oil or gas when tested, making them unattractive to operators, and
because the analysis of DSTs from tight formations can be problematic.
However, knowing the permeability of seal facies helps operators determine
which of these “barriers” are the leakiest and, hence, are the best potential
exploration targets. In this study, the shape of the shut-in curve on pressure
charts and other subtle indications are used to more accurately assess the
reservoir quality of these neglected formations. This paper will attempt to
demonstrate that a good approximation of the leakage potential of these
facies can be made using published empirical correlations if the permeabili-
ty, as from a DST, is known.

INTRODUCTION Estimation of permeabilities of reservoir-quality

In many pinch-outs, lateral seals are not perfectly
solid shale; stringers of low permeability sand and silt
exist and are often oil stained (Figure 1A). If a well has
“missed the sand” and penetrated the barrier, it is not
likely to be cored. But any small stringer with a show
is often subjected to drill-stem test (DST) pressure
buildup analysis before abandoning, just to be sure it
does not contain potential pay (Figure 1B); the leakiest
stringer in a barrier controls the trap holding capacity.
For this reason, many DSTs of “tight” barrier facies
exist. These data are important because they can be
used to determine permeability, fluid content, and
leakage potential within a barrier facies.
rocks from DSTs are performed routinely, particularly
if hydrocarbons were produced during a test. How-
ever, the permeabilities of tighter barrier or seal facies
of traps are rarely computed from DSTs. This is
because (1) operators are generally not interested in
further investigation of unsuccessful tests from dry
holes and (2) there are many perceived difficulties in
performing DSTs in tight formations where the pres-
sure curves are not sufficiently stabilized for standard
Horner-type analyses. Several methods of analyzing
tight DSTs are currently used by DST service compa-
nies and usually involve the use of proprietary soft-
ware, but good approximation of permeability/
thickness (kh) can also be made using simpler “type

299
300 Reid

Kh
f low
in g ers o ilt exist,
Str and
s
ined
sand n oil sta
of t e

K = 0.01 md K = 0.10 md
Pd = 16 psi Pd = 61/2 psi
3 ft.
K = 0.03 md
K = 0.05 md
Pd = 51/2 psi
Pd = 1.3 psi
K = 0.07 md
Pd = 6 psi

DST 1
shale Rec. Gas
1 ft.
f t . shale Cut Mud
1

DST 2
Rec. Oil
Flecked Mud

Thin silts, sands or

conglomerates connect
individual channels

B
Figure 1. (A) Diagram of a typical sandstone pinch-out into a barrier facies;
inset shows interbedded sands in a lateral seal. Pd (displacement pressure) is
not directly proportional to K (permeability). It is also related to pore size dis-
tribution (Burdine, 1950). (B) Diagram showing missed potential pay in a bar-
rier facies. After Hill et al. (1961).

curves” designed specifically for DSTs (Crawford et
al., 1977).
Useful information is often extracted from even
the tightest DSTs. For example, the presence of resid-
ual nonhydrocarbons in the silty barrier facies,
updip from reservoir pinch-outs, may be detected
from “mud recovery DSTs,” even if no oil or gas was
produced on test. (The hydrocarbon presence may be
inferred from the configuration of the shut-in pres-
sure curve and other subtle indications.) In fact,
many times, a minor quantity of hydrocarbon is
produced from the tight sandstones; thus, the perme-
ability calculated from the DST is actually the perme-
ability effective to the hydrocarbon phase. Since we
 Liquid Tests Typical Gas Tests Typical Gas Rates
Recoveries or air blows
Shut-in pressures Minor mud recoveries
Type A show negligible rise Type A Air blows only
Rec. < 100' mud no gas to surface
Strong
Seal

Extremely Tight Zones Flow curves are Negligible kh

kh ≤ 0.1 md ft virtually horizontal kh ≤ 0.1 md ft

Very slow rise in Minor mud recoveries

Type B shut-in pressures Type B G.T.S. TSTM or
Rec. < 500' liquid <50 Mscf/D
mud, oil or water Fair
to Weak
Seal
Very Low kh Imperceptible rise Very Low kh
kh = 0.1 to 10 md ft in flow pressure kh = 0.1 to 10 md ft

Fairly rapid rise Measurable gas rates

Type C in shut in pressures Type C >500 Mscf/D
but static value Rec. 500' Some mud or condensate
not reached to 1000' liquid recovered

