Bai Giang Dien - Dien Tu HK - Part 1-Slide

KHOA KTHK
HỌC VIỆN HÀNG KHÔNG VIỆT NAM
BÀI GIẢNG:
HỆ THỐNG ĐIỆN - ĐIỆN TỬ TÀU BAY
GIỚI THIỆU CHUNG
• MỤC TIÊU:
- Giới thiệu các kiến thức cơ bản về hệ thống điện – điện tử tàu bay
- Phân tích nguyên lý hoạt động, bố trí, vận hành hệ thống nguồn, thông tin
liên lạc, tự động lái trên tàu
• TỔNG SỐ TIẾT: 75 tiết (45 tiết lý thuyết + 30 tiết bài tập, thực hành)
• TÀI LIỆU HỌC TẬP:
- CIVIL AVIONICS SYSTEMS, Ian Moir - Allan Seabridge - Malcolm Jukes,
Wiley
- ATA 23, ATA 24
- Jet Aircraft Maintenance Fundamentals – Lufthansa – 2002
- Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook—Airframe - FAA
Part 1: Electrical System
1. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL POWER:
Trends in aircraft generation and load management systems

1. INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRICAL POWER:
q Generator: 3-phase, 115VAC, CF 400Hz
generator using an IDG (90 kVA)
q APU : 3-phase,115VAC,400Hz may be used
on the ground for servicing purposes, but it
can also be used in the air on certain
installations for use in failure conditions and
to support Extended Twin OPerationS
(ETOPS).
q External 115 VAC power source
q For emergency use–a ram airt urbine
q A number of power conversion units are also
provided: TRUs and battery chargers that
supply a number of 28 VDC buses and
maintain battery charge. Typical electrical system architecture
1. INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRICAL POWER:
1. INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRICAL POWER: Electrical
system
Generator Distribution
AC DC AC DC
Subsystem Subsystem Subsystem Subsystem
1.1 Electrical power sources:
q Five different AC power sources
§ A generator produces between 60 and 90 KW
(AC power source during flight)
§ External power: 65 KW electrical energy
(ower source on the ground, receptacle in the
nose area of aircraft)
§ APU generator: alternate power source on
the ground and in most aircraft also during
flight, >= power as one engine driven
generator)
§ Emergency generator: 5 KW, AC, using
when no other generator is available during
flight, to keep the aircraft flying safety.
§ Static inverter: DC -> AC; using when when
no other AC power source is available to land
the aircraft safety, 1 Kw,
Recent electrical power generation examples

q All AC power is provided at 115 V and at a frequency of 400
Hz (exception of the static inverter, AC power is generated in
three individual phases)
• The AC distribution supplies all the various AC consumers
directly and provides the input power for the DC generation.
• The AC consumers need about 95 % of the total electrical
energy (heating, lighting and mechanical equipment.)
• Two different DC power sources are used in modern jet aircraft
for DC generation: transformer rectifier units - or TR Units in
short - and batteries.
• The aircraft battery: nickel cadmium, 24 VDC, using when
when no other power source is available. (during flight in an
emergency condition when you have total generator loss or on
the ground in certain cases)
• Rectifier units, TRUs, convert the three-phase 115 V AC power
from the AC distribution system to 28 V DC power for the DC
power distribution system (normal DC power)
• The DC consumers : 5% of electrical energy (electronic
equipment, control and monitoring parts)
1.2 POWER DISTRIBUTION:
q AC, DC distribution can be divided
into 3 parts
• Main power distribution provides
electrical power to all main customers.
• the essential power distribution
supplies all consumers that are essential
to operate the aircraft safely,
• the emergency power distribution
system supplies the consumers that are
necessary to land the aircraft safely.
q AC, DC distribution can be divided into 3
parts
• Each part of the distribution system can be
supplied with electrical power from a normal
source and, in case of loss of this source, from
an alternate source.
• essential power distribution is normally
supplied by the main power distribution
system (essential power is supplied by the
remaining power source in failure main power
distribution)
• emergency power distribution is normally
supplied by the main power sources via the
essential power distribution. In case of total
loss of the normal power sources, emergency
power distribution is switched to its alternate
power source which is an emergency
generator or the battery.
q AC, DC distribution can be divided into 3
parts
• Each part of the distribution system can be
supplied with electrical power from a normal
source and, in case of loss of this source, from
an alternate source.
• essential power distribution is normally
supplied by the main power distribution
system (essential power is supplied by the
remaining power source in failure main power
distribution)
• emergency power distribution is normally
supplied by the main power sources via the
essential power distribution. In case of total
loss of the normal power sources, emergency
power distribution is switched to its alternate
power source which is an emergency
generator or the battery.
1.3 ELECTRICAL MONITORING
q The control of the electrical power
system in modern aircraft is mainly
automatic, but some switching must
be performed manually.
q the electrical power control panel
located on the overhead panel of the
cockpit.
q Present the main information
necessary to monitor the system
operation. (voltage or current)
EICAS display
(Boeing 787) ECAM display (A320)
1.4 Main AC Power distribution
q The main AC power distribution
consists:
• The main AC busses
• The power source switching:
connects the power sources to the
busses
• The bus tie switching: connection
between the two busses and part of the
power source switching.
q one main AC bus for each engine
driven generator.
Airbus A320
q THE AC BUS FUNCTIONS:
§ A bus connects the power source to all the electrical consumers
which use the same type of electrical power.
§ Each bus has a specific name, which allows us to identify the
power source for the bus and indicates whether AC or DC is
distributed.
§ For example AC bus one distributes alternate current normally
delivered from engine generator number one.
q THE AC BUS FUNCTIONS:
§ AC busses consist of three different main busses: each phase, A, B or C.
§ Three main busses supply the various consumers directly or via sub-busses (four types of AC consumers.):
ü First, the single phase consumers with a low power demand, like lights or electronic equipment. These consumers
are connected individually to phase A or to phase B or to phase C.
ü The consumers that need a voltage different from 115 V. For example, 26 V or 28 V are needed by incandescent
lights and synchro and servo systems.
ü The 3 phase consumers such as 3 phase motors and TR units which need all three phases at the same time to
operate.
ü The large loads, like the galley equipment, that need about 50% of the total electrical load. Each phase of the bus
supplies one-third of the total power, in order to get a symmetrical loading of the power sources.
q LOAD SHEDDING:
§ The large loads must be shed or switched off before we
switch any power source on or off on the ground.
§ Load shedding improves the reliability of the power relays
and prevents an overload of the power source.
§ Manual load shedding is achieved via a pushbutton on the
electrical control panel.
§ The pushbutton is called GALLEY on the A320 panel and
UTILITY on the 747 panel.
§ Automatic load shedding is also available if an overload of
generators is detected or must be prevented by the system.
747 panel
A320
q POWER SOURCE SWITCHING:
§ It is performed by power relays.
§ The power relays are controlled either by a generator control unit, GCU, for the generator power sources
or by a ground power control unit, GPCU, for the external power source.
§ A power source switching always occurs when an existing power source is lost or when a new power
source becomes available..
§ The power source switching is controlled either automatically or manually.
§ Automatic load shedding is also available if an overload of generators is detected or must be prevented
by the system.
§ The automatic switching is performed by the generator control units to switch the power sources for flight
operation whereas the manual switching is performed from the control panel in the cockpit mainly to
switch the ground power sources.
You can override the automatic switching
q POWER SOURCE SWITCHING: with the generator control push button on
§ The power relay of an engine driven the electric control panel.
generator 1 is closed automatically generator is now switched off manually by
by the GCU when the corresponding the generator pushbutton, even if the engine
switch on the electrical control panel is still running.
is in the ”auto” position and when
the power of the corresponding
generator is ready. This power ready
condition means that the voltage and
frequency are OK and no failure is
detected by the GCU.
§ The engine driven generator power
is not ready as long as the engine is
shut down. This is shown by the
FAULT light in the generator push
button on the electrical control panel
and the indication on the electrical
system page of the ECAM system.
q AUTOMATIC BUS TIE SWITCHING
q During a normal flight, the power source switching has connected both engine generators to their corresponding
main AC busses. The power relays of the bus tie switching are open. This means that the power sources work in
isolation from each other. This is known as isolated operation.
§ Generator number 1 supplies the loads of the left part of the electrical power distribution and generator number 2
supplies the loads of the right part.
§ If one engine driven generator fails, the bus tie switching automatically closes both bus tie power relays and the
remaining generator supplies the complete electrical power distribution.
§ In this case an automatic load shedding occurs which switches off the galleys to prevent an overload of the
remaining generator. This is shown by the GALLEY SHED message on the ECAM display.
§ To be able to power the galleys again and to recover the power source redundancy, the APU generator can be
switched on in twin engine aircraft as an alternate power source during flight.
§ The APU generator is, like the engine driven generators, automatically switched on by its power source switching when
the power is ready.
§ The APU generator is automatically connected by the bus tie switching to the part of the distribution that is not
supplied directly by its associated engine driven generator.
§ The redundant supply of the main AC power distribution is recovered. This allows galley power to be switched on
again.You have now seen that the bus tie switching normally operates automatically.
q AUTOMATIC BUS TIE SWITCHING
q MANUAL BUS TIE SWITCHING
§ The only manual action that is possible with bus tie switching is to inhibit a closure of the bus tie power relays.
§ When the bus tie push button is switched off, both bus tie power relays open. Power supply from the left to the
right part of the distribution or vice versa is no longer possible.
§ Therefore, in our example, the right electrical power distribution is no longer powered, because generator number
two is still faulty.
§ The bus tie push button is mainly used to prevent bus tie switching in case of smoke in the cockpit generated
by a short circuit.
§ In this case a splitting of the right and left electrical power distribution allows an easier isolation of the smoke
source.
q MANUAL BUS
TIE
SWITCHING
§ The only manual
action that is
possible with bus
tie switching is to
inhibit a closure
of the bus tie
power relays.
q PARALLEL OPERATION OF GENERATOR (multiengine aircraft).
§ The power source switching is basically the same as on the twin engine aircraft but the bus tie switching
is completely different.
§ the generator power relay closes automatically when the corresponding generator has power ready and
the generator push button is in the auto position.
§ The power relays of the bus tie switching are normally closed in a multiengine aircraft. Therefore the first
generator that is switched on has to supply the complete distribution. In this single generator operation an
overload of the generator must be prevented.
§ Normally before any switching is performed on ground the manual load shedding switches off all large
loads.
§ But if a generator overload is detected during flight, due to multiple generator failures, the automatic load
shedding operates.
§ The result of load shedding is shown on the EICAS display by the amber Utility and Galley labels.
§ When the second generator is switched on by its power source switching, it is connected in parallel to the
first generator because the bus tie switching stays closed.
§ Parallel operation is only allowed when both generators are synchronized, that is they have the same
voltage and frequency and phase angle.
§ These conditions are automatically controlled and monitored by the generator control units.
q PARALLEL OPERATION
OF GENERATOR
(multiengine aircraft).
q PARALLEL OPERATION OF GENERATOR (multiengine aircraft).
§ Now three generators are working in parallel operation and enough power is available to supply the large
loads.
§ You can identify here the load values of each individual bus and how the generators share this load.
§ But because sufficient generator power is available with three generators operating, the right utility push button
on the electrical control panel can also be pressed. Note the power changes when the push button is pressed in.
§ Now all generators work in parallel. This is normal flight operation.
§ The numbers on the schematic show you that all generators share the same amount of load, even if the busses are
loaded differently.
§ Now you have seen the two main advantages of parallel operation.
§ First, all generators share the same part of the total load and second, there is no power interruption when one or
several generators are switched off.
q PARALLEL OPERATION OF
GENERATOR (multiengine
aircraft).
q BUS TIE SWITCHING IN PARALLEL OPERATION
§ In normal flight conditions with all generators working the bus tie power relays are normally in the closed
position.
§ In some cases, however, it is necessary to open the bus tie power relays to isolate an AC bus and its corresponding
generator from the parallel operation. This can be controlled either manually or automatically.
§ An automatic bus tie switching is performed when a serious problem in the distribution like a short circuit is
detected or, during automatic landing, when the redundant avionic equipment needs isolated power supplies.
§ The manual bus tie switching is controlled from the corresponding bus tie push button on the electrical control
panel.
§ Now all busses are still powered, but generator 1 supplies AC bus 1, isolated from the remaining distribution, like in
a twin engine aircraft.
q BUS TIE SWITCHING IN PARALLEL OPERATION
BUS TIE POWER RELAYS

q GROUND POWER SOURCE SWITCHING PART 1
§ Normally an external power source is used to supply the whole system but if it is not available, an alternate
power source is provided by the APU generator.
§ When external power is connected to the aircraft, the ground power control unit, GPCU, checks whether the
power is ready or not.
§ If the power is ready the available light in the external power push button on the electrical control panel
illuminates.
§ To supply the whole electrical power distribution from external power the external power push button is pressed.
§ Ground power source switching must always be performed manually.
§ Note that a list of checkpoints must be satisfied before you are allowed to switch on external power.
§ For now assume that the list of checkpoints is satisfied.
§ When the external power push button is pressed the external power relay is closed by the ground power control
unit both bus tie power relays are closed automatically by the bus tie switching and external power supplies
both parts of the electrical power distribution system.
§ The ECAM displays are now available allowing you to check that external power data is correct.
EXTERNAL POWER CONTROL

