Professional Documents
Culture Documents
M6 Materials and Hardware PDF
M6 Materials and Hardware PDF
The right selection and proper use of materials require a fair knowledge of a
material's nature. This includes its structure, properties and behaviour under given
environmental conditions and for the respective technical application. Moreover, a
technician must be able to distinguish between the classes of materials and their
properties, as otherwise he could not assess and apply correctly the respective
treatment and processes.
Classifications of Materials
Refer to Figure 1
In the technical field raw materials like iron ore, coal, crude oil or wood are passed
through different processes before they are used for various purposes.
Metals (e.g. steel, cast iron, aluminium alloys) and non-metallic materials (e.g.
synthetic materials) are used to manufacture tools, machines and equipment,
whereas auxiliary materials are needed to produce them.
Ferrous metals contain iron (also called ferrite) and carbon up to 4 %. The amount of
carbon is important as it changes the properties of the metal. Ferrous metals
containing up to 2.06 % carbon are referred to as steel and those with a carbon
content of between 2.06 % and 4 % are called cast iron.
Non-ferrous metals contain either no iron or less than 50 %. They are used when
their properties (e.g, soft, ductile, corrosion resistant) meet the special needs of the
components being made. The two non-ferrous metals most commonly used are
aluminium and copper.
The most important material out of the non-metallic group is plastic. Plastic material
is produced by a chemical process. When compared with metals, plastics are poor
conductors of heat and not as strong or tough. They are, however, non-corrosive.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
11495
EASA Part-66 T r a i n i n g H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
technological characteristics;
these cannot be defined by numbers and figures or be fixed in tables and dia-
grams, but must be described as 'good machinability, being good to weld or
cast, suitable for forging, not machinable' etc.
Apart from the type and the property of the material, the environmental conditions
encountered at the place, where the finished product is used, should be considered.
So will, for example, no wooden or plastic material be chosen for high-temperature
processes.
6.1 .1 .1 I n t r o d u c t i o n to Metals
Refer to Figure 4.
Superficially, metal looks like a solid, uniform and equal material. Under a micro-
scope, however, different crystalline grain structures are visible. A force holds the
atoms in typical crystal lattices. In a melting process the distance between the
individual atoms increases until they move freely.
The grain structure of metals is established in the process of chilling. When the
temperature drops below the respective solidification point, the grains start growing.
Where 2 grains meet, they form a visible boundary. The boundary of a finished grain
cannot be entered by the lattice from another grain. When all metal ions have found
their final allocation in a grain crystal the metal is solidified to its final structure.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
-1 materials
Coolants
Lubricants
Cleaners
Synthetic
materials Gases, etc.
Wood Rubber
Leather Plastics
Asbestos Glass
materials metals metals Graphite Ceramics
C > 2.2 % p > 5 g/cm3 p < 5 g/cm
1 cm Cross section
Indentation Test body
a v
e m
= ~ 1 cm
4
4 Tensile force
Material
i??5? Material
Deformation
through heat
c) Chemical characteristics
c Corrosion layer
Material
Cornbustibility
A A
Warning sign
d) Technological characteristics
Warning sign
Castability Machinability
Material
Malleability Weldability
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
6.1.2.1 Introduction
In the design and construction of aircraft of all types, many different types of
materials are used. For many years the most common types of materials used in the
construction of aircraft were steel, wood, fabric, aluminium and aluminium alloys.
Copper and brass were used for tubing and small fittings. More recently aluminium
alloys made up the major structural material for aircraft components because of their
strength and light weight.
With the start of the supersonic era, it has become necessary to develop metals that
are able to withstand both high stresses and high temperatures. To meet these
needs, stainless steels, titanium alloys and composite materials have come into
being and are now serving as structural materials wherever conditions require their
use.
In addition to the materials noted above, various plastics and synthetic material have
been developed for aircraft construction. Transparent plastics are used for wind-
shields and windows, while others are used for bushings, bearings, fairleads, tubing,
ducting and many other purposes.
Laminated plastics reinforced with glass fibre, fibrous graphite and other materials
are being used in various parts of aircraft because of light weight, ease of fabrication
and resistance to high temperatures.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
71495
EASA Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Nickel steels, SAE 23xx and 25% contain between 3.5 % and 5 % nickel and a small
percentage of carbon. The nickel increases the strength, hardness and elasticity of
the steel without appreciably affecting the ductility. Nickel steel is used for producing
various aircraft parts including nuts, bolts, clevis pins and screws.
Nickel-chromium and chromium-vanadium steels are used where even greater
strength, hardness and toughness are required. Such steels are often found in highly
stressed machine parts such as gears, shafts, springs and bearings.
Since the 1940s the term 'stainless steel' (also called 'corrosion-resistant steel
(CRES)') has become a very common word because of its many uses in consumer
items as well as in aircraft and missiles. The development of stainless steel has
made possible many of the outstanding advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines
and rockets.