Low to Moderate kh Flow curves show Moderate to good kh

appreciable rise Normal
kh = 1 to 100 md ft kh = 10 to 100 md ft
Reservoir
Shut-in pressures Quality Gas rates over
Type D stabilize almost Type D 2 Mscf/D
immediately Rec. > 1000' liquid Usually only minor liquid
coproduced unless
very wet gas

High to Excellent kh Flow curve rises High kh

kh ≥ 100 md ft rapidly and almost
reaches shut in
pressure value

Figure 2. Model pressure charts showing an example of a liquid and a gas test for each of the following: strong seal rocks, fair to weak seal rocks,
and normal reservoir-quality rocks. Mscf/D= thousand standard cubic feet per day.
Evaluating Seal Facies Permeability and Fluid Content from Drill-Stem Test Data
301
302 Reid

values, in turn, the approximate trap holding capacity

Location #6-23-46-7 W4
DST #2
INSIDE REC. #8849
Depth 582.8
kh = 0.4 md ft
Over 5.5 ft sand ∴K = 0.07 md
Figure 3. Field example of a weak seal updip from
the Viking/Kinsella gas field, southern Alberta.
are interested in the potential for hydrocarbon leak-
age, not water leakage, the tight hydrocarbon tests
provide the most direct tool for this assessment. Once
the permeability effective to the hydrocarbon phase is
known, a range of possible displacement pressures can
be estimated from empirical correlations. From these
may be estimated for the nonleaky barriers. These data
have important implications; if a leak-prone seal is
known to contain residual oil, this may warrant mov-
ing updip to find the reservoir.
In addition, deep formation damage often leads to a
distortion of the shape of the DST shut-in pressure
curve, so that the DST looks tight, but in reality is not.
In fact, in some so-called tight tests in “barrier” facies,
the wells tested ultimately became commercial pro-
ducers after completion. Preexisting maps of the
“trap” have had to be changed somewhat, such that
the reservoir was enlarged and the “trapping” facies
shrank! Such a situation is not always unrewarding for
the geologist, who does not have a seal, but may have
just discovered potential missed pay to redrill. Thus, a
DST may reveal that the barrier facies is not a seal at all
but a potential low-grade reservoir.
RELIABILITY OF PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS DERIVED FROM
DRILL-STEM TESTS
In order to gain a qualitative estimate of permeabil-
ity/thickness, kh, and hence indirectly the leakage
potential of the facies, and seal capacity, Pd, from DSTs,
model pressure charts are shown (Figure 2). An exam-
ple of a liquid test and a gas test is shown for each of

A F
B F.S.I.P
I.S.I.P
1910 psi 1765 psi E

F.F.P
350 psi D P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9
C
base line
initial shut-in final flow final shutin
initial ∆t1
flow ∆t2
∆t3
∆t4
∆t5
∆t6
∆t7
∆t8
∆t9

Figure 4. Analysis of a DST using the Horner Method; the chart is measured
in detailed pressure/time increments.
 Evaluating Seal Facies Permeability and Fluid Content from Drill-Stem Test Data 303

2000 a
1910 Poorly developed SI curves
not suitable for standard
1800 Horner Analyses

1600 b
1536

1400 Straight line portion

Pws

“M” = 1910 - 1536

1200 = 374 psi/cycle

1000
Figure 6. Example of a DST of a tight seal showing
800 how the shut-in curve is not sufficiently built up to
reach the “straight-line” portion needed to compute
kh using the Horner method. SI = shut-in.
600
20 10 8 6 4 2 1
T = ∆t
∆t
seal (type B test), contains gas, and may presently be
Figure 5. Horner Plot constructed from a DST. leaking gas (Figure 3). These results are confirmed by
service company computations of kh = 0.4 md ft. and
>5.5 ft of sand, indicating k = 0.07 md.

The Horner Method

the following: rocks that constitute strong seals (type A
tests), rocks that constitute fair to weak seals (type B The Horner Method can be used to compute a
tests), and rocks of normal reservoir quality (type C quantitative kh value from a DST. The Horner Method
and D tests) (Figure 2). A field example (Figure 3) proceeds as follows:
from a barrier facies updip of the Viking/Kinsella gas
field in southern Alberta, Canada, is also shown; • A chart is read in detailed pressure/time incre-
(Cretaceous Viking Sand) pattern recognition indi- ments (Figure 4).
cates that the field example constitutes a fair to weak • A Horner Plot is constructed (Figure 5).