§ In a multiengine aircraft the ground power sources are also external power and the APU generator .
§ But, as you already know the power demand of the electrical consumers in these aircraft types is so high, that one ground
power source cannot supply them all. Therefore two external power sources can be connected and, on the 747, two
APU driven generators are installed.
§ Let us first see what happens when only external power number 1 is available.
§ The external power source is switched on manually as in the twin engine aircraft, when the corresponding push button
is pressed and the ”Power Ready” condition is satisfied.
§ Now let’s see what happens when the second external power source is also switched on.
§ You may expect that the two external power sources are switched in parallel, as we have seen for the engine driven
generators. But this is not allowed, because ground power sources cannot be synchronized.
§ To overcome this problem a split system breaker, or SSB, is installed. The split system breaker can split the main power
distribution into two parts. This allows the distribution to be supplied by two non synchronized power sources, like in
the flight operation of a twin engine aircraft.
§ The split system breaker always opens automatically if the left and right parts of the distribution are supplied by power
sources that cannot work in parallel.
§ An alternate manual switching is available but normally not necessary.
q GROUND POWER
SOURCE
SWITCHING PART 2
q NO BREAK POWER TRANSFER:
§ When power source switching is performed from one power source to another one which is not allowed to work in
parallel, a loss of power for about a tenth of a second normally occurs.
§ This happens because the old power source, for example APU generator number 1, must be switched off before the new
power source, for example external power number 1, can be switched on.
§ To prevent this problems of power interruption, modern aircraft like the 747-400 and the A340, use a ”No Break
Power Transfer” or NBPT.
§ When a power source switching of different power sources is necessary, like from external power number 1 to engine
generator number one, first a synchronisation of the two different power sources is started.
§ In this example engine generator number one is controlled by its generator control unit to the same voltage and
frequency and phase angle as external power number 1.
§ When synchronisation is achieved the GCU switches the new power source on. After not more than a fifth of a
second the old power source is switched off.
q NO BREAK POWER TRANSFER:
§ .
POWER SOURCE SWITCHING

2. ELECTRICAL POWER MAIN DC, ESSENTIAL AND EMERGENCY
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.1 MAIN DC POWER PARALLEL OPERATION
q MAIN DC POWER DISTRIBUTION.
§ It consists of the main DC busses and the main DC power switching.
§ Normally each main DC bus is powered by the corresponding main AC bus via a transformer rectifier unit.
Therefore, we have as many main DC busses as main AC busses.
§ The main DC busses are normally switched into a parallel operation by the DC BUS switching.
§ As in the AC distribution, an isolated operation of the main DC busses is sometimes necessary.
§ For example in this 747 an automatic bus isolation occurs when an automatic landing is started. It is necessary in this
situation to prevent a single failure like a short circuit from affecting all systems at once.
§ In addition, a manual isolation is always possible by pressing the bus tie pushbutton switch on the panel
POWER DISTRIBUTION
q MAIN DC POWER DISTRIBUTION.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
q main dc power parallel
operation cont.
main DC bus isolation.
§ the main AC bus 1 and main DC
bus 1 are now powered separately
from generator 1 via TR unit 1.
The remaining distribution stays
in parallel operation.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.2 MAIN DC POWER ISOLATED OPERATION
q main dc power isolation operation.
§ The MAIN DC Power distribution must always work in isolated operation on an aircraft equipped with an electrical
flight control system such as the airbus A320.
§ This prevents a single failure such as a short circuit, from affecting the complete flight control system all at once.
§ The DC power switching in these aircraft is therefore normally open.
§ It is only closed in the case of a TR unit failure. The switching then automatically connects the two main DC busses to
each other.
§ Here you can see what happens when a TR Unit fails.
§ The MAIN DC POWER switching ensures that the MAIN DC busses are supplied for as long as possible even with a
single TR unit failure.
§ But in our simplified system this switching also connects the two electrical flight control systems to the same power
source, this is not safe.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.2 MAIN DC POWER ISOLATED OPERATION
q main dc power isolation operation.
DC POWER SWITCHING
(A320)
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.3 AC ESSENTIAL POWER DISTRIBUTION
q essential power distribution.
§ The essential power distribution consists mainly of an AC part and a DC part and supplies all the systems that are
necessary to operate the aircraft safely, such as the captain’s navigation and communication equipment and important
control and warning systems.
§ Let us use the example of the two engine aircraft again to see some more details of AC essential power distribution. It
consists of the AC ESSENTIAL BUS and the AC essential bus switching.
§ As you can see, the normal power source for the AC essential bus is the main AC bus number 1 and the alternate
power source, the main AC bus number 2.
§ The AC essential bus switching is performed manually, by pressing the AC ESSential FEED push button on the
electric control panel.
§ As you have seen, manual AC essential bus switching is always possible but it is only necessary if the normal power
source of the AC essential bus fails.
§ Only in the case of a serious main AC bus 1 failure, like a short circuit, is the AC Essential bus no longer powered. This
is indicated to the pilot by the local warning with the fault light on the electric control panel. The failure is also indicated
on the ECAM display.
§ To recover the AC essential power, press the illuminated AC ESSential FEED push button.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.3 AC ESSENTIAL POWER DISTRIBUTION
q essential power
distribution.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.4 DC ESSENTIAL POWER DISTRIBUTION
q DC essential bus and the corresponding DC essential bus switching.
§ The DC essential bus is the real power source for the electrical flight control system number 1, which we have already
seen in the main DC distribution and for other essential DC equipment.
§ What do you think will happen to the supply of the DC essential bus when TR unit #1, which is the normal power source,
fails?
§ The DC essential bus switching activates the Essential TR Unit as the alternate power source for the DC essential bus.
§ It always occurs automatically when the two DC main busses are switched together because of a TR Unit failure.
§ DC essential bus switching is mainly to secure an independent power source for the DC essential equipment, such as the
electrical flight control system number 1 from the other equipment.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
q DC essential bus
and the
corresponding
DC essential bus
switching.
DC ESSENTIAL BUS
POWER DISTRIBUTION
q TRANSFER BUSSES.
§ In this segment we look at another type of essential power distribution, which is often used in boeing aircraft.
§ It comprises two transfer busses, and the associated switching.
§ The name transfer bus is used, because the bus is automatically transfered- from the normal power source to the
alternate power source by the switching.
§ The captains transfer bus usually supplies the same equipment as an AC essential bus, such as instruments, navigation
and communication systems of the captain and the FO transfer bus supplies redundant equipment for the first officer.
§ The power sources for the two pilots are usually independent.
§ Only if AC BUS 2 and 3 fail, do both pilots use AC BUS 1 as the common alternate power source.
§ There is no DC essential or DC transfer bus in this electrical power system. They are unnecessary because of the 4 TR
Units which make the main DC power redundant
POWER DISTRIBUTION
q TRANSFER BUSSES.
AC TRANSFER BUS (BOEING)

POWER DISTRIBUTION
q EMERGENCY POWER INTRODUCTION:
§ When all main power sources are lost, the captain still needs all necessary information to land the aircraft safely.
§ Therefore the most important equipment is connected to the emergency power distribution instead of the essential power
distribution.
§ Examples of this important equipment are the Captains main instruments, the engine and warning indications and the
major communication systems.
§ The emergency power distribution is normally supplied from the same power sources as the essential power
distribution.
§ But in case of the total loss of all main power sources, it is switched to the emergency power sources.
§ The emergency power source, which is always available, is the aircraft battery. It provides sufficient electrical energy for
about 30 minutes with 24 V DC directly to the DC emergency bus.
§ An additional emergency generator is necessary in two engine aircraft which operate on long routes which give no
possibility of landing quickly.
§ Operation on these routes is called extended range operation or EROP for short.
§ The emergency generator is driven by a constant speed hydraulic motor, therefore the emergency generator is called a
”Constant Speed Motor Generator, or CSMG”
§ The generator supplies 115 V AC directly to the AC Essential and Emergency Busses and supplies 28 V DC by use of the
essential TR unit to the DC busses.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
q EMERGENCY POWER INTRODUCTION:
EMERGENCY POWER
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.5 EMERGENCY POWER SWITCHING
q The emergency power switching is fully automatic during flight.
But in addition manual switching is always possible.
The manual switching activates the emergency power even when normal power is available. For example it is provided with
the ”emergency electric MAN ON” pushbutton on the airbus panel or with the ”standby power ” switch in the battery position
on the boeing panel.
An additional manual switching function is very important on the ground. This is to inhibit the emergency and battery
power switching before the last main power source, such as external power is switched off.
Ok, all batteries are now switched off. This prevents a discharge of the battery by the emergency equipment, during the time
the aircraft is parked.
Only one part of the distribution is still powered. This part is called the hot battery bus, because it is always connected directly
to the battery.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.5 EMERGENCY POWER SWITCHING
MANUAL SWITCHING
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.6 OPERATION EXAMPLE
In our example of the four engine aircraft the AC emergency distribution is called AC standby bus.
Normally, the AC standby this bus has the same power source as the Captain’s transfer bus.
But if no main power source is available, the standby bus is switched automatically to the Static inverter. However, the
transfer bus is lost.
If Standby power switch is in the off position the standby AC bus is completely deenergized. This isolates the bus in
case of smoke due to a short circuit and prevents a battery discharge on the ground when the main power sources are
switched off.
In the battery position the AC standby bus and the battery bus are connected to the battery, despite the availability of the
main power sources. This overrides the automatic switching if it is not working or allows you to test whether the
battery and static inverter are alright on the ground.
The AUTO position is the normal position during flight. This allows automatic switching as we have described.
The DC emergency power in this aircraft is provided by a Battery bus.
The Battery Bus is supplied by its normal power source as long as any of the TR units are working and supplied by a
main AC power source .
The Battery bus is automatically switched to the Battery output if normal power is lost.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.6 OPERATION EXAMPLE
Operation
POWER DISTRIBUTION
2.6 OPERATION EXAMPLE 2
Now let’s have a look at the similarities and
differences in our two engined aircraft
example.
Here the emergency power consists of two
emergency busses which are powered as
long as the main power sources are available.
In case of total loss of main power sources
in this aircraft two different emergency
power sources are available. This is as in
our previous example, the battery power,
here provided by two individual batteries,
and in addition, an emergency generator.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
The automatic activation of the emergency power sources is performed during
flight:
When the last main power source is lost, both of the main AC busses are lost.
This deploys the ram air turbine or RAT. the RAT generates the hydraulic power needed
for the hydraulically driven emergency generator.
When the hydraulic pressure is available the emergency generator starts running.
When AC electrical power is available from the emergency generator, it is switched
automatically to the AC Emergency and AC essential busses.
In addition, the DC electrical power is generated by the essential TR Unit for the DC
busses. This means that all the essential equipment for flying the aircraft can be supplied
because the generator provides sufficient power.
You can also see the result shown on the ECAM electrical system page.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
If the emergency generator is not available the batteries take over automatically, but because of its limited
capacity, it can only supply the most important equipment. Therefore the Essential busses are automatically shed.
On the ECAM display, you can see all the corresponding indications with the amber shed message on the busses
and the battery and static inverter parameters.
In this situation the pilot can try to activate the emergency generator manually. Manual activation is possible by the
”manual on” pushbutton on the emergency electric panel. This pushbutton is easy to identify because the red
emergency generator Fault light is illuminated beside it.
You can see that the manual activation of the emergency generator has the same effect as the automatic function,
but it is always available, even on the ground with all power sources switched off.
To prevent an accidental deployment of the RAT which could be very dangerous to ground personnel, the manual
ON pushbutton is guarded.
Pushing the manual ON pushbutton on the hydraulic panel has the same effect on the RAT, but the emergency
generator is not activated.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
EMERGENCY POWER SWITCHING

3. ELECTRICAL POWER DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS
3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

q INTRODUCTION
The main components
are the power relays
which are used as the
switching devices, the
circuit breakers and
fuses which are used as
safety devices and
current transformers
which are used as
current measuring
devices.
MAIN DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS


q INTRODUCTION

q INTRODUCTION

q AC POWER RELAY.
For AC switching, two different types of power relays are used:
One type is called a contactor and the other type is called a breaker.
The breaker has two advantages over the contactor. One is that the coil can be smaller, because no
heat is produced in the coil during the closed state.
The generator power relay number one connects the engine driven generator number one with the
distribution.
The second advantage is that the breaker stays closed even when no electrical power is available.
All AC power relays have the same function, independent of their location in the distribution. This
function is to switch the three phase main AC power to specific parts of the distribution.
Because they perform the same function all AC power relays are basically similar. They consist
primarily of the three high power main contacts which are operated by an electro magnetic device.
In addition, several auxiliary contacts monitor the switching state for indication, regulation and
protection.

q AC POWER RELAY.
The electromagnetic operating device of a contactor consists of a coil and the iron armature.
When a current is switched on for the coil, a magnetic field is generated which moves the armature
and the contacts.
The contacts are operated for as long as the current flows. You can see that it is similar to a standard
relay.
The electromagnetic operating device of the breaker type power relay works in a different way. It needs
only a short current pulse to close the contacts and a second pulse to open or trip the contacts again.
To hold the contacts in the closed state, no current is necessary. This is because a latching device,
normally a permanent magnet, is used to hold the armature in the operated position.
Here you can compare the three steps in the operation of the breaker type power relay with the
operation of the contactor which we previously explained.
The first step is identical for both types because the close current in the coil must generate the magnetic
field.

