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BASIC WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY & PRACTICE (MEC 112)

LECTURE NOTE

WEEK ONE (4 – 5)
Learning Objectives
3.1 Perform simple measuring exercises using steel rules,
Vernier calipers and micrometers.
3.2 Use dial indicators to
(i) Set up job jobs on the lathe
(ii) Roundness testing etc.
3.3 Carry out exercises involving flatness, squareness,
Straightness and surface finish test.
3.4 Perform taper measurement on jobs using Vernier protractor and sine bars.
3.5 Inspect jobs using simple comparators

3.1 SIMPLE MEASURING EXERCISES USING STEEL RULES, VERNIER CALIPERS

AND MICROMETERS.
3.11 MEASURING AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
Measuring refers the practice of transferring designed or required dimensions to a work piece, it is
setting or confirming that a piece satisfies the specified dimension. Engineering practice and
productions make use of specific dimensions, which must be adhered to. Easy assembly of
machined parts and its production to achieve a designed project require that parts must satisfy the
designed dimension, which is done through measurement. Instruments are used in the practice of
measuring to check, set dimensions, detect inaccuracies and eliminate defects. Generally speaking,
a measuring instrument is a device for measuring physical quantities like length, mass, time, area,
temperature etc. Their application or functionality is multifaceted, some are adjustable and others
nonadjustable. Some of these measuring instruments include but not limited to; Micrometer,
Vernier scale, Steel rule, Calipers, dividers, micrometer screw gauge, depth gauge used in
measuring the depth of a blind hole, height of shoulders in holes, grooves etc.
3.12 Testing
This is an investigative, observation or experiment practice that has to do with probing the
composition, mechanical properties, and characteristics of a given sample, product, process, or
service. Please note; mechanical properties of a metal are measured aspects of material used to
describe its elastic and inelastic reaction to applied force; These may include Tensile Strength,
Yield Strength, Elongation, Reduction of Area, Impact Strength and Hardness. The purpose of
testing involves a prior determination of expected observation and a comparison of that expectation
to what one actually observes. The results of testing can be qualitative (yes/no), quantitative (a
measured value), or categorical and can be derived from personal observation or the output of a
precision measuring instrument. Usually the test result is the dependent variable, the measured
response based on the particular conditions of the independent variable. Some tests, however, may
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involve changing the independent variable to determine the level at which a certain response
occurs: in this case, the test result is the independent variable. There are two types of test methods
in mechanical testing, namely destructive and non-destructive testing methods. In the latter
method, the sample under test regains its initial mechanical properties after test but the reverse is
the case with the former. Non-destructive tests examples are magnetic particle test, ultrasonic and
radiographic. Equipment and methods used in mechanical testing includes but not limited to;
Universal Testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, used to test the tensile strength
and compressive strength of materials etc.
A work piece, system, process, equipment or tool can be tested to ascertain various properties to
define its state for desirability for a particular purpose. Some variables or properties, which can be
tested for include but not limited to Strength, hardness, roughness etc. Strength is defined as the
ability to withstand an applied load without failure. Mechanical systems and parts often come
under varying applied load during operation. In order to increase effectiveness, cost control,
durability and purposeful operation, the degree to which a system, structure or part satisfies
condition should be known. Testing provides these required information and more on the state of
the equipment, tools, system, etc. Hardness, on the other hand, is defined as the ability to resist
deformation. But even though the two are different, they are also directly related. Increase one and
the other follows suit. The yield strength is the point at which elastic deformation gives way to
plastic deformation. Deformation in the plastic range is non-linear, and is described by the stress-
strain curve. This response produces the observed properties of scratch and indentation.
3.13 The principle and construction of Micrometer Screw gauge
The Micrometer screw gauge is slightly different from the outside micrometer in that the spindle
is pointed and the anvil end has the form of the screw to be measured. They are used to measure
the screw thread pitch diameter to 0.01 accuracy. The micrometer is so called because it uses a
calibrated screw in its working operation for precise measurements. The accuracy of the
micrometer screw gauge is 0.01 and could be up to 0.001. This is very high accuracy compared to
the Vernier caliper, which has accuracy of 0.02. Most of the engineering works have to require
more precession. So micrometer screw gauge often times referred to as the screw gauge is the
suitable instrument that achieves such required accuracy. Micrometer Pitch is defined as "the
distance on the linear scale through which the circular scale moves during one revolution, either
clockwise or anticlockwise