Core Figure 7. Saturation of area in

kabsolute DST drainage radius.
1.0
0.9
kr, relative permeability

0.8
DST ke = kro x ka
0.7
kro krw
0.6
0.5
0.4
keffective =
0.3
kabsolute x krelative
0.2
0.1 Swi

0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Sw, water saturation, fraction
Saturation of area
in DSTdrainage radius
304 Reid
1.0
Reduction of K
by an order
of magnitude 0.1
with time
Relative Permeability
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Water Saturation
35% Sw after 58% Sw
penetration when tested
by drill bit after 1 week
Figure 8. Relative permeability change in a low-
permeability gas zone tested one week after drilling.
• If a straight line develops, the slope is determined
and kh (if liquid) is computed as
162.6(q)( µ )(β )
kh =
m test upon penetration to obtain an accurate kh.
where q = flow rate in s.t.b./d (stock tank barrels per
day), µ = fluid viscosity in cp, β = the formation vol-
ume factor in r.b./s.t.b (reservoir barrels/stock tank
barrels) and m = slope of the Horner Plot psi/cycle. A
slightly altered formula is used for gas DSTs. This
method is really not suitable for DSTs of “tight” seals
because the shut-in curve is not sufficiently built up to
reach the “straight-line” portion necessary for this
technique (Figure 6). However, DST data can be ana-
lyzed using Type Curve Analysis (Crawford et al.,
1977).
There are certain advantages and disadvantages to
calculating permeability measurements from DST data
rather than from core data. DST values are frequently
less optimistic and more realistic than core-derived
numbers because a DST-derived permeability is an in-
situ value and is a permeability effective to the fluid
produced at the saturation that existed around the
well bore during the test (i.e., at reservoir saturation)
(Figure 7). However, if deep invasion occurs, such as
in this example of a low-permeability gas zone tested
one week after drilling (Figure 8), the DST-derived
permeability may be pessimistic. It is clear from this
field example from a Triassic sand in northeastern
British Columbia (Figure 9) that kh values can change
CHART FROM FIRST TEST ON PENETRATION
(GAS FLOW 45 Mscf/D)
INVASION
kh appears moderate
but evidence of damage
& DAMAGE
BECOMING
CHART FROM SECOND TEST 31 DAYS LATER
WORSE
(SAME INTERVAL; GAS FLOW T.S.T.M.)
WITH kh appears very low
no evidence of damage
TIME
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Figure 9. Drill-stem test charts from a Triassic sand
in northeast British Columbia; first test completed
on penetration, second test taken 31 days later.
with time. In the chart from the first test on penetra-
tion (gas flow 45 Mscf/D) of a Triassic sand in north-
east British Columbia (well location: 94-G-1-89-D), kh
appears to be moderate, but there is evidence of dam-
age (Figure 9). In the chart from the second test 31
days later in the same interval (gas flow too small to
measure), kh appears very low, and there is no evi-
dence of damage (Figure 9). Thus, a DST is simply a
“snapshot in time” of a changing kh, so one should
DETERMINING FLUID CONTENT AND
“SUBTLE” OIL IN SEALS
Fluid Content
Even though drill-stem tests (DSTs) of tight barri-
ers usually only produce mud, we can frequently
determine if hydrocarbons are present from the
shape of the shut-in curves in the pressure chart. So
far we have seen that permeability affects chart
shape, but thus far in all cases normal shut-in curves
have an ever-decreasing slope, regardless of the
effects of permeability (Figure 10). The pressure
change (dP/dT) is directly proportional to the flow
rate (q): dP/dT ∝ q (where single-phase fluid is pro-
duced). Thus, as the well “slows down” on closing
the valve, the shut-in pressure slope decelerates.
This ever-decreasing slope (dP/dT) (Figure 11) exists
because downhole, after the valve is closed the well
“slows down,” but still flows into the space below
the packer and closed valve (Figure 12). In most
shut-in periods, there is ever-decreasing flow into a
closed volume.
However, some shut-in curves are not ever-
decreasing slopes. Sometimes a constant slope (type
 Evaluating Seal Facies Permeability and Fluid Content from Drill-Stem Test Data 305

The shut-in curves Figure 10. Pressure charts

display ever- showing that usually shut-in
decreasing slope curves have an ever-decreasing
slope.