The most important characteristics of stainless steel are:
its relatively light weight
its corrosion resistance
its strength
its toughness
its resistance to high temperatures.
Refer to Figure 3.
Stainless steels can be divided into 3 general groups according to their structures:
austenitic
ferritic
martensitic.
The austenitic steels are chromium (Cr)-nickel (Ni) and chromium-nickel-manga-
nese (Mn) alloys. They can be hardened only by cold working. Heat treatment serves
only to anneal them. They are non-magnetic in the annealed condition, although
some may be slightly magnetic after cold working (carbon is also austenitic 0.05 %
by composition).
Austenitic steels are manufactured by heating the steel mixture above the critical
temperature of approx. 850 "C and maintaining this temperature to form a structure
called 'austenite'. A controlled period of partial cooling is allowed, followed by a rapid
quench just above the critical temperature.
Ferritic steels contain a maximum of only 0.02 % carbon. They do not respond very
well to heat treatment. They contain a large amount of chromium and may have a
small amount of aluminium. They are always magnetic.
Martensitic steels are straight chromium alloys that harden intensely if they are
allowed to cool rapidly after having been heated to high temperatures. They differ
from the 2 other groups because they can be hardened by heat treatment.
The most widely used stainless steels for general use are those in the '300' series.
They are called '1 8-8' because they contain approx. 18 % chromium and 8 % nickel.
Common types are 301,302,321 and 347.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Although stainless steels have many advantages, there are certain disadvantages
that must be faced by the manufacturer and designer:
Stainless steels are more difficult to cut and form than many other materials.
Stainless steels have a much greater expansion coefficient than other steels.
They conduct heat at a lower rate, which makes welding more difficult.
Many of the stainless steels lose their corrosion resistance under high tem-
peratures.
If corrosion-resistant steels are used for aircraft repairs, the technician must ensure that
the proper type is selected for the part of the aircraft involved. In most cases a damaged
part can be replaced by a factory-made part identified by the part number. However,
there are situations where it is more economic and easier to repair a part by patching or
welding. In these cases, the correct type of corrosion-resistant steel must be chosen.
In welding CRES, inert-gas arc welding is preferred, because this process causes
less deformation due to heat expansion of the metal and it prevents oxidisation. The
expansion of stainless steel due to temperature increases may be more than twice
as much as that of ordinary carbon steels.
Because of its toughness, stainless steel is more difficult to be cut, formed, sheared,
machined or drilled than ordinary steel. For this reason the technician who is to work
with this material successfully must be experienced in the necessary processes or
must be directed by an experienced technician.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
91495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Carbon steels
1Oxx Non-sulfurised carbon steel (plain carbon)
Ilxx Resulfurised carbon steel (free machining)
12xx Resulfurised and rephosphorised carbon steel
Alloy steels
13xx Manganese 1.75 % (1.60 - 1.90 %)
23xx Nickel 3.50 %
25xx Nickel 5.00 %
31xx Nickel-chromium (Ni 1.25 %, Cr 0.65 %)
32xx Nickel-chromium (Ni 1.75 %, Cr 1.OO %)
33xx Nickel-chromium (Ni 3.50 %, Cr 1.50 %)
40xx Molybdenum 0.25 %
41 xx Chromium-molybdenum
(Cr 0.50 or 0.95 %, Mo 0.1 2 or 0.20 %)
43xx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(Ni 1.80 %, Cr 0.50 or 0.80 %, Mo 0.25 %)
46xx Nickel-molybdenum (Ni 1.75 %, Mo 0.25 %)
47xx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(Ni 1.05 %, Cr 0.45 %, Mo 0.20 %)
48xx Nickel-molybdenum (Ni 3.50 %, Mo 0.25 %)
5Oxx Chromium 0.28 or 0.40 %
5Oxx Chromium 0.28 or 0.40 %
51xx Chromium 0.80, 0.90, 0.95, 1.OO or 1.05 %
5xxxx Chromium 0.50, 1.OO or 1.45 %, Carbon 1.OO %
61xx Chromium-vanadium
(Cr 0.80 or 0.95 %, V 0.10 or 0.15 %)
86xx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(Ni 0.55 or 0.05 or 0.65 %, Mo 0.20 %)
87xx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(Ni 0.55 %, Cr 0.50 %, Mo 0.25 %)
92xx Manganese-silicon (Mn 0.85 %, Si 2.00 %)
93xx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(Ni 3.25 %, Cr 1.20 %, Mo 0.12 %)
98xx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum aD
2
(Ni 1.00 %, Cr 0.80 %, Mo 0.25 %) m
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
101495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Chromium-nickel-manganese (non-hardenable,
austenitic, non-magnetic)
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
1 11495
: + liquid
1,147 "C
a (fet
The first step in the production of pig iron, also called raw iron, is the mining of iron
ore.
lron ore is smelted in a blast furnace. The other raw materials needed to produce pig
iron are coke, limestone, and air. Coke, the fuel in iron making, is made from coal.