q AC POWER RELAY.
In the second step, the coil current of the breaker is interrupted by auxiliary contacts and the
magnetic field of the permanent magnet holds the armature down.
To open the power relay contacts again, the magnetic field of the permanent magnet must be
weakened. This is performed by a trip current which flows in the opposite direction.
The breaker has two advantages over the contactor. One is that the coil can be smaller, because no
heat is produced in the coil during the closed state.
The second advantage is that the breaker stays closed even when no electrical power is available.

q AC POWER RELAY.
AC POWER RELAY

q FUSE.
Fuses and circuit breakers are used to prevent currents that are higher than the maximum allowed for the
cross section of the wire.
A higher current is caused by a short circuit or faulty consumer and can overheat the wire and generate a
fire. Therefore, when a wire cross section is reduced, such as on busses or terminals, a circuit breaker or fuse is
always installed.
Only the generator feeder lines are not protected by fuses or circuit breakers. This area is protected by the
specific circuits of the GCU.
A fuse is the easiest method of overcurrent protection. It consists mainly of a metal strip with a cross section
smaller than that of the wire it must protect.
When the current exceeds the maximum allowed value for the specific wire, the metal strip melts and the
electric circuit is interrupted before it damages the wiring. This means that it works like a shear pin in an
mechanical linkage, by acting as the weakest link in the wiring.
When a fuse is blown, it must be replaced after repairing the affected circuit. For this task spare fuses must be
available in the aircraft in a sufficient number.
Replacement of blown fuses is time consuming, therefore, in nearly all aircraft, circuit breakers are used
instead of fuses.

q FUSE.
Fuses are only

used when the
permitted current
exceeds 125
amperes and this
is only possible in
FUSES AND CIRCUT BREAKERS
the DC
distribution. In
this current range,
fuses are also
called current
limiters.

q CIRCUIT BREAKER FUNCTION.
CBs have 2 advantages over fuses - first they can be reset quickly and circuit breakers can also be used as
manual on - off switches to allow deactivation of circuits.
In addition to the nominal current, each circuit breaker must be clearly identifiable by a label which
names the circuit that is supplied.
This is very useful for maintenance purposes.
The reset of a circuit breaker is not possible as long as the bimetal is bent.
Hundreds of circuit breakers are installed in a transport aircraft. The location of the CBs depends on the
location of the wire or consumer they must protect. This is to minimize wire length.
When the bimetal has returned to its normal shape, pushing the control knob allows the release
mechanism to close the contact. Therefore, after a circuit breaker trip, a cool down time of about 2
minutes is recommended before a reset.
For instance, the circuit breakers that protect the connections to the busses and to the large loads are
mainly installed in the electric compartment and the circuit breakers for connections to cabin equipment,
such as lights, galleys and toilets are located mainly in the cabin.
The circuit breakers for the various aircraft systems are generally located in the cockpit. However, the
regulations specify that during flight, only the CBs for the essential loads should be within the pilots
reach.
The main task of a circuit breaker is to open an electrical circuit if there is a short circuit.
Despite different circuit breaker constructions, this task is always performed by a thermal sensitive device.
This device consists of a bimetal strip, which normally connects the two terminals of the circuit breaker
and therefore is heated by the current.
When the actual current exceeds the maximum permitted current, the temperature of the bimetal
increases and starts bending. This triggers a release mechanism, which pops out the control knob and
shows the white band.
The last, but most important step is that the electrical circuit is opened by a spring, pushing the bimetal
off the contacts.
The not to be exceeded current of the wire is labeled as the nominal current of the circuit breaker on the
front face of the control knob.
The values range from a half ampere for control circuits to 125 amperes for connections between busses.
The time that is needed to release a circuit breaker depends on the current that exceeds the nominal
value. On the graph presented here, you can identify the time which is allowed to release the circuit breaker
used in this example.
In addition to the nominal current, each circuit breaker must be clearly identifiable by a label which
names the circuit that is supplied.
The reset of a circuit breaker is not possible as long as the bimetal is bent.
When the bimetal has returned to its normal shape, pushing the control knob allows the release
mechanism to close the contact. Therefore, after a circuit breaker trip, a cool down time of about 2 minutes
is recommended before a reset.
A reset is only allowed once because the current of a short circuit is so high. It can damage the circuit
breaker or weld the contacts which will prevent a trip.
All circut breakers in an aircraft are of the trip free type. This means that they must be able to open an
overloaded circut even if the cintrol knob mechanism is blocked. But to maintain this importent
capability, never overstress a circut breaker by more than one reset as long as the short circut exists.
The circuit breaker collars are used to allow easy identification of certain circuit breakers. Two different
colors are used orange and grey.
The orange collar shows circuit breakers that must be pulled by the flight crew according to a particular
abnormal procedure, for instance to cancel a nuisance warning.
The grey collar is used to mark circuit breakers that must be pulled during maintenance activities on
the ground to prevent dangerous situations.
The red safety clip is used when the closure of a circuit breaker must be prevented. This is necessary
when the connected circuit is not allowed to operate because of missing components or certification.
The red safety tag is used during maintenance activities on the ground. It informs people that this
specific circuit breaker must not be closed because work on the specific circuit is in process.
The same type of tag is also used to identify switches or other cockpit controls for the same reason.
CIRCUT BREAKER
In some modern aircraft types, many circuit breakers have green, instead of black control knobs.
These circuit breakers, which are mainly for essential systems, are connected to a circuit breaker
monitoring system. This system informs the pilot on the ECAM display when a connected circuit
breaker is tripped.
When a circuit breaker is tripped, a caution message appears on the upper display, and the name and
location of the open circuit breaker is presented on the lower display. This allows an easy
identification of the circuit breaker to perform a reset.
CB MONITORING
q REMOTE CONTROL CIRCUIT BREAKER.
On some large aircraft, a special type of circuit breaker is used. The remote control circuit breaker, or RCCB in
short.
RCCBs are installed near the consumer, for instance in the aft equipment or main equipment center. They are not
in the cabin or cockpit. This saves wire weight, especially for large loads. It also saves space in the cockpit or
cabin.
The remote control circuit breakers have primarily the same function as a normal circuit breaker. This function is
to interrupt the electrical circuit between the supply and the load when the current exceeds the nominal value.
The primary circuit breaker function of the RCCB is again performed by a thermal sensitive device like a
bimetal. If an overload opens this bimetal contact, the control logic also opens a contact of a contactor and a set
of auxiliary contacts used for monitoring circuits.
On the RCCB, a visual indicator allows you to check if the RCCB is open or closed.
For one type of RCCBs, a small control circuit breaker is installed in the cockpit. This control CB always opens
when the RCCB opens and allows a tripped RCCB to be reset. In addition, the manual on and off switching can
be performed like a normal CB.
Here you can watch the operation of the RCCB, either by simulating a short circuit and performing a reset or
manually opening and closing it by clicking on the control circuit breaker.
Please note that a circuit breaker can only close when no short circuit is present.
RC CIRCUT BREAKER
There is a second type of remote
control circuit breaker.
In addition to the basic circuit
breaker function, this type of
RCCB provides a normal
contactor operation.
This allows you to switch large
loads, like galleys, on or off, via
a contactor control logic. This
logic can be, for instance, part of
the generator control and
protection circuits.
Here, a reset of a tripped circuit
breaker function is only
possible by pressing a manual
RC CIRCUT BREAKER
reset pushbutton on the RCCB.
q CURRENT TRANSFORMER.
From the distribution, the generator control unit needs operational parameters for control, protection
and indication.
Whereas, the voltage is directly derived from the measuring point, the current needs special
measuring component. In the AC distribution current transformers or CTs in short, are used for this
task.
Current transformers are available as single phase or three phase components as shown here.
All current transformers have a hole for each measuring phase. The wires which carry the current to be
be measured are put through these holes.
An iron core is located around each hole which carries a coil wire.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
The coil wire has up to one thousand windings and forms the secondary winding of a transformer
The wire with the current that must be measured, forms the primary winding of a transformer.
The current in the secondary winding of a current transformer is only dependent on the current in the
primary wire and the ratio of the windings.
The result is that the magnetic field produced by the primary current ( I1 ) is compensated by the
magnetic field of the secondary current ( I2 ). This is because the sum of the primary current multiplied
by the number of primary windings is equal to the secondary current multiplied by the number of
secondary windings.
But what do you think will happen in this situation when the circuit of the secondary winding is open
When you open the secondary winding of a current transformer during normal operation, for
instance, by removing the generator control unit, the current transformer will be damaged. This
happens because the magnetic field of the primary current is no longer compensated and generates
high voltage and heat.
To prevent this, never open connections in a powered circuit, for instance, by removing the generator
control unit
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
3. ELECTRICAL POWER AC GENERATION
3.1 AC GENERATION
q INTRODUCTION.
All of these AC power sources generate AC electrical power with a voltage of 115 V and a frequency of
400 Hz.
AC power is generated using two different methods; the first uses a constant speed generator and the
second uses a static inverter.
The constant speed AC generator converts the mechanical input power from the engine, the APU or
the emergency hydraulic motor into the required electrical power.
3.1 AC GENERATION
q INTRODUCTION.
AC POWER
3.1 AC GENERATION
q GENERATOR BASIC FUNCTION
A generator consists basically of a rotating magnet with a magnetic north and south pole, forming the so
called polepair.
The polepair produces a magnetic field which induces a voltage in the coil of the stator. This is known as the
principle of induction with motion.
The amount and polarity of the generated voltage depends on the angle of the rotating magnet.
The sine form of the AC voltage is produced.
During a complete rotation of the magnet one sine wave is completed. If this takes one second the voltage has
a frequency of 1 Hz.
Frequency is influenced by the rotational speed of the rotor and also influenced by the number of rotating
polepairs.
As you can see in this formula, the necessary input speed, n, for a given frequency depends on the number of
polepairs, p.
Most aircraft generators need an input speed of 12,000 RPM because they are equipped with two polepairs,
as in our example.
But aircraft generators with input speeds of 24,000, 8,000 or 6,000 RPM are also used. This means that the
number of polepairs can vary from one to four.
3.1 AC GENERATION
q GENERATOR BASIC FUNCTION
AC GENERATION
3.1 AC GENERATION
q THREE PHASE GENERATOR
The generators used in jet aircraft are three phase generators.
In general they work in the same way as the single phase generator we saw in the last segment.
However the three phase generators have three individual stator coils, phase A, phase B and phase C,
which generate three individual voltages.
The rotating magnetic field induces the same AC voltage in the coil of phase A as we saw in the single
phase generator.
The voltage of phase B has the same shape and value as in phase A, but is shifted by 1200 This is because
the phase B coil is located 1200 apart from the phase A coil.
The same is true for the voltage of phase C in relation to phase B.
All three coils are connected on one side to a common point. This common point is known as the neutral
point and is connected to ground, that is to the aircrafts conductive structure.
The voltage measured from one phase to neutral, called the line to neutral voltage, is 115 V.
When you add the 115 V line to neutral voltages of two different phases like phase A and phase B, you get
a line to line voltage with an effective value of 200 V.
It’s a major advantage of the three phase electrical power system to have two different voltage levels
available without additional equipment.
3.1 AC GENERATION
Typical main generator showing three-

phase output cabling
3.1 AC GENERATION
You’ve already heard about two other major advantages of three phase electrical power systems in the
distribution lessons.
Three phase motors are easy and economic to use because of the rotating magnetic field produced by the
three phase currents.
The other advantage of three phase systems is that the neutral current which flows via the structure
during normal operation is very small.
This is because the sum of the three individual phase currents is zero as long as they are equal.
You can check this by adding the values of all three sinewaves, representing the three phase currents, at any
point on the chart.
3.1 AC GENERATION
3 PHASE CIRCUITS
3.1 AC GENERATION
q AIRCRAFT CONSTANT SPEED GENERATOR
The rotating magnet of the generator must be driven with a constant speed to generate a constant
frequency.
The constant speed is provided directly for the APU generator as the APU always runs at a constant
speed.
The emergency generator also has a constant input speed as it is driven by a constant speed hydraulic
motor. Because of this the emergency generator is often called the constant speed motor generator or
CSMG.
In the case of the engine driven generators, the variable engine speed must be converted into a constant
speed by using a constant speed drive or CSD.
The CSD is either a separate component, as is common on older generation aircraft or combined with
the generator in one housing to form an integrated drive generator or IDG.
While the frequency is correct as long as the input speed is correct, the output voltage of the generator
must be regulated. This is necessary to make sure that the effective voltage of 115 V is always provided to
the distribution independent of the load current.
The voltage regulation is performed by an exciter current which influences the strength of the magnetic
field. The exciter current is generated by a voltage regulator and flows through the rotating coil.
3.1 AC GENERATION
q AIRCRAFT CONSTANT SPEED GENERATOR
GENERATOR CONTROL
3.1 AC GENERATION
q BRUSHLESS GENERATOR
To transfer the exciter current into the rotating part of the generator classical generators use sliprings
and brushes.
However this method is not used on aircraft generators because it has a low MTBF and produces
sparks. To prevent the disadvantages of using brushes and sliprings all aircraft generators are
brushless generators. Brushless generators consist of the main generator and an additional generator
called the exciter generator.
The exciter generator is an external pole generator. This means that the coils which produce the
magnetic field are located in the fixed part called the stator. This magnetic field induces an
alternating current in the rotating coil of the exciter generator.
The alternating current is then rectified by diodes to the necessary exciter direct current for the main
generator.
The diodes are located in the rotating part of the generator and form the rotating rectifier.
3.1 AC GENERATION
GENERATOR SLIP RINGS AND BRUSHES