Permeability Type

Excellent

FSI 2nd ISI

1st flow
flow

Good

FSI 2nd ISI

1st flow
flow

Relatively low

FSI 2nd ISI

1st flow
flow

Very poor

FSI 2nd ISI

1st flow
flow

A curve) will result from severe shallow damage or
deep formation damage (Figure 13). An S-shaped
curve results either when two phases are present in
the formation or in the case of gas zone cleanup
(Figure 13). Thus, even if only mud is produced by
the DSTs, the shape of the shut-in pressure curve
can often reveal whether hydrocarbons are present
in the rock.
“Subtle” Oil in Seals
An S curve indicates that oil is potentially present
in the reservoir because of the pore geometry and
relative permeability problems encountered during
testing. The early acceleration and subsequent decel-
eration of the S shape result from gas blocking pore
throat spaces and then going back to solution, which
 ,,

yy
z
|{{
306 Reid

,,

zyy
|{{
TOOL SCHEMATIC
Ever-decreasing slope


|{{

,,
zyy
Shut-in valve closed

,,

zyy
|{{
Figure 11. Field example shut-in curve with an ever-
decreasing slope. Main valve open

Bypass valve closed

distorts the shut-in curve. More specifically, an S


|{{

,,
zyy
curve develops as follows (Figure 14). Before the tool
is opened, mud pressure in the annulus exceeds the
saturation pressure of the oil, so all of the gas
remains dissolved in the oil. After the tool is opened,
the reservoir is exposed to the atmosphere, so gas
breaks out suddenly in the oil, in the pores, and in

the pore throats. In severe cases, if gas breaks out in
narrow pore throats, it breaks the connecting oil fila-
ment, blocking the oil flow (“gas block”) and causing
relative permeability problems. Gas flows preferen-
tially, but often at a negligible rate. Finally, during
the shut-in periods, as the pressure rises over the
bubble point, most gas is redissolved or is in a very
compressed state, and the shut-in curve resumes its
usual deceleration. The S-curve DSTs are common in
tight barrier facies because the S shape is more pro-
nounced in lower kh rock. Figure 15 shows a range of
S curves; the S shape becomes more pronounced as
permeability decreases.
ONE MAN’S SEAL MAY BE ANOTHER
MAN’S RESERVOIR! (CASE HISTORIES)
Case 1: Economics (Northern Alberta)
There are two cases in which a barrier updip may
actually contain a producible reservoir (Almon and
Reid, 1990). The first case is when low-grade silt/
sand developments in barriers updip often can pro-
duce marginal oil wells that are economic if the
price of oil rises. Figure 16 is a typical, very poor
looking DST from northern Alberta with develop-
ment of only one part of the S curve. Despite disap-
pointing recovery, the subtle S shape indicated that
oil could be present in this barrier. In order to test
this hypothesis, the operator stimulated the well in
the following manner:
• Treatment: 500 gal acid; fractured 15,000 lb sand
gel & XW
• Initial production: 33 bbl/d (barrels of oil per day)