Limestone acts as a flux or cleaner to remove impurities from the iron ore. It takes
about 2 t of iron ore, 1 t of coke, 112 t of limestone to produce 1 t of pig iron.
Refer to Figure 1
The blast furnace consists of fire-brick linings and hot blast heaters. It may have a
height of 40 m and a diameter of 10 m. The furnace is covered and supported by an
outer framework made of steel.
It is charged from the furnace top with coke alternating with ore and fluxes. In this
system no blast furnace gas is wasted out to the atmosphere. The gas contains
combustible carbon and hydrogen components and is utilised to heat the hot blast
heaters, where the gas is ignited and heats the fire-brick linings.
In the reduction process the limestone (= flux) melts, combines with the iron
companions and forms a fluid slag with them, mainly calcium silicate. The coke is
only partially burnt down to supply the necessary heat for drying, heating and melting
of the charges. The remainder is utilised for the reduction process: The gas
associates with the oxygen, carburises ore and iron and reduces the melting point.
The hot combustion air from the burning coke rises to the top of the furnace, heats
and dries the charges and serves as furnace gas to heat the blast heaters.
With the charges heated up when coming down in the furnace, the ore is carburised
and thus the melting point is reduced to 1,400 to 1,500 "C. In the melting area (bosh)
the iron melts and the liquid iron sinks into the hearth, from where it is removed every
3 to 4 h. The slag floats on the iron, as it is lighter than iron and is thus easily
removed. During these operations, the iron has picked up 3 to 5 % carbon from the
coke. A modern blast furnace produces up to 5,000 t of steel daily in continuous
furnace operation.
Pig iron is an intermediate product that contains carbon as well as shares of silicon,
manganese, sulphur and phosphorus. It is brittle and is processed to cast iron or
steel.
The by-product slag is used in road construction, cement making and as fertilisers.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
131495
EASA Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
6.1.3.2 Cast I r o n
The base metal for cast iron is the grey pig iron which contains more than 2.06 %
carbon. It is treated to
cast iron with a laminated graphite structure
cast iron with a sphero-graphite (globular) structure
black malleable cast iron.
Cast iron with a laminated graphite structure (grey cast iron) has a density of
7.25 g/cm3, a melting range of 1,150 to 1,250 "C and a tensile strength of 100 to
350 N/mm2.
Grey cast iron contains 2.06 to 3.6 % carbon (graphite) which reduces the tensile
strength. On the other hand, grey cast iron offers good machinability and is a good
vibration absorber with antifriction properties. It is used for frames and bedways of
machine tools, engine blocks, cylinder heads, brake discs etc.
Cast iron with a sphero-graphite (globular) structure has a density of 7.2 g/cm3 and a
tensile strength of 400 to 800 N/mm2.
Among the cast iron types it is nearest similar to steel. The sphero-graphite structure
is achieved by adding some magnesium to the liquefied cast iron. It is used for gear
wheels, crankshafts and housings as well as for pipelines.
Black malleable cast iron is a flaky structured metal having a tensile strength of
340 to 690 N/mm2.
This type of cast iron has been made malleable by annealing and therefore it is not
so brittle or hard. Many plumbing fixtures are made of malleable iron.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
141495
EASA Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Refer to Figure 3.
The electric steelmaking process uses graphite electrodes, which are supplied with
electric power. They produce an electric arc to the raw material that has a tempera-
ture of 3,500 "C. The charge is pig iron, steel, scrap iron, iron ore, alloy materials and
limestone. On account of the very high temperature reached in this process, also
alloy metals having a high melting point are liquefied. This is why melting in the
electric furnace is a process primarily used to produce high-alloyed steels as, for
example, stainless steel.
6.1.3.4 Alloying E l e m e n t s
Steel is the common name for all iron materials with a carbon content between 0 and
2.06 %. Zero-carbon steel is soft, easily machinable and magnetisable. Steel is any
iron metal suitable for further treatment like forging and rolling without special
preparation. With any higher share of carbon the ductility, weldability and malleability
of the steel are reduced, while its hardness and strength increase.
Refer to Figures 4 and 5.
Beside different processes of manufacture and treatment alloying elements are used
to give to the steel the properties required for the intended specific application. The
alloys also influence the steel's density and melting range.
Kinds of Steel
Low carbon steels (up to 0.3 % C) are of medium strength, have toughness and good
ductility, and can easily be machined. Because of the small amount of carbon they
contain, they can only be case hardened.
Medium carbon steels (0.3 to 0.65 % C) can be hardened. They have high strength
and toughness but can be brittle after hardening. This material is used to make
crankshafts, axles and forgings.