3.1 AC GENERATION
All brushless generators
consist of three main parts;
the exciter generator, the
rotating rectifier and the
main generator.
All modern brushless
generators also have a
permanent magnet
generator or PMG.
The PMG consists of a
rotating set of permanent
magnets which induce an
AC voltage into the stator
coils when the generator is
running. This voltage is used
as a power supply for the
GCU.
3.1 AC GENERATION
q GENERATOR COOLING
You already know that the engine driven generator uses a constant speed drive to change the variable engine speed into
a constant input speed. You also know that in modern aircraft the CSD and the brushless generator are located in a
common component called the integrated drive generator or IDG.
The oil is used mainly for the CSD operation as you will learn later, but it is also used by the generator.
Oil cooling is always used where practicable because it is very efficient. Oil cooled generators are smaller and lighter
than generators cooled by air.
In addition to the IDG, oil cooling is also used in the emergency generator. Here the oil from the hydraulic motor which
drives the generator can easily be used.
In some aircraft the APU generator is also cooled by oil, using the APU oil.
Air must be used for generator cooling, if oil cooling is not practicable. This is true for older aircraft where the
generator and the CSD are separate components and also for most APU generators.
The cooling air is taken from the air inlet of the engine or APU and is available as long as the engine or APU is running.
Generally the generator cooling reduces the heat that is produced by the load current in the windings and diodes.
To prevent damage to the generator due to overheat the load current must be limited. The better the cooling conditions
the higher the load current limit allowed.
For instance oil cooled generators have a higher load limit than air-cooled ones, and the load limit for some APU
generators is lower on ground than in flight.
3.1 AC GENERATION
q GENERATOR COOLING
GENERATOR COOLING
3.1 AC GENERATION
q GENERATOR CONNECTIONS
Two types of electrical connections are used.
One is a conventional connector, which provides all low
current connections, like exciter and PMG and the other is a
terminal block which we will now look at in more detail.
The terminal block consists of three bolts, T1, T2 and T3, to
connect the three generator feeder lines and normally one
bolt, N, for the connection to neutral.
Some generators, mainly in older aircraft, have three bolts
for the connection to neutral. You will learn the reason for
this later.
As all bolts are the same size you must always ensure that the
power cables are connected to the correct terminal bolt. This
means that phase A must be connected to T1, phase B to T2,
phase C to T3 and neutral to N.
Aircraft manufacture minimizes the risk of working error,
by using a fixed spacer connecting the cables in the correct
sequence or by using color coding.
3.1 AC GENERATION
q GENERATOR CONNECTIONS
3.1 AC GENERATION
q STATIC INVERTER
A static inverter converts DC power into AC power without any moving parts.
It is always necessary when only DC power is available but AC power is required.
One application you should know about already is the emergency static inverter.
Additional applications of the static inverter on aircraft are the towing inverter and the VSCF generator.
A towing inverter is used on some aircraft types to provide AC power during towing of the aircraft. You will see this in the
ground power lesson.
VSCF stands for variable speed constant frequency and the VSCF generator is a new type of engine driven generator.
All static inverters consist, basically, of a transformer and a switch.
The switch contact switches continuously between the two possible positions.
In the upper position, the contact allows a current flow from the plus pole of the DC power source, via the upper part of
the transformer and back to the minus pole of the power source.
In the lower position, the contact allows a current flow from the plus pole of the DC power source, via the lower part of
the transformer and back to the minus pole of the power source.
When the current in the primary winding of the transformer changes its direction, an alternating magnetic field is produced
which induces an alternating current into the secondary winding of the transformer.
3.1 AC GENERATION
q STATIC INVERTER
The type of static inverter used on aircraft functions in generally the same way as the basic one, but needs more parts and
is more complex.
A filter network is added in the output circuit to get an accurate sine wave AC power and the switch contact is replaced
by solid state switches to achieve high reliability.
A beat generator closes the solid state switches at the right time in order to get the correct output frequency.
3.1 AC GENERATION
q STATIC INVERTER
Static inverter installation

3.1 AC GENERATION
q VARIABLE SPEED CONSTANT FREQUENCY GENERATOR
Finally in this lesson we will have a look at a modern substitution for the combination of CSD and constant speed
generator.
It is called the variable speed constant frequency, or VSCF, generator.
The advantages of the VSCF generator over the combined CSD and constant speed generator are higher MTBF
and efficiency and a lower weight.
The VSCF generator subcomponents include a generator, a rectifier, a static inverter and a filter. The generator
is constructed like a standard brushless generator, but is driven with a variable speed from the engine via a gear
box.
The rectifier converts the AC with a variable frequency into DC. The DC is filtered and then converted by a static
inverter back to AC which now has the correct frequency of 400 Hz.
After passing the AC filter, the AC is available at the output module with the same parameters as from the
conventional constant speed generator.
In addition to the components for AC generation, the VSCF generator also has a generator control unit or GCU.
The GCU controls the output voltage and frequency, and switches off the VSCF generator in the event of a
failure.
Finally, the VSCF has an oil circuit which provides cooling for the generator, rectifier and inverter and lubrication
for the generator bearings.
3.1 AC GENERATION
q VARIABLE SPEED CONSTANT FREQUENCY GENERATOR
VSCF GENERATOR
3.2 ELECTRICAL POWER CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE
q CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE
The speed conversion for the engine driven generator is necessary ,because the engine high speed
rotor, named N2, that drives the generator via the gear box varies the speed in a ratio of 1 to 2 between
idle and takeoff power.
If this speed was allowed to directly drive the generator it would produce frequencies between 280 and
560 Hz.
However the AC distribution needs a constant frequency of 400 Hz so the constant speed generator
needs a constant input speed, usually 12000 RPM. This means that in the low speed range the speed
must be increased and in the high speed range it must be decreased. This is the job of the constant
speed drive, CSD.
The basic function of the constant speed drive is therefore to add or subtract a speed. In a low speed
region like idle, this is named the overdrive operation.
In a high speed region like takeoff power it is named underdrive operation.
In the middle, between the low and high speed regions, constant speed drive just transfers the input
speed to the output, this is called the straight drive operation.
q CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE
GENERATOR DRIVE
q CSD COMPONENTS
The real constant speed drive contains the following components for speed conversion:
A differential gear that is able to add or subtract speeds, an hydraulic motor - pump combination to
produce the additional speed and a speed control circuit, to control the speed conversion.
In addition to the components for speed conversion, the CSD contains three main parts: First an oil
circuit, which provides oil for the hydraulic components and for cooling and lubrication.
Then a disconnect device that allows you to interrupt the CSD input shaft during flight, and finally
several components for system monitoring.
As you have already seen in the previous lesson, modern CSDs are combined with the generator in one
component. This component is called the integrated drive generator or IDG.
The integreated drive generator or the constant speed drive is mounted on the engine gear box with a
quick attach and detach, or Q-A-D, ring.
The Q-A-D ring, which is also used for other components, allows a quick replacement of the IDG.
The main component of the speed conversion is the axial differential gear, therefore constant speed
drives are also named AGD drives, for axial gear differential.
q CSD COMPONENTS
The differential gear transfers the
torque from the input to the
output and adds the input speed
with an additional speed of an
hydraulic motor.
The additional speed, that is
added by the differential gear, is
produced by an hydraulic
motor. It’s speed and the
direction of rotation is
controlled by the hydraulic
pressure which is produced by a
pump.
CSD MAIN PARTS

q SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT
Hydraulic pump pressure and consequently the speed of the motor is controlled by a closed loop speed control
circuit, that can either work electromechanically or just mechanically.
Let us first have a look at the more commonly used mechanical speed control circuit.
It uses a fly weight speed governor to measure the CSD output speed.
The position of the fly weights control the hydraulic pressure that acts on the control cylinder.
The position of control cylinder determines the angle of the variable wobble plate of the hydraulic pump and
therefore the produced pump pressure.
In the straight drive mode of operation presented here, the oil inside the motor - pump unit is trapped and cannot,
therefore, return to the oil circuit for cooling.
This is the reason, why the straight drive mode of operation is only allowed for a short period of time during
acceleration or deceleration of the engine.
The engine speed now increases and the fly weights move outward until the centrifugal force is balanced with the
spring force. The hydraulic pressure moves the control cylinder to the left and increases the angle of the variable
wobble plate of the pump. This increases the hydraulic pressure which allows the hydraulic motor to subtract more
speed.
When the engine speed is stable, and the CSD has reached the correct output speed, the fly weights return to the
normal position and the control cylinder stops at the reached position.
The engine speed is now decreasing and the fly
weights move inward because the spring force
is stronger than the centrifugal force.The
hydraulic pressure moves the control cylinder
to the right and increases the angle of the
variable wobble plate of the pump.
The decrease in hydraulic pump pressure
allows the hydraulic motor to add more speed.
When the engine speed is stable and the CSD
has reached the correct output speed, the fly
weights return to the normal position and the
control cylinder stops at the position it has
reached.
CSD CONTROL
You have probably recognized in the
previous examples, that the spring force of
the speed governor influences the
position of the fly weights and therefore
the controlled CSD output speed. This
allows you to adjust the frequency of the
generator by changing the spring force
with an adjustment screw. One full turn
corresponds to about 3 Hz.
The adjustment is started by calculating
the necessary screw turns from the
frequency deviation.
The engine is then shutdown.
The necessary screw turns are performed
on the CSD only when the engine is
stopped. FREQUENCY ADJUSTMENT
Instead of the mechanical speed control
circuit we have just looked at, some
modern aircraft use an electromechanical
speed control circuit.
This circuit uses the frequency control
circuit in the generator control unit to
compare the generator output frequency
with the reference of 400 Hz.
If there is a frequency difference
detected, a servo valve transfers the
electrical signal into hydraulic pressure.
This influences the control cylinder in the
same way as the mechanical system
which has already been described to you.
MECHANICAL SPEED CONTROL CIRCUT