,,

zyy
|{{
Sump
In most shut-in periods
Volume
there is ever-decreasing
(Rat hole
flow into a closed volume
plus internal
tool volume)
Pressure value
Figure 12. Tool schematic showing how in most
shut-in periods, there is ever-decreasing flow into a
closed volume.
The cumulative production of this well over 17
years was 9985 s.t.b. oil, 2850 s.t.b. water, and 41.5
Mscf of gas. While this well is not economically viable
in Alberta, it might be commercially productive as a
stripper well in the eastern United States (depending
on the oil location and the price of oil). These findings
are typical of many such tests of poor-quality stringers
in barriers that can be considered reservoir rocks. If we
take into account that the average U.S. oil well rate is
only 14 bbl/d and the average Canadian oil well rate
is 40 bbl/d (Society of Petroleum Engineers, 1988), the
importance of such stringers is evident.
Case 2: Cinderella Story (North Dakota)
The second case in which a barrier acts as a reser-
voir rock occurs when a high kh zone is mistakenly
perceived to be tight, but actually contains commer-
cially viable reservoirs. The DST from this zone (Fig-
ure 17) is similar to that of Case 1, and has a poorly
developed S curve. The Horner Plot also indicates
 Evaluating Seal Facies Permeability and Fluid Content from Drill-Stem Test Data
Type A
Constant slopes
Ever decreasing
slope
Type B
'S' shaped slopes
Ever-increasing
slope
that the formation is tight and not of reservoir qual-
ity (Figure 18). However, sample examination shows
that the unit has big pores and very small pore
throats, conditions that are ideal for gas block (Figure
19). In addition, the Pitman diagram (Figure 20) shows
isolated large pores connected by tiny micropores.
While many pore throats are only 0.02 µ and represent
micropore throats in the matrix, some pore throats are
0.25–0.5 µ and represent big, intergranular throats
(Figure 21). The ratio of microgranular to intragranu-
lar pores is 1:1 in the unit matrix (Figure 20).
Since the DST indicates the unit is very tight, but
we know it has high permeability, some other factor
must account for the overly pessimistic DST values.
It is likely that this discrepancy has been caused by
gas block; work by Exxon shows that mobile gas sat-
uration in a case like this is 10%–20% (R.M. McKin-
ley, 1990, personal communication). In fact, the
relative permeability diagram (Figure 22) indicates
that the permeability and deliverability values fore-
cast by standard DST computations are two to five
times less than the actual values due to gas block
alone (physical well-bore damage can increase this
discrepancy as well).
The difficulty at this point becomes how to stop
gas breakout when retesting the well. In order to
accomplish this in the example, the flowing pres-
sure was kept above bubble point by utilizing nitro-
gen as a cushion. The DST chart of the retest (Figure
23) indicates high kh, and the recovery was 713 ft
(217 m) of highly gas-cut oil and 360 ft (110 m) of
gas-cut saltwater in the unit. The Horner Plot shows
that kh is 45 md ft. The well was completed, and the
307
Figure 13. Shut-in
curves that do not have
ever-decreasing slopes.
Causes The type A curve has a con-
stant slope and results from
Severe 'shallow' severe shallow damage or
damage or deep formation damage.
'deep' damage The type B curve has an S-
shaped slope and results
from the presence of two
phases in the reservoir or in
the case of gas zone
cleanup.
Causes
Two phases
present or Gas
zone cleanup
(usually oil)
initial production of 408 bbl/d (85% oil) was clearly
economic. Based on this and similar examples, it is
advisable when dealing with a tight S curve on a
DST to look at the pore geometry before assuming
the reservoir has been missed, and to consider
using a gas cushion above saturation pressure on a
retest to prevent gas block in the oil in the pore
space immediately surrounding the well bore.
CAUTIONARY NOTES
Not all DST charts displaying an S curve are
indicative of oil. Some can be caused by residual,
nonproducible oil in the tested unit (Figure 24). The
saturation of these units is such that water would be
produced if they were completed (in 10% of the
cases, e.g., transition zones). However, these tests
indicate that operators are not far from oil; they
should move downdip from a waste zone and updip
from a transition zone in order to locate the oil reser-
voir. Other tight S-curve DST charts are actually
caused by the presence of gas, not oil, in the reser-
voir (Figure 25). Gas-bearing zones can be differenti-
ated from oil-bearing zones by observing gas rates.
If a gas zone is deeply damaged and is “cleaning
up,” the rates are increasing; as the well is shut in,
the pressure change will accelerate also, since dP/dT
∝ q, yielding the accelerating part of the S shape
shut-in curve.
We can learn about the trapping and the leakage
potential of the barrier indirectly from a DST. For
example, if we have a DST of a leaky stringer updip
308 Reid

Rel K Diagram
100
Pore Rock grain

10
Above Ps So = 0.75
∴ Gas Dissolved Kro

Kr
Kro = 0.6
1.0

0.1
1 So 75% 100

Resumed deceleration

Ps saturation pressure DST chart

Early acceleration

Pre- ISI 2nd flow FSI

flow Result: GTS - TSTM
Rec. OCM

100

10
Below Ps So = 0.20 Krg
∴ Solution Gas
Kr

Kro = 0.07 Kro

Breakout 1.0
but
Sg = 0.8
Krg = 0.7
0.1
125% S 100
(75% gas) o
100 Sg 1

Figure 14. Diagram showing the development of an S curve in the case of a test of an oil zone with a pore
geometry of big pores and small throats.