High carbon steels (0.65 to 1.4 % C) can, because of their high carbon content, be
made extremely hard. After tempering they are used for metal and woodwork cutting
tools.
Alloy steels are made by adding metals, such as manganese, nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, silicon, tungsten and cobalt to the ferrite and carbon. Some of the most
commonly used alloy steels are listed below:
Chromium steels (0.5 to 1.2 % C, 0.3 to 0.8 % Mn, 0.5 to 1.6 % Cr).
These steels have very good wearing properties and can be made extremely
hard. The metal can be forged and gears, ball and roller bearings are made
from them.
Nickel steels (up to 0.16 % C, 0.2 to 0.6 % Mn, 2.75 to 3.5 % Ni, up to
0.3 % Cr).
This material can be forged and is used for components which need case
hardening.
Nickel-chromium steels (0.35 to 0.45 % C, 1.3 to 1.8 % Ni, 0.2 to 0.35 % Mo,
0.45 to 0.7 % Mn, 0.9 to 1.4 % Cr).
These steels have good ductility, toughness and strength. They are fairly
hard and can be made harder by heat treatment. Motor-car crankshafts, tur-
bine blades and aircraft fittings are made from them.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
151495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
161495
Charge: Coke alternating with
burden (ore and fluxes)
Blast heaters I
Heating
Reduction
Carburi-
zing
Foundary
ladle
Scrap charge
B
Filling Conversion Pouring the slag Pouring the steel 2
Cover, removable
Furnace bowl
Steel container -
Example
Metal increases Reduces
(German standard)
Scale resistance, 34 Cr Al Mo 5
Aluminium penetration of Steel for nitriding,
Al nitrogen deoxidant in steel
manufacturing
Tensile strength, Ductility X5CrNi189
hardness, Stainless steel
Chromium
thermal stability,
Cr
wear resistance,
corrosion resistance
Hardness, thermal Growing of grain 30 W Co 36
Cobalt stability, preserving structures at higher Steel for hot-process
Co of keenness temperatures tools, e.g. injection
casting dies
Tensile strength, Machinability at chip- 37 Mn Si 5
hardening qualities, ping and cold trans- Steel for forging,
Manganese toughness forming processes, tempering
Mn
graphite separation
by cast iron
Tensile strength, Brittleness during 65 W Mo 34 8
thermal stability, tempering, forgeabil- Steel for hot-process
Molybdenum
hardening qualities, tools, e.g. extrusion
Mo ity
preserving of keen- pressing tools
ness
Strength, toughness, Heat ductility 666 Ni Cr 30 3
Nickel
corrosion resistance, Austenitic cast iron,
Ni
hardening qualities e.g. cylinder liners
Hardness, thermal Sensitivity against 115 Cr V 3
Vanadium
stability, endurance overheating Tool steel, e.g. thread
v strength cutters
Tensile strength, Ductility, chipping S6-5-2
Tungsten hardness, thermal machinability Quality for tool steel,
W stability, preserving e.g. broaching
of keenness needles
-
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
201495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Non-metallic Example
Increases Reduces
elements (German standard)
Strength and hard- Melting point, ductil- C60
Carbon
ness (maximum at ity, fusionability, Steel for hardening
C
0.9 % C), hardening forgeability and tempering, e.g.
qualities chissels, punches
Brittleness Ageing resistance,
Nitrogen
ability for deep draw-
N
ing
Tensile strength, Notch impact Increases the viscos-
Phosphorus thermal stability, strength, weldability ity of liquefied steel
P
corrosion resistance or iron for casting
Chipping quality Notch impact 10 S Pb 20
Sulphur
strength, weldability Steel for automatic
S
tooling machines
Tensile strength, Breaking elongation, 67 Si Cr
ductility, corrosion notch impact Spring steel
Silicon resistance strength, ability for
Si deep drawing,
weldability, chipping
quality
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
211495
EASA Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
6.1.4.1 Introduction
Tension Test
Hardness Test
Refer to Figure 2.
During the Brinell test, the surface of the metal to be tested is penetrated by a
hardened steel ball under a load. Then the average diameter of the impression is
measured with a low-power portable microscope fitted with a scale. The spherical
area is calculated from the diameter of the impression.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
221495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
P with:
HB = - P = load (in kilograms (kg))
A
A = area of the impression.
Errors may arise when the Brinell test is used on very hard metals.
Refer to Figure 3.
The errors which may occur in a Brinell test are eliminated in the Vickers test by
using a diamond square-based pyramid. Such a pyramid does not readily deform but
gives geometrically similar impressions under different loads. The sides of the
pyramid-shaped tip of the penetrator are at an angle of 136". Loads ranging from
5 kg to 120 kg can be used. The load divided by the contact area of the impression
gives the Vickers pyramid number 'HV':
P with:
HV = - P = load (in kilograms (kg))
A
A = contact area of the impression.