q OIL CIRCUIT
The oil is used in the internal oil circuit as the hydraulic fluid for the motor - pump unit and for cooling
and lubrication.
In the external oil circuit the oil is cooled by an oil cooler.
Here all the main components of the CSD oil circuit are added to our basic diagram.
The charge pressure pump pressurizes the oil against the charge relief valve to supply all components that
need the oil.
The scavenge pump pumps the oil from the oil sump via a filter to the oil cooler and back into the CSD oil
reservoir. The charge pressure relief valve controls the working pressure to about 250 psi.
Filters are used in the internal and external oil circuit to clean the oil. Some filters are equipped with a
popout indicator that indicates filter clogging. When a filter element needs changing, replacement is
carried out by following the corresponding maintenance manual procedures.
The reservoir ensures that enough oil is available for the user in all attitude conditions. Sight glasses or an
oil level indicator allow checking of the correct oil level. This must be checked periodically to ensure that
the oil level is neither too low nor too high.
q OIL CIRCUIT
The oil pressure switch provides a signal to the
monitoring circuit when the charge pressure drops
below 50% of the normal pressure.
The two temperature bulbs provide the oil in and the oil
out temperature signals for monitoring.
Oil coolers use either air or fuel for cooling. Both types
are used, one after the other, in some aircraft.
A pressure fill port is used for oil servicing. Here the oil is
pumped into the oil circuit until the correct level is
reached. This is normally fulfilled when oil leaves the
CSD at an overfill port.
OIL CIRCUT
q CSD MONITORING / OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATION
The correct operation of the constant speed drive is monitored in two different ways.
Firstly, by circuits that alert the flight crew automatically if an operating parameter leaves its normal range.
Secondly, by indications on the ECAM or EICAS displays, that allow a reading of CSD temperatures.
We will start in this segment with the indications.
There are two CSD temperature monitoring indications available on the ECAM and EICAS lower displays. One is
the absolute oil temperature and the other is the rise temperature.
Let’s look first at the absolute oil temperature which is measured by two temperature bulbs. These bulbs are located
in the oil circuit at the points where the hot oil leaves the CSD and where it enters the CSD again after cooling.
In both examples shown here, the oil out temperature is indicated. This temperature is the highest temperature in the
oil circuit.
The temperature is normally in the region of 1200 C.
The absolute oil temperature, which is measured after the oil cooling is called the OIL IN temperature.
The oil in temperature is used here only to calculate the rise temperature, but in some aircraft it is indicated instead of
the oil out temperature.
q CSD MONITORING / OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATION
The second CSD oil temperature
often indicated, is the rise
temperature.
The rise temperature is the
difference between the in and out
temperatures. This indication
enables you, in the event of a
problem, to work out if there is too
much heat production inside the
constant speed drive or a faulty oil
cooling.
The rise indication is normally in an
area of 200C and a too high
indication means that the IDG is
generating too much heat.
A too low indication together with a
high absolute temperature means TEMPERATURE INDICATIONS
that the cooling is not sufficient.
q OIL MONITORING CIRCUITS FOR CREW ALERT
The flight crew are alerted to an abnormal situation in the CSD oil circuit, such as, low pressure or high
temperature, firstly, by the central warning system.
The central warning system displays a message on the upper display together with a corresponding indication on
the electric page on the lower display.
In addition, the corresponding local warning on the electric control panel is triggered. This is the amber DRIVE
light in the Boeing system and a FAULT light in the Airbus.
When the CSD oil pressure drops below about 50% of the normal pressure, in our example below 140 psi, the
flight crew alert is triggered.
The alert is triggered because the CSD cannot work with the pressure this low. Serious damage to the CSD and to
the engine could be caused in this situation.
To prevent this dangerous situation the CSD must be disconnected by the flight crew.
The oil temperature simulated here could cause nearly the same situation.
The crew alert is normally triggered when more than 1850C is reached. This alert uses the same sensing circuit
inside the GCU as the temperature indication.
In some aircraft, a separate bimetal temperature switch is used to trigger the crew alert independent from the
indication.
With this high oil temperature condition, as with the low pressure condition, the CSD must be disconnected.
q OIL MONITORING CIRCUITS FOR CREW ALERT
ABNORMAL SITUATION
q UNDER SPEED MONITORING
The third monitoring circuit, the CSD underspeed, has different consequences. It activates an automatic
generator switching. An underspeed condition is detected when the CSD input speed drops below the normal
control range. This means that the CSD is not able to control the necessary output speed.
You can see on the diagram that this condition starts about 5% below the engine idle speed. This condition
happens at each engine shutdown.
The only consequence of the underspeed condition is, that the generator cannot deliver a correct output
frequency of 400 Hz.
There is no risk of mechanical damage or overheat, as in the two oil circuit failure conditions.
Therefore, only the generator is switched off from the distribution by its power relay, but the CSD stays
connected to the input drive.
The underspeed condition is derived from the input speed in modern constant speed drives. The input speed is
measured by a magnetic pickup.
q UNDER SPEED MONITORING
UNDER SPEED
3.2 ELECTRICAL POWER CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE worm gear
q DISCONNECT
The last part of the constant speed drive we have to look at is the disconnect device.
It consists of four main parts. These are:
§ a clutch
§ a worm gear mechanism
§ a solenoid
§ a reset mechanism.
The clutch of the disconnect device is named a dog clutch, it is normally closed by a spring and transfers the speed
from the gearbox input to the differential gear.
The CSD must always be disconnected if an overheat or pressure loss in the oil circuit occurs. This is necessary to
prevent damage to the engine gearbox, the CSD and generator and all other components installed in that area.
The overheat or pressure loss causes the fault light in the IDG pushbutton to illuminate. The fault light indicates,
that this pushbutton must be pressed to disconnect the CSD.
When the push button is pressed, the solenoid is energized and the lower part of the worm gear mechanism is
released. The lower part is moved up by a spring and joins the worm gear.
Because of the rotation of the worm gear, the right part of the clutch is moved against the spring force.
When the clutch is open, the worm gear is no longer driven, but it continues turning, for a short time, due to the
centrifugal force. This is necessary to achieve a complete disconnect.
q DISCONNECT
When the disconnect is
performed, the input drive
shaft and the left part of the
clutch are the only parts of
the constant speed drive
that still run.
If the input speed is too
low, the centrifugal force
cannot open the clutch
completely, this can lead to
a clutch damage, such as
broken teeth.
Consequently, a disconnect
must only be performed, if
the engine runs with a DISCONNECT DEVICE
minimum of idle speed.
q DISCONNECT VERIFICATION
After the disconnect, the result can be checked on the ECAM or EICAS
system.
Here you see the ECAM page as an example.
The only reliable indication, is the voltage and frequency, because they
show absolute zero, if the disconnect was successful. Any voltage and
frequency above zero show that the generator is still running and
therefore the disconnect was not complete. The label DISC only shows
that the disconnect has been performed, it does not indicate if it has been
successfully completed.
When the disconnect pushbutton is pressed with a stopped engine, for
instance, to perform a check, you must reset the CSD immediately before
the engine is started. This is necessary, because if the engine spools up
with an activated disconnect mechanism, the worm gear opens the clutch
slowly. This results in the same condition as when disconnect is performed
with engine speed too low.
The clutch will not open completely and probably be damaged. ECAM DISPLAY
q DISCONNECT RESET
The constant speed drive reset is performed when the engine is completely stopped, by pulling the ring on the CSD
housing.
This moves down the lower part of the worm gear mechanism until it is locked into the solenoid shaft again.
A click sound indicates to you that the worm gear mechanism is locked into the solenoid shaft. In the same
moment the spring closes the clutch again.
As a reset is only possible on ground, inadvertent operation of the disconnect pushbutton during flight must be
prevented. This is performed by a guard that normally covers the pushbutton.
In some aircraft the IDG pushbutton guard is secured with a thin copper wire. This wire always breaks when the
guard is lifted. This shows you, that the disconnect pushbutton was probably pressed.
If there is no flight crew report from the last flight present, you can assume that this happened during the ground
time. To prevent a damage to the IDG during the next engine start, a reset must be performed.
Other aircraft types use no safety wire. In this case the disconnect circuit is electrically inhibited as long as the
engine is stopped.
There is one final important point you must know concerning the operation of the disconnect push button. You are
not allowed to press the button for longer than three seconds and for more than once in 60 sec.
q DISCONNECT RESET
CSD RESET
4. ELECTRICAL POWER GENERAL CONTROL AND PROTECTION
4.1 GENERATOR CONTROL AND PROTECTION
q INTRODUCTION
You probably remember this graphic from the main power distribution lesson.
It shows you that there is a generator control unit, GCU, for each generator. They provide all the functions which are
necessary for a correct AC generation.
The GCU functions can be divided into three different parts, the regulation, the protection and the switching.
The GCU’s for the engine driven generators of one aircraft type are identical and, therefore, interchangeable.
They provide all the functions for generator isolated operation and, if applicable, for parallel operation.
The GCU for the APU generator generally has the same functions as the GCU for the engine driven generators, but
they are always limited to generator isolated operation.
Last but not least, the GCU for the emergency generator provides only the main functions for isolated operation.
q INTRODUCTION
GCU FUNCTIONS
q INTRODUCTION
The GCU that controls an engine

driven generator in parallel
operation is used as the example in
this lesson.
This is because it provides all
possible GCU functions.
You can identify again the three main
functions of regulation, protection
and switching.
To be able to perform all the
functions the GCU needs system
data from the AC generation and
distribution and inputs from the
electric control panel in the
cockpit.
Typical generator control unit (GCU)

q INTRODUCTION
Like all other computers, the GCU needs an electrical power supply to operate.
In the case of the GCU, the power supply provides power as long as the generator runs, even if there are heavy
failures like short circuits.
To fulfill this task, there are two independent power sources, the normal power supply and the backup power
supply.
The normal supply uses AC power from the AC generation as long as the generator is running.
The three phase AC power from the PMG part of the generator is used as the normal power source for the
GCU. This is because it is available as long as the generator is running. This AC power is converted from AC to
28 Volts DC by an internal TR Unit.
Only if the PMG power is lost does the backup power take over. In most electrical power systems the backup
power is provided directly by the aircraft battery.
The DC power from the GCU power supply is used to supply all internal circuits of the GCU.
In addition, it supplies an external GCU power supply circuit, which provides power for the electric panel
controls and the power relays.
This external circuit is protected against short circuits by a circuit breaker located on the front side of the
GCU.
q INTRODUCTION
GCU POWER SUPPLY

q VOLTAGE REGULATIONS
In this segment we will start by discussing the
regulation functions of the GCU.
These functions can be divided into the
regulation functions for generators working in
isolated operation and the regulation functions
for generators working in parallel operation.
There are two regulation functions for isolated
generators available.
These are the voltage and frequency regulation.
The purpose of these regulation functions is to
control the corresponding generator output
parameter to the specified value.
The voltage regulation controls the voltage for
the AC distribution to a constant value of 115 V.
This compensates for the voltage drop on the
feeder lines and inside the generator.
For this task, the voltage regulator influences the exciter current of the generator.
The exciter current is provided by the PMG via the power supply and is influenced by the ON/OFF ratio of an
electronic switch.
The ratio between the ON and OFF switching state of the electronic switch is changed when a difference between
the actual voltage of the generator and a reference voltage is detected.
For example, if the actual voltage is too high the negative result of the comparison reduces the ON time of the
switch and vice versa.
The actual voltage is measured at a specific point in the AC generation. If you understand the purpose of the
voltage regulation, you should be able to identify it.
The specific point, where the actual voltage is measured, is named the ”point of regulation” or POR. It is located at
the generator side of the generator power relay. This location of the point of regulation allows measurement of the
generator output voltage before the generator is switched to the busses. In addition the location is as near as
possible to the distribution busses, where the 115 V are needed.
As a result of this location the voltage reaches 120 volts at the generator terminals, when the generator is at 100%
load. This is because the load current produces a voltage drop on the long generator feeder lines of up to 5 V.
One point in the voltage regulation loop we have not discussed yet, is the function of the generator control relay or
GCR. It is normally closed, but it can be opened by the switching part of the GCU.
VOLTAGE REGULATION
q FREQUENCY REGULATION
The second regulation for isolated generators is the
frequency regulation.
It only exists when the frequency of the generator is
not already controlled by the speed regulation of the
generator drive.
A frequency regulation loop is necessary for IDG s
that use an electromechanical speed control circuit
and for CSMG emergency generators. In addition, the
VSCF uses a comparable regulation loop.
The closed loop circuit compares the actual frequency
from the PMG output with the 400 Hz reference
frequency.
Any difference in this comparison is sent to the
generator drive, in order to adjust the generator FREQUENCY REGULATION
input speed. You will see this circuit in more detail in
the following segments, because it is also needed for
generator parallel operation
q REGULATION FUNCTIONS IN PARALLEL OPERATION
In this segment we will see what additional regulation circuits are necessary for generators that work in parallel.
The main task of these regulations is to ensure that all generators share the same load.
Two independent load regulation circuits are necessary to reach identical loading conditions for all paralleled
generators. This is because the total AC load, named apparent load, is composed of a real and a reactive load part.
The real load division is controlled by providing an input to the frequency regulation circuit, and the reactive load
division is controlled by providing an input to the voltage regulation circuit.
Both load regulation circuits need the information about the actual situation of the load division. This means that each
GCU gets a signal, which is the difference between the load current of its own generator and the average load current.
This input signal for the load regulation is provided by a circuit named the load division loop.
The load division loop consists of three different parts. First, one current transformer for each generator which
measures the individual load current in one of the three phases at the point of regulation.
Second, a closed loop circuit, that creates the average current out of the individual currents and third, an auxilliary
contact of each generator and bus tie power relay.
These bypass the current transformer of a generator that is not working in parallel.
q REGULATION FUNCTIONS IN PARALLEL OPERATION
LOAD REGULATION
LOAD DIVISION LOOP BALANCED
q LOAD DIVISION LOOP
In this segment we will have a

closer look at the function of the
load division loop.
When all generators are
switched into the parallel
operation, all main power relay
contacts are closed and the
auxiliary contacts are open.
When all generators are equally
loaded, no input signal is
provided to the generator
control units. This is because the
average current in the closed
division loop is equal to each
individual current transformer
current. This is the normal
situation.
If generator number one carries
more load than the others, the
individual currents of the current
transformers are not cancelled by
the average current in the closed
loop.
The result is that GCU number one
gets a decrease signal for its
regulation circuits and the other
three GCUs get a smaller increase
signal until the normal situation is
reached again.
LOAD DIVISION LOOP UNBALANCED 1

If generator number one carries a
lower load than the others, the
individual currents of the current
transformers are not cancelled by
the average current in the closed
loop.
The result is that GCU number one
gets an increase signal for its
regulation circuits and the other
three GCUs get a smaller decrease
signal until the normal situation is
reached again.
LOAD DIVISION LOOP UNBALANCED 2

An unbalanced load division can be produced either by different generator voltages or by different torques at the
input shaft.
Different generator voltages will result in an unbalanced reactive load division whereas different torques result in
an unbalanced real load division.
A filter in the GCU can distinguish between the two situations and transfer the correction signal to either the
voltage or frequency regulation circuit.
In some aircraft two independent loops for real and reactive load division are used.
If the voltage regulation is influenced, the exciter current is changed in the necessary direction.
In our example on the left it must be decreased. This results in a slightly reduced generator voltage that decreases the
share of reactive load for this generator.
UNBALANCED LOAD DIVISION