of a pinch-out and we know k, we can estimate the
displacement pressure and from this value estimate
how much the downdip hydrocarbon height, Z, is in
the reservoir (Figure 26). In order to find the dis-
placement pressure using a DST in a leaky stringer
updip of a “sure shot” pinch-out, an estimate, n, of
the pore-size distribution index is made (Burdine et
al., 1950). Since in this example the lithology is a
silty, dirty sand, n will vary between 2.25 and 3.5
(Petroleum Research Corp. A-5, 1959). Using the
chart shown in Figure 27, we enter k as 0.4, then Pd =
0.25–1.5 psi. Next, we find the subsurface oil and
water gradients, which in this example are 51° API
oil at 4000 psi and 160°F = 0.246 psi/ft, and 200,000
mg/L water at 4000 psi and 160°F = 0.481 psi/ft
(Petroleum Research Corp., 1960, figures 3,4).
Finally, we calculate the maximum oil column (Zmax)
that can be supported under these conditions,
 Evaluating Seal Facies Permeability and Fluid Content from Drill-Stem Test Data 309

'S' shape more

pronounced as
permeability Subtle 'S'
decreases (good permeability)

Broad
sweeping 'S'
(lower
permeability)

Only part of 'S'

developed
(apparent poor
permeability)

Figure 15. Diagram relating a range of S curves to permeability.

accounting for any variations in interfacial tension, This prospect is unlikely to hold an economic oil
which in this case is column unless the hydrodynamics are favorable,
Pd 1.5 i.e., there is strong downdip flow (e.g., as in the
Zmax = = = 7 ft Joffre oil field, in the Viking Sand, Alberta), or the
∇ w – ∇ o (0.481 – 0.246) leaky stringer is not continuous to the updip edge of
the reservoir. (The chart assumes an oil/water inter-
where Zmax = maximum oil column (ft), Pd = dis- facial tension of 10 dynes/cm; since this could vary
placement pressure (psi), ∇w = subsurface water gra- from 3 times (30) to 0.5 times (5.0), P d and Z also
dient (psi/ft), and ∇0 = subsurface oil gradient (psi/ft). vary directly.)
310 Reid

5168 5172

3520

1303

60 88

REC 1438' GAS

120' GAS AND WATER CUT MUD
SAMPLE CHAMBERS CONTENTS 1100 cc OIL, 1220 cc MUD,
DST: Rec 55 ft mud. VWIP dead after 15 min. 1.5 cu ft GAS 525 psi

Figure 16. A typical, poor DST with development of

only one part of the S curve from a marginally pro- Figure 17. Another DST with a poorly developed S
ductive unit. VWIP = very weak initial puff. curve from a commercially viable reservoir rock.
Arrows indicate early accelerating and late deceler-
ating shut-in curve displaying the S shape.

3500
direction of flow
Horner Plot
3000
Too tight for straight
line to be developed Water Gas Water
2500
large capillary force,
Pressure (psi)

small pore radius

2000 small capillary force,
large pore radius

1500 Figure 19. Schematic diagram illustrating large

Final pores and small pore throats; these are ideal condi-
tions for gas block.
1000
Initial

500 REFERENCES CITED

Almon, W. R., and H.W. Reid, 1990, Geology and DST
analysis: an integrated approach to identify forma-
0
10 7 5 4 3 2 1 tion damage and bypassed pay using pore geome-
try, clay mineralogy, and pressure behaviour:
Calgary, Canada, Canadian Society of Petroleum
Time (T + ∆t)/∆t Geologists, v. 17, p. 1–2.
Burdine, N., L.S. Gournay, and P.P. Reichertz, 1950,
Figure 18. Horner Plot of the DST shown in Figure 17. Pore size distribution of petroleum reservoir rocks:
AIME Petroleum Br. Trans., v. 189, T.P. 2893,
p. 195–204.
Crawford, G.E., A.E. Pierce, and R.M. McKinley, 1977,
 Evaluating Seal Facies Permeability and Fluid Content from Drill-Stem Test Data 311