Since the impressions are small, the machine is very suitable for testing polished and
hardened material.
The Brinell and Vickers hardness values are practically identical up to a hardness
number of 300.
Refer to Figure 4.
The Rockwell test uses either a steel ball with a diameter of 1.58 mm which is loaded
with 100 kg (scale B for 'ball') or a load of 150 kg on a diamond cone having a 120"
angle (scale C for 'cone'). The penetrator is first loaded with a minor load of 10 kg to
take out any slack in the machine. The indicator (for measuring the depth of the
impression) is set to zero. Then, the major load (either 100 kg or 150 kg) is applied.
After its removal the dial gauge records the depth of the impression in terms of
Rockwell numbers: 'HRB' for scale B values and 'HRC' for scale C values.
The Rockwell test is particularly useful for rapid routine tests on finished products.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
231495
w ~ r n c n >
g.Zr(D (Dm Q
r Dl < 3 02'
rn 2 e
ZE.2
Z y g m - 3 w
m e , Y ! % z ~
3 D 2 3 (D
-.,ma D
' Z
3 Q
0
3 (D. 5.
=2
(D
(D m 0
G5 (D
%+ (D
3
ca 2
b)
Testing force P
HV HRC HB HRB
(hardness (hardness (hardness (hardness
Vickers) Rockwell Brinell) Rockwell
cone) ball)
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
291495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Note: 'T3' and 'T6' are temper designations, which will be explained later.
When structural aluminium alloys first came into use, they were called 'duralumin' (or:
'dural'). These were bare alloys and were subject to considerable corrosion unless
specially treated. Eventually the corrosion problem was largely solved by the process
of 'cladding'. During this process, a thin layer of pure aluminium is rolled onto the
outer surface of both sides of the alloy sheet. Since pure aluminium is highly resistant
to corrosion (because of a very thin layer of oxide which forms on the surface
immediately upon exposure to air) the surface of the clad material is effectively
protected. The trade name for aluminium alloy sheets prepared in this manner is
ALCLAD.
Wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys are designated by a 4-digit system, with
the first digit of the number indicating the principal alloying element. Standard
aluminium alloys are shown in Figure 1. These alloys have a wide variety of
characteristics; hence each has particular applications.
Note: The list in Figure 1 does not include all known aluminium alloys, but the most
common ones.
Figure 2 shows the code numbering of aluminium alloys. The second digit of the
code number indicates any modifications to the original alloy.
In the numbers 2xxx to 8xxx, the last 2 digits identify the alloys and the sequence of
development. In the 1xxx-series the last 2 digits indicate the amount of pure aluminium
above 99 % in hundredths of 1 %.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
301495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Example: Aluminium identified by the number 1240 would be aluminium which is 99.40%
pure with 2 modifications.
Aluminium alloys are formed in one of 2 ways: cast and wrought. Cast aluminium
alloy is formed into a particular shape by melting and pouring it into a mold of the
required shape. Wrought aluminium alloy is made by mechanically working the metal
into the form desired by rolling, drawing, extruding, etc.
A factor important for aluminium alloys is the temper (or: hardness value). The
designation of heat-treatable alloys is followed by the letter 'T' and a number to
indicate the type and degree of heat treatment.
Non-heat-treatable alloys are followed by the letter '0' to indicate soft or annealed
condition, or 'H'and a number to indicate the degree of work hardening. The temper
designation system is used for all forms of wrought and cast aluminium and
aluminium alloys except ingot. It is based on the sequences of basic treatments used
to produce the various tempers.
The number following the HI,HZ or H3 indicates the degree of strain-hardening of the
alloy. The number '8' indicates maximum degree of strain-hardening, and the number
'0' indicates no hardening. The number '2'indicates one-quarter hard, '4'indicates
one-half hard and '6'indicates three-quarters hard.
'H'temper designations are used only for non-heat-treatable alloys. These are
generally the alloys in the 1000,3000 and 4000 series.
The heat-treatable alloys contain elements such as copper, magnesium, zinc and
silicon. These are in the 2000,5000,6000 and 7000 series. The letter 'T' is used to
indicate a heat-treatable or thermally treated alloy. The letter 'T' is followed by a
number that indicates specific sequences of basic treatments.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
EASA Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & L E A R N
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
321495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Refer to Figure 3.
Aluminium alloy sheet as it comes from the manufacturer is usually marked with
letters and numbers in rows approx. 6 inches (15.24 cm) apart. These identification
symbols may include a specification number, the alloy number with temper designa-
tion and the thickness of the material in thousandths of an inch. The rows of letters
and figures are parallel to the grain of the metal.
Methods for marking coiled sheet and other shapes are shown in Figure 4.