When the frequency regulation is performed by an electromechanical circuit the real load regulation signal
is just added to the frequency regulation signal.
No special circuit is necessary.
If the constant speed drive frequency regulation is performed completely mechanically, the position of the
fly weights must be electrically controlled. This is performed by using permanent magnets as fly weights,
which can be influenced by the magnetic field of a trim coil.
In this example the direct current in the trim coil generates a magnetic field that pushes the fly weights
outward. This simulates an overspeed which reduces the output torque of the CSD.
When the generator works in parallel operation, this reduces the share of the real load of this generator.
However, the speed and frequency are not affected as long as the other generators run with the same
speed.When the generator works in isolated operation a decrease in the output torque reduces the speed and,
consequently, the frequency. This function is used to synchronize the generators before switching into
parallel operation and for the ”No power break transfer”.
If the GCU provides an incorrect trim coil current this will shift the frequency of an isolated generator to a
wrong value.
Therefore, you must make sure that any trim coil current is interrupted before starting frequency
adjustment. This is usually performed by disconnecting the corresponding connector on the IDG.
FREQUENCY REGULATION
q PARALLELING CONDITIONS
Before a generator can be switched into parallel to another power source, either for permanent parallel operation
or just for a few seconds in the case of the ”No power break transfer” function, it must be synchronized
The correct voltage is guaranteed by the voltage regulation of each individual power source and the correct
frequency is ensured by the frequency regulation.
However, this is not enough, because, even with identical frequency and voltage a difference of up to 320 V is
present between two power sources if the phase angle is 180_ apart.
I think you can imagine what would happen if the generator power relay closes in this situation - high currents
and torques would probably damage the system. This serious situation can only be solved if, in addition to voltage
and frequency, the phase angle difference is reduced to zero before the generator is switched on. This is
performed by providing a synchronization signal to the frequency regulation, derived from the voltage differences
of the new power source and the already active power source supplying the main AC bus. This correction signal
produces a small frequency difference between the two power sources, that will shift the phase angle
permanently.
q PARALLELING CONDITIONS
GENERATOR SYNCHRONIZATION
q GENERATOR CONTROL RELAY SWITCHING FUNCTIONS
Two switching functions are performed by all GCUs: These are the switching that controls the generator control
relay and the switching of the generator power relay.
A third switching function is only performed in GCUs that control generators for parallel operation. This is the
switching of the bus tie power relay.
The generator control relay is normally closed, but it can be opened, or tripped, either manually or
automatically, to switch off any generator output voltage in case of a failure.
A manual trip is performed by releasing the corresponding generator pushbutton switch or by operating the fire
handle or fire pushbutton on the corresponding control panel in the cockpit.
An automatic trip is performed if a protection circuit detects any failure in the generator system, this you will see
later in more detail.
A reclose of the GCR can only be performed manually by a reset of the generator pushbutton switch. This manual
reset of the generator control relay is only successful, if no open signal is present at the same time. This is because
the latch circuit gives priority to the open signal.
q GENERATOR CONTROL RELAY SWITCHING FUNCTIONS
GCR CONTROL
4.2 GENERATOR POWER RELAY SWITCHING FUNCTIONS
The generator power relay is normally closed and tripped automatically. However, it can be
controlled manually with the generator pushbutton switch via the generator control relay
switching. The generator power relay is automatically closed when the power ready condition of
the generator is reached.
Power ready is fulfilled when the generator has no underspeed and the generator control relay is
closed. For generators working in parallel operation or systems using the ”no power break
transfer, NPBT” function an additional switching condition must be fulfilled.
The synchronization must be performed when the generator is switched to an already powered AC
bus (no Dead Bus). This is checked by a circuit, that compares the AC parameters of the own
generator with the AC parameters on the AC bus.
When the voltage, frequency and phase angle difference are below a specified value the
generator power relay is closed automatically.
GCB CONTROL
The generator power relay is automatically tripped to switch off the connection between
the generator and the bus when the generator power is not ready.
This happens when the GCR is tripped or when an underspeed condition is detected by
the protection circuit. The automatic trip is always accompanied by the fault legend in
the generator pushbutton on the electric panel.
If a system failure, detected by a protection circuit, was the reason for the automatic trip,
this is latched. The generator can only become active again after reset of the latch. This is
only possible when the system fault signal is no longer present and needs an additional
manual action.
GENERATOR POWER RELAY

4.3 FUNCTIONS GENERAL
We have already seen that the generator control relay and generator power relay can be
tripped automatically by certain system failures.
The system failures are detected by protection circuits.
These circuits can be divided into circuits which detect failures in the AC generation, and
circuits that detect failures in the distribution. Both groups of protection circuits are present in
all generator control units.
A third group of protection circuits detect failures in parallel operation and, therefore, are
only available in GCU’s used in these systems.
The failure types that are presented here on the left, are detected in all AC generation systems.
In some aircraft types additional protection circuits are used.
GENERATOR PROTECTION CIRCUTS

Overvoltage means that the
voltage at the point of
regulation exceeds 130 V.
It occurs when the voltage
regulator delivers an exciter
current that is too large.
As an overvoltage can damage
the electrical consumer and
cause an overheat or fire, the
overvoltage protection circuit
triggers the automatic trip
function with an inverse time
delay. This means that the higher
the overvoltage is, the shorter
the time delay is.
Overfrequency means that
the frequency of the
generator voltage,
measured at the PMG,
exceeds 430 Hz.
It is caused when the
generator speed is too
high due to a faulty
generator drive speed
regulation.
The overfrequency
protection circuit
activates an automatic trip
with a time delay of about
one second.
Undervoltage means that
the voltage at the point of
regulation drops below
100 V.
This occurs when the
voltage regulation or the
generator are defective.
The automatic trip is
activated after a time
delay of about five
seconds.
Because an undervoltage
can also be caused by an
underspeed or overload,
these conditions inhibit the
automatic trip.
Underfrequency means that the
frequency of the generator
voltage, measured at the PMG,
has dropped below 370 Hz.
This is caused by the generator
speed being too low due to a
faulty generator drive speed
regulation.
The underfrequency protection
circuit activates the automatic
trip with a time delay of about
one second.
If the input speed is too low,
this will also cause an
underfrequency condition,
therefore, the automatic trip is
inhibited when underspeed is
present.
Overload means, that the generator is
loaded with more than 100% of its rated
load.
This is detected, by measuring the three
load currents with current transformers at
the point of regulation. An overload
condition is usually caused when one
generator is switched off and the remaining
generators cannot carry the whole load of
the network.
As a permanent overload will overheat the
generator and probably lead to a total power
loss, the protection circuit switches off as
many large loads as necessary.
A high current drops the voltage at the
point of regulation, therefore, the
undervoltage protection circuit is blocked.
Open phase means, that the generator load
current in one phase is zero, but the
current in the other two phases are in
normal range.
It is detected by comparing the three phase
currents measured by the current
transformer. An open phase is caused by an
open generator wire connection either
inside the generator or in the feeder lines or
it can also be caused by a faulty power
relay contact.
The generator control relay and the
generator power relay are tripped, because
all three phase consumers cannot work
properly with only two phases.
The differential protection circuit is used to
detect short circuits in areas where circuit
breakers are not usable.
We have already discussed this in the
distribution components lesson.
The circuit compares the current in the
generator neutral line with the current used
in the distribution in each individual phase.
The generator control relay and generator
power relay are tripped without any time
delay, because of the dangerous
consequences of a short circuit.
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
4.4 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
The area of differential

protection is located
between each generator and
the main distribution center.
Both ends of the area have
one set of current
transformers. One set for
each generator is located in
the distribution and one set
is located in the neutral line
of the generator.
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
The neutral point current transformers

are located inside of modern generators.
Each phase current is measured
individually, before a common wire is
connected to neutral.
NEUTRAL POINT
The current transformer in the distribution is
located in the main equipment center, directly after
the first individual main circuit breakers.
It must measure the sum of all currents the
generator delivers. These are the currents for the
consumers, for protection and indication and for the
bus tie. Phase C is shown here as an example.
As long as the differential protection area has no
short circuit, the current delivered by the
generator, e.g.100 Amp., is completely used in the
distribution.
The secondary current delivered by the two current
transformers is, therefore, identical, leading to no
input to the protection circuit.
If a short circuit happens in the differential protection
area, as here in phase C, due to damaged wire
insulation or loose bolts, clamps or terminals, the
generator current increases dramatically, where as the
current in the distribution drops to zero.
This leads to corresponding secondary currents from
the current transformers, resulting in an input to the
protection circuit, which opens the generator control
relay and the generator power relay immediately.
SHORT CIRCUT
In this example, after repairing the wiring of the
distribution, the mechanic has forgotten to guide the
wire to the main AC bus through the current
transformer hole.
This example with no real short circuit shows you that
differential protection is always triggered if there is a
difference between the two current transformer
currents of more than the specified value - for example,
greater than 20 mA.
WRONG WIRE ROUTING

4.5 PROTECTION & SWITCHING IN PARALLEL OPERATION
One function of the GCU, is the switching function of the bus tie power relay.
The bus tie power relay of an electrical power system that works in parallel, is normally closed.
It can be opened either manually from the control panel, or automatically, by a signal from the protection circuits for
parallel operation.
An automatic trip of the bus tie power relay is performed in two situations. When an automatic landing is selected which
needs isolated power sources for safety reasons, or when there is a major imbalance in the generator loads during parallel
operation.
All voltage and frequency failures in parallel operation cannot be detected directly by the corresponding protection
circuit. This is because the values of the faulty generator system will not change, they are kept at nearly the normal
level by the correctly working generators.
However, all these failures will lead to a large load imbalance, because the affected generator system is not able to provide
electrical power and it will receive load from the other generators.
The load imbalance is detected by a load protection loop. Its function and build up is identical to the load division loop,
which you have already seen in the regulation segment.
However the protection loop is always independent. In this example, generator system number one is faulty. The correct
generators have to carry the complete load demand of the distribution as well as the increasing current taken by the
faulty generator. I think you can imagine that this situation can become very dangerous for the complete system.
BTR SWITCHING
Therefore, the bus tie power relay is tripped automatically and terminates the parallel operation of
this generator when a certain difference in current is exceeded.
When the bus tie power relay is open the affected generator works in isolated operation.
The failure will then result in wrong voltage or frequency dependent on the failure source. This allows
the undervoltage or underfrequency protection circuit to react and to trip the generator control relay
and generator power relay.
As the faulty generator system is now switched off, the bus tie power relay can reclose automatically
and resume power to AC bus 1 again. This is performed automatically by the GCU in modern
systems.
BTR SWITCHING STEP 2

5.1 DC GENERATION
q INTRODUCTION
Two different components are used for DC power generation. First, the TR units which are the normal DC power
source and second the battery.
Several TR units are installed in the electrical compartment, generally one for each main DC bus.
The TR unit converts the three phase 115 V AC from the AC power distribution into 28 V DC for the DC power
distribution.
TR UNITS
5.1 DC GENERATION
q TR UNIT NORMAL OPERATION
The function of the TR unit is to convert a high AC voltage to a low DC voltage.
To do this, two component parts are needed. First a transformer, that reduces the 115 V AC to about 28 V AC and
second a rectifier, that converts the AC to a DC.
Two separate strings are used to transform and rectify the input voltage.
In the first string the primary and secondary windings of the transformer are connected in the same way as in a
generator - this is called a star connection.
In the second string, the secondary winding has a so called delta connection which produces a phase shift. This
combination produces a nearly ideal DC voltage without the ripples which normally remain after rectifying.
The two output parameters of the TR unit, voltage and current, are indicated on the corresponding ECAM or
EICAS page.
5.2 TR UNIT PROTECTION FUNCTION
TR units have up to two protection circuits for failure detection.

First, a low current detection, which is triggered when the current drops below about 2 Amperes. This might be
due to an internal failure.
Second, an overheat detection, which becomes active, when the temperature near the rectifiers exceeds an allowed
value. This might happen for example, if there was an overload or short circuit.
When the temperature exceeds the overheat level, a temperature switch, also known as a bimetal switch closes. This
opens the contact of an internal relay which deactivates the output of the TR unit.
The results are indicated on the corresponding page of the central warning system, here the ECAM system page.
When the TR unit is switched off, the temperature drops and the bimetal switch opens again.
The TR unit can only be switched on again by a reset signal, after a successful trouble shooting on the ground. The
reset is performed either via the central maintenance computer system or a reset push button in the electric
compartment.
5.2 TR UNIT PROTECTION FUNCTION
PROTECTION CIRCUTS
5.3 AIRCRAFT BATTERY
In the distribution lessons you have learned
already that the aircraft battery is used to
supply the emergency power in certain cases
and to supply the APU starter motor for APU
start.
These tasks can be performed by two different
types of battery installation. One is shown in
this example of a two engine aircraft.
Most aircraft use this type of battery installation.
They have one two or even three batteries
which work together to supply either emergency
power or the APU starter motor.
The number of batteries depends mainly on the
amount of electrical energy that must be
stored.
BATTERY INSTALLATION 1
A second installation possibility is this electrical
power system on a four engine aircraft.
One battery provides emergency power and is
called the main battery and a second battery is
mainly used for APU start - consequently it is
called the APU battery.
Cells and batteries: (a) connection of cells to