Intergranular
50.0

Pore Throat Size Distribution

40.0

Percent pore space

30.0 29.3

20.0 19.1

11.3
10.0 9.12
5.35 5.88 5.90
2.51 2.52 2.51
1.00 2.03 0.83 0.32 1.00
0.0
0.00 .021 .024 .027 .030 .035 .042 .053 .061 .071 .085 .107 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.52
Pore throat radius, microns

Figure 21. Pore-throat size distribution of the forma-

tion tested.
Microgranular Intragranular

Figure 20. Pitman diagram for the rock tested by the

DST shown in Figure 17. DST Chart, Retest

5168 5188
1.0 485
preflow
Krg second flow
0.8 high kh
Productivity 2860 2930 ISI buildup 2923
Increase by
0.6 0.6 1.6 cushion press 1834
Krv
Krg

above bubble point 1565

0.4 Kro to
cushion
bleed-off 440
0.2 ~0.2 5
times RECOV: 713' HIGHLY GAS CUT OIL
(if Gas Block 360' GAS CUT SALT WATER
0 removed)
0 20 40 60 80 90 100 HORNER PLOT SHOWS kh = 45 md ft
Liquid saturation (Sw + So)
Figure 23. Drill-stem test chart of the retest, indicat-
ing that 713 ft (217 m) of recoverable, highly gas-cut
Figure 22. Relative permeability diagram for the zone oil and 360 ft (110 m) of gas-cut saltwater are present
tested, indicating that the permeability and deliver- in the unit. The Horner Plot shows kh = 45 md ft.
ability values predicted by standard DST computa-
tions are two to five times less than the actual values.

Type curves for McKinley analysis of drill-stem text
data: SPE paper 6754 presented at 52nd Annual Fall
Conference of SPE of AIME, Denver, Colorado, Oct.
9–12.
Hill, V.G., W.A. Colburn, and J.W. Knight, 1961,
Reducing oil finding costs by use of hydrodynamic
evaluations, in Economics of petroleum explo-
ration, development, and property evaluation: New
Jersey, Prentice Hall, p. 38–69.
Petroleum Research Corp., 1959, Reservoir pinch-
outs—sieves or seals?: Denver, Colorado, Researach
Report A-5 (unpublished), September, 58 p.
Petroleum Research Corp., 1960, Geologic significance
of pressure gradients, capillarity, and relative per-
meability: Denver, Colorado, Research Report A-0
(unpublished), 60 p.
Society of Petroleum Engineers, 1988, Energy focus:
Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 40, no. 2, p. 168.
312 Reid

'S' SHAPED CURVE OF WATER ZONE 'S' SHAPED CURVE OF DAMAGED GAS ZONES
(RESIDUAL OIL) – 'CLEANING UP'

Recovery: 64 m mud; no gas to surface

DST Flow Rate: 12 bbl/d (1.9 m3/d)
Post-Completion Rate: Swabbed 'dead' SW @ 40 bbl/d (6.4 m3/d) Recovery: 19 m mud
DST Flow Rate: Gas flow rate gradually increasing
to 25 Mscf/D (700 m3/d)
Figure 24. S-shaped curve of water zone caused by Post-Completion Rate: 1.7 mmscf/d (47x103 m3/d)
residual, nonproducible oil in the tested unit. after 5000 gal. acid

y
,zyyy ,
y
Figure 25. S-shaped curve caused by gas in the reser-

,



y
z
{
voir, not oil (i.e., damaged gas zone cleaning up).

,,,
zzz


z
,


y
{
| ,




y
z
{
| |
|,
z{
y


z


y
, y
,



z
{
|
50.0

z





zzz
||| ,,,
yyy


|||
{{{
,




y
z
{
| ,




y
z
{
| ,




y
z
{
|
,




y
z
{
| ,

y
{
Pd
10.0
n=
10

,



y
z
|
hydrocarbon 5.0
Zh n=

,




y
z
{
|
height n=7
Pd


||| 
{{{
6
n=
buoyancy 5

|{ |
n=
4
n=
Pd 3.5
Z= 1.0 n=
3

0.5
n=
2.5

n=
2.2
Figure 26. Forces controlling hydrocarbon height 5
in pinchout-static (not hydrodynamic) conditions.
0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0
K (md)

Figure 27. Chart showing the relationship between

displacement pressure, Pd, and rock permeability,
K, for various values of n, the pore-size distribu-
tion index.