Items like rivets are too small for conventional markings. They are identified by
symbols and numbers in the metal. Typical identification markings are shown in
Figure 5.
6.2.1.2 Magnesium
Magnesium alloys are frequently used in aircraft structures in cast, forged and sheet
form. The greatest advantage of magnesium is that it is one of the lightest metals for
its strength. The disadvantages in the use of magnesium sheet are that it is more
subject to corrosion than many other metals, it is not easily worked at room tempera-
tures and if it becomes ignited, it is extremely difficult to extinguish.
When magnesium is used in an aircraft structure, it can often be recognised by the fact
that it has a yellowish surface due to the chromate treatment used to prevent corrosion
and to furnish a suitable paint base.
When technicians encounter magnesium in an aircraft, they must know that it cannot
be cut easily but is likely to tear. Additionally, it cannot be bent or otherwise worked
under normal temperatures. It is subject to corrosion and therefore should be treated
with the proper coating. Finally, it presents a certain degree of fire hazard as
magnesium dust and fine chips are easily ignited.
When standard parts are made of magnesium, this fact will usually be stated in the
manufacturer's overhaul and service manuals. Directions for proper treatment of such
parts will be laid down in the manuals as well.
Because of magnesium's tendency to corrode easily, the technician must ensure that
the correct hardware items, such as the correct rivets, bolts and screws, are used
with any magnesium parts. For example, rivets used with magnesium should be
made of 5056-H aluminium alloy. Any metal part used with magnesium should be of
a compatible metal, or a 'metal-to-metal' contact must be avoided as this will cause
dissimilar metal corrosion.
6.2.1.3 Titanium
The use of titanium as a structural material has become prevalent only during the
past 30 years. Before then, the methods for refining and working titanium had not
been developed to an extent which would have made the use of the metal economi-
cally feasible.
Titanium was discovered in 1790 in England by William Gregor who isolated the
oxide of titanium from black magnetic beach sand. A few years later, Gregor's
findings were confirmed by a German chemist, who named the new element 'Titan
metal' (in Latin: titanium).
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
331495
E A S A Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
The 'Kroll process', which has been widely used for extracting titanium metal, had
been developed in 1932 by Wilhelm Kroll, a Luxembourg scientist. This process was
improved and employed by the United States Bureau of Mines, which began to
produce titanium sponge in 100-lb batches in 1946.
Titanium is produced in relatively large quantities in rod, bar, sheet and other forms
for use in the manufacture of a wide variety of metal products.
Titanium and its alloys are used widely in the aerospace industry because of its high
strength, light weight, temperature resistance and corrosion resistance. The weight of
titanium is approx. 56 % of the weight of steel, but its strength is equal to that of
steel.
The production of titanium was developed to find a material for aircraft that was
lighter than steel but could withstand higher temperatures than aluminium alloy. Uses
to overcome high temperatures include exhaust shrouds, fire-proof bulkheads, gas
turbine ducts and hot-area skinning.
The strength range of titanium is similar to that of stainless steel. Similar fabrication
methods can be used. When bending, the 'spring back' is greater than that of
stainless steel. This must be taken into account.
When working a titanium sheet it may be bent cold. But this is limited to simple
bends. Complex bending requires hot forming and heat treatment processes not
available at workshop level.
As with all materials, surface scribe marks should be avoided, all burrs are to be
removed and rough edges must be smoothed to prevent stress raisers.
Cutting of titanium is possible with hand shears as long as the blades are very sharp.
Drilling of titanium can be done with special cobalt drills. If these are not available
cobalt HSS drills with a cutting angle of 135" to 140" must be used. One motion is to
be drilled in not allowing the drill to rise. Slow speed, heavy feed and lots of coolant
should be used.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
341495
EASA Part-66 T r a i n i n g H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Copper is one of the comparatively plentiful metals and has been used by human
beings for thousands of years. It is easily identified by its reddish colour and by the
green and blue colours of its oxides and salts. It is very ductile in the annealed state
but hardens with cold-working. A primary use for pure copper is as an electrical
conductor. Because of its conductivity, copper is used extensively for electrical wiring.
Before the discovery and development of aluminium as a useful metal, copper was
used for tubing and in many other applications where aluminium is used today.
The principal alloys of copper are bronze, brass and beryllium copper. Bronze is a
blend of copper and tin, the tin content being between 10 % and 25 %. Brass is an
alloy of copper with 30 % to 45 % zinc plus small amounts of other metals. Beryllium
copper consists of approx. 97 % copper, 2 % beryllium and 1 % other metals.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
351495
EASA Part-66 Training H a n d b o o k Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Bronze and brass are used for bushings, bearings, valve seats, fuel metering valves
and numerous other applications.