form a battery; (b) symbols for cells and a
battery; (c) typical battery casing
q NICD BATTERY
All batteries in jet aircraft are of the nickel cadmium type. The two main advantages of the nickel cadmium battery are
that it causes less maintenance costs and has a better performance at low temperatures.
However, special care is necessary during charge and discharge of a nickel cadmium aircraft battery to guarantee
safe and reliable operation.
A battery cell overheat reduces the electrolyte level and can melt the plastic separator. This damages the battery and
the cell will probably look like this. The nickel cadmium battery in electrical power systems contain 20 individual cells.
The second important item to remember is do not discharge a battery below 22 V, because this can inverse the polarity
of the weakest cell in the battery.
Normally, each individual cell produces a voltage of about 1.2 V. Because all cells are connected in series, the complete
battery has a nominal voltage of 24 V.
During charging, the voltage of an individual cell rises to 1.5 V. During discharge the voltage drops to 1.0 V when the
cell is completely discharged.
The line maintenance personnel must also check at certain intervals that the battery is fully charged.
The voltage in a charged battery cell is produced by the chemical reaction which occurs between two plates made of
different material. These plates are covered by an electrolyte fluid.
q NICD BATTERY
The electrolyte fluid is a strong alkaline solution. Its level rises
during charging, but its specific gravity is not changed.
If the fluid comes into contact with the aircraft structure or human
skin, you must rinse it off immediately with water or an acid
solution to prevent corrosion or injury.
The vent cap can be removed to adjust the electrolyte level in
the workshop. Within the vent cap is a valve which releases
any gas overpressure which is sometimes produced during
charging. The positive and negative plates get a large surface
area of active material, several plates of the same polarity are
connected together.
The separator is made of plastic material. It prevents a short
circuit between the positive and negative plates. The separator
melts at very high temperatures and this damages the battery.
.
q NICD BATTERY
The plate pack consists of negative and positive plates which store the
electrical energy during charging. Checks for good battery condition must be
carried out on average every 2000 operating hours. The checks are done in the
workshop and cover items such as the storage capability and electrolyte
condition.
These tasks cannot be performed in the aircraft, but the line maintenance
personnel must check some important items to ensure reliable battery operation
until the next workshop visit.
The first important item that the line maintenance must observe is to never
overheat a battery by too many APU start attempts immediately after each
other. A battery cell overheat reduces the electrolyte level and can melt the
plastic separator. This damages the battery and the cell will probably look like
this.
The second important item to remember is do not discharge a battery below
22 V, because this can inverse the polarity of the weakest cell in the battery.
If this happens, the battery can’t be recharged in the aircraft. It must be
replaced and recharged in the workshop The line maintenance personnel must
also check at certain intervals that the battery is fully charged.
q NICD BATTERY
Capacity is stated in ampere-hours; batteries are rated with low or high discharge rates, either 10 hours or 1 hour. The
battery’s capacity will gradually deteriorate over time depending on usage, in particular the charge and discharge rates.
For aircraft maintenance purposes, we need to define the acceptable capacity of the main battery(s); this is the ratio of
actual capacity and rated capacity, expressed as a percentage. Actual capacity must not fall below 80% of the
rated capacity;
Memory effect is observed in some secondary cells that cause them to hold less charge; cells gradually lose their
maximum capacity if they are repeatedly recharged before being fully discharged. The net result is the cell appears
to retain less charge than specified.
All secondary cells have a finite life and will gradually lose their capacity over time due to secondary chemical
reactions; this occurs whether the cell is used or not. They also have a finite number of charge and discharge cycles
since they lose a very small amount of storage capacity during each cycle. Secondary cells can be damaged by
repeated deep discharge or repeated over-charging.
Storage cells have internal resistance; this is usually very small but it has the effect of limiting the amount of
current that the cell can supply and also reducing the amount of electromotive force (e.m.f.) available when
connected to a load. Internal resistance varies significantly with the distance between plates.
q NICD BATTERY
For this reason, the gap is made as small as practicably possible. Internal resistance is affected by temperature and
this leads to practical issues for certain cell types.
q BATTERY INDICATION
To allow monitoring of battery operation and to check the charging level, two battery parameters are indicated - the
voltage and the current.
On this example of an airbus aircraft you see that the voltage is displayed on the ECAM display and the electric
panel and the current is shown only on the ECAM display.
The battery voltage is measured on the hot battery bus and the current is measured by a shunt located in the
battery cable to ground. A shunt is a small resistor that produces a voltage proportional to the current.
q BATTERY INDICATION
BATTERY MONITORING
q BATTERY CHARGING PART 1
To recharge nickel cadmium batteries,
two different types of charging circuit
are used.
One type uses the 28 V from the DC
distribution, that is provided by the TR
units.
The other type uses a separate battery
charger unit, which produces the
necessary charging current from the
voltage of the AC power distribution.
BATTERY CHARGING
Let us first have a look at the battery charger.
It consists mainly of a TR unit which provides a DC and an output circuit, which controls the charging current.
The output circuit of the battery charger controls the charging current by two different charging methods. One method
is called the constant potential or constant voltage charging method and the second one is called the constant current
charging method.
The constant current charging method allows a quick and safe charging of batteries.
To provide the constant charging current, the battery charger must increase the output voltage from 28 V up to a
maximum of 36 V while the battery increases its charging level. When the battery is fully charged, the logic of the battery
charger switches over to the constant voltage charging method. This prevents an overcharge.
This switching point depends mainly on the output voltage of the battery charger. In addition the temperature of the
battery can be taken into account because it influences the charging level.
With the constant voltage charging method, the output voltage of the battery charger has a constant value of 28 V.
When the battery is fully charged it also reaches 28 V and this results in a current of nearly zero amperes.
The main use of this battery charging method in the battery charger is to compensate for the self discharge of the battery.
BATTERY CHARGER
A second application of the constant voltage
charging method is demonstrated in this example
of a four engine aircraft electrical power system.
When several TR units are lost or not powered, the
battery charger takes over the supply to the
electrical consumer connected to the battery bus.
This is possible because in the constant voltage
charging method, the battery charger works like a
TR unit.
BATT: CHARGER USED AS TR-UNIT

In this segment, we are going to look at the second type of battery charging circuit. This type uses the constant
voltage charging method all the time. Instead of a battery charger, the constant voltage of the transformer rectifier
units is used to deliver the charging current.
The constant voltage charging method is the easiest way of charging. The charge current is always proportional
to the difference between the voltage of the battery and the power source.
When the battery is fully charged, both voltages are equal and the charging current drops to zero.
One characteristic of a nickel cadmium battery can create problems in the constant voltage charging method. This is
the fact that a nickel cadmium battery reduces the output voltage when it is overheated during charging.
Can you imagine what happens in this case. When the battery output voltage drops, the charge current increases.
This generates more heat and the voltage drops further and results in an increasing current and so on. This
behaviour is called a thermal runaway and can result in the battery being totally damaged and possibly to a fire in
the aircraft. Therefore, this dangerous situation must be prevented.
One method to prevent a thermal runaway in the constant voltage charging method is the installation of a
battery charge limiter, BCL in short. The BCL permanently monitors the charge current. When the current is
increasing, indicating the start of a thermal runaway, the battery contactor opens immediately. This function is
latched and needs a manual reset from the electric control panel.
In addition to the thermal runaway
protection, the battery charge
limiter also has some more
functions.
For instance it switches off the
battery contactor when the battery
is fully charged or during discharge
on the ground when the battery
voltage drops below 23 V.
THERMAL RUNAWAY
To prevent the risk of a thermal
runaway, in the battery charging
circuit which uses a battery charger a
temperature switch is installed
either inside or outside the battery.
This bimetal switch closes when 60_
C is exceeded and switches off the
battery charger.
When the temperature drops below
the switching point again operation
resumes automatically.
The relay at the input of the battery
charger also opens during the APU
start.
q Lithium batteries
Lithium (Li) is one of the alkali group of reactive metals; it is one of the lightest elements, giving it an immediate
advantage for aircraft applications. It has a single valence electron with low combining power, therefore readily
becoming a positive ion. The materials used in these cells are:
● electrolyte: lithium-ion
● cathode: cobalt
● anode: graphite.
Lithium-ion have very high energy-to-weight ratios, no memory effect, and a slow discharge charge rate when
not in use. They are being introduced for aircraft applications: engine start and emergency back-up power, the first
such application of the devices in the business aviation sector. In the longer term, they are being developed for main
battery applications. They offer several advantages compared to lead-acid and nickel-cadmium products, including:
● longer life
● less weight
● low maintenance
● reduced charging time.
Disadvantages are the higher product cost and the fact that the electrolyte is extremely flammable.
q Lithium batteries
The nominal cell voltage is 3.6V, charging requires a constant voltage of 4.2V with associated current limiting.
When the cell voltage reaches 4.2V, and the current drops to approximately 7% of the initial charging current,
the cell is fully recharged
Specific design and maintenance considerations for these batteries in aircraft include:
● maintaining safe cell temperatures and pressures
● mitigating against explosion
● preventing the electrolyte escaping from the battery
● disconnecting the charging source in the event of over-temperature
● providing a low battery charge warning.
q Battery locations
The battery is located as close as possible to its point of distribution; this is to reduce IR losses through
heavy-duty cables. In smaller general aviation (GA) aircraft, the battery can be located in the engine
compartment, alternatively behind the luggage compartment in the rear fuselage, On some larger GA aircraft
the battery is located in the leading edge of the wing. Other locations include the nose equipment bay on
medium size helicopters or attached to the external airframe. For larger aircraft, e.g. the Boeing 747, one
battery is located in the flight compartment; the other is located in the auxiliary power unit (APU) bay at the
rear of the aircraft.
Batteries are installed in a dedicated box or compartment designed to retain it in position and provide
ventilation. The battery compartment is usually fitted with a tray to collect any spilt electrolyte and protect
the airframe. Tray material will be resistant to corrosion and nonabsorbent. The structure around the battery
compartment will be treated to reduce any damage from corrosion resulting from any spilt electrolyte or fumes
given off during charging. Batteries must be secured to prevent them from becoming detached during
aircraft manoeuvres; they are a fire risk if they become detached from their tray.
q Battery locations
Typical battery locations: (a) battery

compartment (GA aircraft); (b) wing leading
edge (Beech King Air); (c) nose equipment bay
(medium helicopter); (d) externally mounted
(small helicopter)
q Battery venting
Main battery installations must be vented to allow gases to escape, and
accommodate electrolyte spill- age. Rubber or other non-corroding
pipes are used as ventilation lines which direct the gases overboard,
usually terminating at the fuselage skin. On pressurized aircraft the
differential pressures between cabin and atmosphere are used to draw
air through the venting system. Some installations contain traps to
retain harmful gases and vapours.
Key maintenance points
• Avoid personal contact with battery electrolyte (fluid and fumes).
• Observe safety precautions for the protection of hands and eyes.
• Always use personal protective equipment (goggles, rubber gloves,
aprons) when handling electrolyte to prevent serious burns.
• Seek first aid in the event of electrolyte contact.
• When mixing electrolyte, acid is always added to the water. (Adding
water to acid is very dangerous.)
Battery venting
q Battery connections
These depend on the type of battery and aircraft
installation. On smaller aircraft the cable
connections simply fit over the terminal lugs and
are secured with a nut, bolt and washers. On
larger aircraft, the main batteries have quick-
release connectors. These provide protection for
the terminals and cable connections, the aircraft
connector is a plastic housing with two shrouded
spring-loaded terminals (for connecting the
battery cables) and a hand-wheel with lead-
screw. The battery connection is a plastic
housing integrated into the casing; it contains
two shrouded pins and a female lead screw. When
the two halves are engaged, the lead screws are
Battery connections
pulled together and even- tually form a lock.
This mechanism provides good contact pressure
and a low resistance connection.
6. ELECTRICAL POWER GROUND POWER
6.1 GROUND POWER
q INTRODUCTION
Normally, one external power source or one APU
generator is sufficient to supply all the consumers needs
on the ground.
In our example of the two engine airbus, both power sources
can be switched to the whole network.
Either the APU generator or external power can supply the
complete electrical power distribution.
External power should be used for environmental and
economic reasons. On modern airbus aircraft, external
power has automatic priority for ground supply.
2 ENGINE AIRBUS GROUND POWER

6.1 GROUND POWER
q INTRODUCTION
As you already know, on large four engine aircraft, one power source is not always sufficient to supply the
whole network on the ground. Therefore, two external power sources can be connected to the aircraft and in
this example of the 747, two APU generators are available for ground power.
However, most of the time, one power source is sufficient to supply the necessary consumers on ground.
When the external power contactor number 1 closes, the complete distribution is supplied. This is because
the bus tie breakers and the split system breaker are normally closed in this distribution.
You can imagine that this sudden activation of aircraft systems can create problems or even dangerous
situations if you do not perform some precautions. Therefore, only trained personnel are allowed to
switch on electrical power by following a special check list.
6.1 GROUND POWER
q INTRODUCTION
BOEING 747 GROUND POWER