Copper can be alloyed with aluminium, manganese, silicon, iron, nickel and other
metals to make a variety of 'bronzes'. These are not true bronzes in the original
sense of the word because they do not contain tin. Among these bronzes are
aluminium bronze, silicon bronze and manganese bronze. These alloys are available
in sheet, bar, rod, plate and other standard shapes.
Beryllium copper is heat-treatable and can be brought up to a tensile strength of
200,000 psi. It is used for precision bearings, bushings, spring washers, diaphragms,
ball cages and other applications where its qualities of wear resistance, toughness,
strength and elasticity are desirable.
The alloys of copper are developed to increase strength, corrosion resistance and
other qualities not possessed by pure copper. Designers select the alloy best suited
for the purposes required, taking into consideration hardness, strength, wear
resistance and corrosion resistance. A technician needing a part to be made should
make sure to use the correct alloy as specified by the manufacturer.
Monel metal (Cupro nickels) is a nickel alloy with approx. 2/3 nickel and 1/3 copper.
Small amounts of other metals such as iron and manganese may also be included.
Monel metal has good mechanical properties. It is very strong (similar to steel) and
corrosion-resistant. Additionally, it is non-magnetic under all conditions. Monel metal
can easily be worked in a similar way as steel.
K-Monel includes a small amount of aluminium and is heat-treatable to develop
maximum strength. It is particularly useful in manufacturing durable parts that are (or
may be) subjected to corrosive conditions.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
361495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & L E A R N
Corrosion-resistant Alloys
'Hastelloy D' (85 % Ni, 10 % silicon (SI), 3 % copper (Cu), 1 % Al) on the other hand
is a tough, very hard casting alloy which is particularly resistant to hot concentrated
sulphuric acid.
The best known of the nickel-chromium base high-temperature alloys are those of
the 'Nimonic' series which played a leading part in the development of the jet engine,
but are now used for a large number of applications where a high creep strength at
elevated temperatures is required.
The alloys mentioned above are used primarily for hot parts made of sheet alloy. In
addition to these there are alloys developed especially for casting to manufacture
turbine blades and nozzle vanes.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
371495
!Y I1! 0
3 3 0
-0 -0 u
u
0 CD
0 3 1
u a,
u CQ
3
cn.
-
--
-2 CD 0
cn. 0
-
3
3
a,
CQ
-5 3
3
CD
cn.
0
0 2
a
u a,
a
-5-. CD
1
3
CD
V)
z
-
3
0
2-
0
-CD
3
cn. 3 a,
-
-.
0
--
c
CQ
3
0 3 CD
-3 cn.
0
z 5
0
3
-.
c
2
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
ROWS ON
6" CENTERS MAX.
1st Row
-
7075-T6 QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6
DIRECTION OF ROLLING
QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6
- QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6
t
2nd Row 1 ' QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6 QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6 QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6 QQ-A-250112
3nd Row 1 ABC Co. f 090 f ABC Co f 0 9 0 f ABC Co f 090 f ABC Co. f 090 f ABC Co. f 090f
AB 12345
1st Row
-T6 QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6 QQ-A-250112 Jr 7075-T6 QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6 QQ-A-250112
repeated
2nd Row
repeated 1
6
250112 f 7075-T6 QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6 QQ-A-250112 f 7075-T6 QQ-A-250112 f
3rd Row
repeated
.) *
090 f ABC CO. f 090 * ABC CO. f 090 f ABC Co. * 090 f ABC Co. f 090 * ABC Co. t
I
- W ~ I N I ~
'03 3 8 V
y ~OOG
~ Vy W ~ I N I W ~ ~ V
03 39V OoS ' WfllNlWnlV
.O3 3 8 v
' OoS WfllNIWnlV
'033Qt/ ' '
OoS
WfllNlinlfllV
'03 38V
CS91-SLOL Y z LIOSZ-V-00 LS91-SLOL Y Z 11OSZ-V-00 lS91-SLOL Y Z 11OSZ-v-00 1991-SLOL
> ' * 05
2
, $9 0
!
r* e7 In
N
*
Q
g M a
a 5:
0 5
< *
i > #!
_1
;; *
.'
> E g o,
s=-O
Z y
C?
0
> x 2
2 * 4
Flat sheet and plate greater in thickness and size than shown above.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
401495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
4 1I495
Head marks
Q)@J
- - @
- @
- @ @
1€31RTUFT
2117
Dimple
2017
Raised dot
2024
2 raised
radial dashes
2219
Raised triangle
5056
Raised cross
7075
3 raised
radial dashes
Shank marks
Raised numbers on shank ends
0
z
I Figure 6 Titanium Alloy Properties
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Non-ferrous metals are all pure metals except iron and all alloys with an iron content
of less than 50 %. Non-ferrous metals are classified in
O coloured metals
white metals
n alloying metals
noble metals
heavy metals: density, p 2 5 g/cm3
light metals: density, p < 5 g/cm3.
The majority of pure non-ferrous metals are soft and their strength is low. But the
purer the metal is the higher is the melting point and the better is the metal's
electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance and formability. The property of a metal is
tailored by adding appropriate alloying metals.
Coloured Metals
Copper (p = 8.93 g/cm3, melting point: 1,083 "C, tensile strength: 200 to 360 N/mm2)
is soft, tough, very tensile and corrosion resistant. It is a good conductor of heat and
electricity.
Bronze is an alloy of copper (85 to 90 Oh) and tin. It is stronger than brass and has
better corrosion resisting properties.
Copper-aluminium alloys are corrosion resistant and have high toughness and
tensile strength.
Nickel (p = 8.9 g/crn3, melting point: 1,455 "C, tensile strength: 400 to 500 N/mm2) is
a silver-white, corrosion resistant metal.
Zinc (p = 7.1 g/cm3, melting point: 419 "C, tensile strength: 30 to 110 ~ / m m is
~ a)
blue-white metal.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
441495
E A S A Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
White Metals
Lead (p = 11.3 g/cm3, melting point: 327 "C, tensile strength: 15 to 20 N/mm2) is one
of the heaviest metals. It is very soft and has acid resisting properties.
It is used in lead-acid batteries and as an alloy for bearing materials.
Tin (p = 7.3 g/cm3, melting point: 232 "C, tensile strength: 40 to 50 N/mrn2) is a
silver-white, nonpoisonous and corrosion resistant metal.
Tin is used with copper to produce bronze and with lead to make soft solder or as a
coating material for food containers.
Alloying Metals
Figure 1 describes a number of heavy metals and how their properties influence
iron, steel and non-ferrous metals.
Noble Metals
Silver (p = 10.5 g/cm3, melting point: 961.5 "C, tensile strength: 160 N/mm2) is an
excellent conductor of electricity and heat.
It is used for fuse wires and as plating material for electrical contacts.
Gold (p = 19.3 g/cm3, melting point: 1,064 "C, tensile strength: 140 N/mm2) is a soft
heavy metal.
Gold is used for anti-corrosive plating of electronic circuit boards, for electric
contacts etc.
Platinum (p = 21.5 g/cm3, melting point: 1,769 "C, tensile strength: 200 N/mrn2) is not
affected by any acid or lye. It is oxygen resistant even at high temperatures.
It is used only for special applications in electronics and chemical industry.
Aluminium
Pure aluminium is soft, light, non-magnetic and ductile. Alloyed with copper or
manganese, its strength, toughness and hardness is improved to almost the level of
low carbon steel. It is a good electrical and thermal conductor and offers good
corrosion resistance. When exposed to the atmosphere or oxygen a thin, but tight
and hard, oxide film forms on the surfaces of aluminium and its alloys. If necessary,
the film thickness can be increased in a process called 'anodizing'.
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
451495
EASA Part-66 Training Handbook Module 6 LINK & LEARN
Aluminium can be formed to bars, pipes, sheets, foils and wires. When aluminium
gets in wet contact with copper or ferrous metals it corrodes rapidly.
Some of the foremost aluminium alloy metals can be described in brief as follows:
duraluminium
- consists of aluminium, copper, magnesium, manganese and silicon
- is nearly as strong as mild steel
- requires heat treatment and age-hardening
- is used for aircraft sheets and tubes, structural parts of engines and air-
frames
alclad
- is sheet duraluminium with a pure aluminium coating on both sides
- combines the good duraluminium properties with the corrosion resistance
of pure aluminium
- used for aircraft structures, fuselage and wing covering and fairing
(stressed skin)
alpax
- consists of aluminium, silicon, iron, manganese and zinc
- has fair corrosion resistance properties
- is stronger than aluminium
- has excellent casting qualities
- is used for intricate castings, aircraft and engine components
alloys without any iron
- provide good seawater resistance
- are used for shipbuilding and ship's equipment.
Magnesium
Magnesium is a very light and soft metal with poor corrosion resistance. In form of
chips and powder it is easily combustible. It serves as a deoxidant for steel, as anode
for steel tanks and boilers and as solid fuel for lighting and signal ammunition.
Alloys of magnesium are processed to bars, sheets and pipesltubes and used for
machinery components. Housings of optical and photographical equipment are
produced from magnesium alloy castings.
Titanium
It is a very desirable metal because it is light and strong and resistant to corrosion.
Therefore, it is used for high-performance aircraft and space vehicle components, on
jet engines, gas turbines and chemical industrial equipment, such as acid pumps.
Titanium can be alloyed with aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum, tin, copper and
iron. Such alloys are applied in the production of components requiring very high
strength and low weight at the same time (undercarriages, jet engine pylons,
helicopter rotor heads and the like).
For training use only (c) by Link & Learn Aviation Training GmbH
461495