6.1 GROUND POWER
q EXTERNAL POWER CONNECTION
In this segment you will learn the steps which are necessary to supply a parked aircraft with external power.
When all tasks to secure the aircraft position with wheel chocks and to statically ground the aircraft have
been completed, you can then connect an external power source.
There are two types of external power source:
The first type shown here is the fixed station which is mainly used in or near to the maintenance hangar and
the second type is a movable cart. This type is used, for example, on the apron where a fixed station is not
available. The plug of the external power source must be connected to the aircraft external power receptacle.
The receptacle is always located in the nose wheel area.
The receptacle consists of four thick pins to provide the connection for the three electrical power phases A,B
and C and for the common neutral connection. In addition two shorter and thinner pins are used to control the
connection. The plug of the external power connection contains the sockets which match to the receptacle
pins. Push the plug completely onto the receptacle pins. This prevents the arcing and overheating which can be
generated due to an incomplete electrical connection.
In some aircraft types, in addition, you must install a cable holding strap which supports the cable weight.
Ok, the connection has been made. In the next segment we see how the switching is performed.
6.1 GROUND POWER
q EXTERNAL POWER AVAILIABILITY
When the connection is made the external power source must be switched on.
When the on pushbutton is pressed, the power relay energizes and the three phase electrical power is provided
to the aircraft receptacle. From here, the power is transferred to the ground power control unit or GPCU. The
GPCU is located in the electrical compartment of the aircraft. A small TR unit inside the GPCU, converts the
three phase AC to 28 V DC. The DC is sent back to the external power source via one of the two small pins. This
pin is designated as pin E. The DC holds the power relay energized, even when the ”on” pushbutton is released.
This latch, which operates via the short receptacle pin, ensures that if the connection is not performed
completely, an external power source cannot be permanently switched on. In addition, the DC returns to the
ground power control unit via the second short pin, designated as pin F. This illuminates the external power
connected - or, as it is also named - the ”available” light when the quality of the external power is good. Good
external power quality means that the voltage and the frequency are inside the allowed limits and that the phase
sequence is good. In addition to the light on the external power panel, the green available legend in the external
power control pushbutton in the cockpit also lights. These two indications show you, that external power is now
available with correct parameters. It is not necessary and on some aircraft not even possible to read the exact
voltage and frequency, before external power is switched on. But a lot of other preconditions must be fullfilled
before we are allowed to switch on the power, this will be explained in the next segment.
6.1 GROUND POWER
GROUND POWER SWITCHING

6.1 GROUND POWER
q EXTERNAL POWER ACTIVATION
When external power is available, you have to perform several checks before you are allowed to switch on the
power. These checks are shown in a check list and must be followed carefully. This ensures that all systems are in a
defined switching state to prevent unexpected and even dangerous situations. Here you see a generalized checklist
which shows all of the important tasks that have to be performed. Now you have the chance to find out more about the
pre conditions. After external power activation, all electrical power system switches must be in their normal
position to ensure normal supply. In some aircraft, the batteries must be in off and are switched on later. Make
sure that the hydraulic systems cannot be pressurized. Therefore, the electric and air driven pumps must be
switched off. However, the engine pump switches must be on because the engines are not running and the valve is
deenergized in this situation. To prevent a dangerous movement of flight controls or landing gear, check that all
control handles are in the correct position. The handle positions must agree with the actual positions of the
surface and gear. The first condition prevents an activation of the engine start sequence and of the ignition. The
second item ensures, that all fuel pumps are switched off - this reduces the electrical load and increases the pump
lifetime. The air conditioning system must be switched off to prevent an inadvertent pressurisation of the aircraft.
The equipment cooling must start operating when the electrical equipment is switched on. This is to prevent an
overheat of the electronic components located in the cockpit and electrical compartment.
6.1 GROUND POWER
The guarded oxygen switch prevents an accidental release of
the oxygen masks in the cabin.
All electrical heating systems must be switched off on the
ground. This is because the equipment can overheat and be
damaged if there is no airflow. The windshield wipers must be
switched off to prevent them scratching the surface of a dry
window.
All external lights, especially the high power landing and taxi
lights must be switched off. The main reason for this is that
they can be damaged if there is no airflow. The lights can also
blind personnel in the vicinity of the lights. In addition a
simultaneous activation of all external lights can shut down
the external power source due to the high starting power
consumption. The emergency exit light switch must stay in off
during the whole of the ground time. In the ARM position, the
emergency exit lights come on automatically and discharge
their individual batteries, if electrical power is switched off for
any reason. CHECK LIST
6.1 GROUND POWER
The next checklist is used to energize the external power.
We have just completed the first item ”prior to energizing electrical network”.
Please note that each aircraft type has its own list of preconditions. Our checklist was just an example.
When the external power pushbutton is pressed, the external power contactor energizes and the three phase AC
power is transferred to the distribution.
In addition the blue ON light in the external power pushbutton illuminates and the available light goes off.
6.1 GROUND POWER
EXTERNAL POWER ENERGIZED

6.1 GROUND POWER
This direct activation of the external power contactor is only possible, if no other power source is switched on
- as for instance in our example of the dark aircraft.
If another power source, such as the APU generator, is already supplying the network, it must first be
switched off by the power source interlock circuit, before the external power contactor can close.
Please press the external power pushbutton again to see how this happens.
In the first step the closed power relay gets a trip signal that opens the contacts.
Then the external power close signal continues to the next power relay to check its switching state.
If the other relays are already open the signal continues to the external power contactor which closes, like in
this example.
The interlock circuit shown here is just an example because the real one is very aircraft type specific.
6.1 GROUND POWER
EXTERNAL POWER INTERLOCK

CIRCUIT
6.1 GROUND POWER
q EXTERNAL POWER DEACTIVATION
In this segment we are going to see what has to be observed before we deenergize the electrical circuits.
Before we are allowed to deenergize the electrical circuits, we must follow a checklist like this one.
First, all electrical loads should be at a minimum because this saves the contacts of the external power relay.
The next items remind you of the the consumers which must be switched off. These consumers automatically
transfer over to battery power when normal AC power is lost and this would discharge their own or the main aircraft
battery.This must be prevented.
You are going to learn more about these consumers in the corresponding unit.
Finally, the main battery and emergency power switches must also be switched off.
When external power is no longer needed, the external power source can be disconnected from the aircraft.
This is indicated by the external power not in use light on the panel near the receptacle.
6.1 GROUND POWER
q EXTERNAL POWER DEACTIVATION
DEENERGIZING
ELECTRICAL NETWORK
6.2 GROUND SERVICE POWER 1
Instead of supplying the whole network, external
power can also be used to supply just the equipment
for cleaning and loading or unloading of the
aircraft such as lights, vacuum cleaner outlets and
cargo loading components.
This equipment is connected to ground service
busses.
The ground service busses are normally supplied by
the normal power distribution.
However these busses can be switched directly to
the ground power source by a ground service or
maintenance bus switch. This switch is usually
located in the cabin near the entrance door.
GROUND SERVICE BUSSES

The ground service power can be activated whenever external power is available.
The switching can be performed without any preconditions, because the aircraft systems will not
be supplied.
When the ground service switch, which in this example is called the maintenance bus switch, is
moved to the on position, it is magnetically latched for as long as external power is available.
The same signal energizes the ground service relay and connects the ground service bus to the
external power source.
When the complete electrical power system is supplied by external power, the maintenance bus
switch remains in ON until external power is disconnected.
GROUND SERVICE SWITCH

When the external power
not in use light on the
receptacle panel
illuminates, the external
power plug can be
removed from the
receptacle.
This breaks the DC power
from the receptacle pin E
which then deenergizes the
power relay inside the
external power source. This
ensures that the power
relay always opens the
electrical circuit before the
four main connector pins
break the contact to the EXTERNAL POWER NOT IN USE
plug.
In this boeing aircraft, similar switching is available for the ground service bus.
Normally it is supplied by the main AC power distribution, and when the ground service push button is pressed, it is
transferred to the external power source. An additional item in this aircraft is that the APU generator can also be used
as a power source for ground service. In addition to the previously named ground service loads, this ground service bus
also supplies the battery charger. The battery charger works as a TR Unit during ground service operation and
supplies all consumers that are connected to the battery and hot battery bus. In addition it charges the battery in the
constant voltage charging mode.
TOWING POWER
Let us now have a look at a different situation where external power and probably also the APU generator are not
available. This is the towing of the aircraft. During this aircraft operation, some equipment must be available. This is
primarily the navigation lights, cockpit lights and the indication of the brake pressure.
The only power source that is left to supply this equipment is the aircraft battery.
The battery provides 24 V DC but some of the named equipment needs AC power. Therefore, an additional
component must be installed. This component converts the battery power to 115 V AC. The AC consumers needed
during towing are connected to a towing bus which is normally supplied by the main AC power distribution. If this normal
AC power distribution is not supplied, the towing static inverter must provide the necessary power. Now the towing
equipment is supplied by the static inverter.
GROUND SERVICE AND TOWING POWER

7. ELECTRICAL POWER SIMULATION
7.1 NORMAL OPERATION 2 ENGINE AIRCRAFT
We have just entered this aircraft. All AC power sources are switched off. Only the hot battery busses
are supplied. Let us assume that you have already performed all the checklist items which are
necessary prior to the activation of electrical power.
First the batteries are now switched on. When the complete network is supplied the ECAM
display is available. This allows you to check all parameters of the distribution.
When both ground power sources, the APU generator and external power, are available on this
aircraft type the external power source has priority for supply.
7.2 FAILURE SIMULATION 2 ENGINE AIRCRAFT
In this segment we will see the effect of different failure situations on the schematic, on the ECAM display
and on the panel. The first simulated failure is a low oil pressure condition in IDG number one.
The load of generator number two can be reduced and all galleys can be made available again if the APU
generator takes over the load of generator number.
In the next example AC bus number 1 is lost. As a result the essential busses are also lost and the ECAM
display is no longer powered.
The next 2 failures do not need any pilot action. The first example is, a TR unit number one fault. The
switching is performed automatically. You can monitor the effect on the distribution.
The most dramatic failure in the electrical power distribution is the loss of all AC power sources during
flight. This is known as the emergency configuration.
When this happens the batteries and the static inverter supply the emergency power distribution for about
five seconds and then the emergency generator automatically takes over.
This is also a completely automatic function. It’s only in the event of the emergency generator not taking over
that the MANual ON push button on the emergency electrical power panel must be pressed by the pilot.
To ensure that the emergency power supply works reliably, an emergency generator test must be performed on
ground on a regular basis
7.2 FAILURE SIMULATION 2 ENGINE AIRCRAFT
2 ENGINE AIRCRAFT NORMAL

AND FAILURE OPERATION
AND SIMULATION
7.3 4 ENGINE AIRCRAFT SIMULATION
The electrical power system of a four engine aircraft, the 747 dash 400, is used for the simulation. Generally the
available switching functions are the same as in the two engine aircraft simulation.
One difference is that, due to limited space, the EICAS display is not always shown. If you want to see it, you must
press the ELEC pushbutton on the EICAS control panel. To deselect the electrical page again, press any of the
page control pushbuttons on the EICAS control panel.
You should be aware that two different presentations of the distribution schematic are used. One presentation is
used during ground operation, for instance when external power supplies the distribution. To get the more
complete presentation of the flight operation, you must switch off all ground power sources and start at least one
engine. Here no ground power source is available and the aircraft needs to be moved without engines running.
This situation needs towing power.
Now we will start energizing the complete network. As in our two engine aircraft example we assume that all
preconditions have been carefully performed.
Now you have the opportunity to select any power source from the menu, in any combination. Note that the APU is
started with the switch on the electric panel. In addition you should use all panel switches to see the result in the
schematic and on the EICAS display.
7.4 4 FAILURE SIMULATION 4 ENGINE AIRCRAFT
In this segment you see the effect of two failure situations on a four engine aircraft electrical power system.
First you should recognize the failure and then perform any necessary switching on the panel.
The first example demonstrates the result of an IDG number 4 failure.
The second example shows a very unlikely but not impossible situation during flight; the loss of all four engine
driven generators. In this case only the battery power remains to supply the battery and the emergency power
distribution.
4 ENGINE AIRCRAFT NORMAL AND FAILURE OPERATION AND

SIMULATION
4 ENGINE AIRCRAFT NORMAL AND FAILURE OPERATION AND SIMULATION

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HỌC VIỆN HÀNG KHÔNG VIỆT NAM

Trends in aircraft generation and load management systems

Recent electrical power generation examples

BUS TIE POWER RELAYS

EXTERNAL POWER CONTROL

POWER SOURCE SWITCHING

AC TRANSFER BUS (BOEING)

EMERGENCY POWER SWITCHING

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

MAIN DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

Fuses are only

3.1 DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

Typical main generator showing three-

GENERATOR SLIP RINGS AND BRUSHES

Static inverter installation

CSD MAIN PARTS

MECHANICAL SPEED CONTROL CIRCUT

The GCU that controls an engine

Typical generator control unit (GCU)

GCU POWER SUPPLY

In this segment we will have a

LOAD DIVISION LOOP UNBALANCED 1

LOAD DIVISION LOOP UNBALANCED 2

UNBALANCED LOAD DIVISION

GENERATOR POWER RELAY

GENERATOR PROTECTION CIRCUTS

The area of differential

The neutral point current transformers

WRONG WIRE ROUTING

BTR SWITCHING STEP 2

TR units have up to two protection circuits for failure detection.

Cells and batteries: (a) connection of cells to

BATT: CHARGER USED AS TR-UNIT

Typical battery locations: (a) battery

2 ENGINE AIRBUS GROUND POWER

BOEING 747 GROUND POWER

GROUND POWER SWITCHING

EXTERNAL POWER ENERGIZED

EXTERNAL POWER INTERLOCK

GROUND SERVICE BUSSES

GROUND SERVICE SWITCH

GROUND SERVICE AND TOWING POWER

2 ENGINE AIRCRAFT NORMAL

4 ENGINE AIRCRAFT NORMAL AND FAILURE OPERATION AND

4 ENGINE AIRCRAFT NORMAL AND FAILURE OPERATION AND SIMULATION

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