Screw thread micrometer outside micrometer

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a) Features of Micrometer Screw gauge

i. U-shaped steel frame
ii. Interchangeable Anvil and spindle
iii. Lock Nut or spindle nut
iv. Sleeve or Barrel
v. Thimble
vi. Ratchet or friction stop
i) U-shaped Steel Frame
U shaped or C shaped frame as the case be may will hold all the other parts together. The gap
between the two frames in the U or C shaped frame determines the maximum diameter of the work
piece that can be measured with that screw gauge. The gap also plays a part in the determination
of the maximum length the spindle can travel. The frame is made up of malleable cast iron or light
alloy, cast steel or steel
ii) Anvil and spindle
Anvils can be interchanged and are at the measuring faces. They are attached to face the spindle
and are fixed on the left side of the frame. It should protrude at 3mm to allow for the attachment
of a measuring wire support. The spindle will have the threads acts as a screw on the right hand
side with a pitch of 0.5mm. It should be run freely and smoothly through the length of its travel
and there should be no backlash between the screw and nut. The anvil and the spindle are generally
made of high grade tool steel and are equal in diameter.
iii) Lock Nut or Spindle nut
The lock nut is to lock the spindle without altering the distance between the measuring faces when
the Micrometer is at its correct reading.
iv) Sleeve or Barrel
This has a datum or reference line and it is fixed graduated having a 0.5 mm division length along
the length of the sleeve below the datum. This is the main scale for the Micrometer screw gauge.
The graduation above the reference line are in 1mm interval and are numbered 0, 5, 10 etc. The
graduation below the reference line are also in 1mm interval but each graduation are place in the
middle of two successive upper graduation to read the 0.5mm.
v) Thimble
This is the main part of the screw gauge, it a tubular cover fasten to the spindle and moves over
the barrel. The bevel edge of the thimble have 50 divisions on its circumference and every fifth
part is numbered.
vi) Ratchet or friction stop
The ratchet is provided at the end of the thimble to assure the accurate measurement. It incorporates
a slipping clutch mechanism that prevents over tightening and aids the user to apply a constant
measuring force to the spindle when it reaches the work piece whose dimension is to be measured.
This slips the thimble over the barrel when the spindle reaches the surface of the work piece. Note:
The lock nut, sleeve, thimble and ratchet are made from wear resistance steel.
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b) Least count = spindle screw pitch = 0.5 = 0.01mm

Number of divisions on the thimble 50
c) Screw Gauge Working Principle
The working principle of the Micrometer is based on screw and nut (Rotational moment to linear
moment), as the screw rotates one revolution it moves linearly by one pitch distance.
Reading the Micrometer
i. Select the suitable micrometer size depending on the size of the work piece. ( Usually, the
measuring ranges are from 0 to 25 mm, 25 to 50mm, 125 to 150 mm, up to 575 to 600 mm
are available.)
ii. Check the zero error
iii. Place the Object in between the two measuring faces and rotate the thimble to make the
spindle touches the work piece. Rotate until when ratchet starts slipping over the thimble.
iv. Now take the reading on the main scale(scale on the sleeve) let’s say it is 18.00mm
v. Take the thimble reading by where the thimble coincides with the reference line on the
sleeve or main scale for example, it coincides with the main scale at the 21st division.
The Micrometer reading = main scale reading+ L.C x Reading of thimble = 18.00 + (0.01 x 21) =
18.21mm
d) Errors of micrometer
When both ends of the anvil and spindle of the screw gauge touch each other in such a way the
zeroes of both circular scale and main scale exactly overlap each other, then there is no error.
Otherwise, the instruments has an error called zero error. Zero error can be negative or positive.
If the zero of the circular scale above the reference line, then error is negative. So zero correction
will be positive. If the zero of circular scale is below the reference line or index line then zero error
will be positive. So zero correction will be positive.

e) Classification of Micrometer Screw Gauge

i. Outside Micrometer
ii. Inside Micrometer
iii. Screw thread Micrometer
iv. Depth gauge Micrometer
i) Inside Micrometer
This has the same principle in measurement with the outside micrometer but no thimble, anvil or
frame the barrel is made of 13mm long scale with a 0.5mm pitch. It primarily consist of the
Micrometer unit (sleeve and thimble), the handle, the extension rod and the spacing collar. The
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thimble has a 50 number division. It uses the extremes for measurement. The instrument is placed
inside the work piece to be measured and the thimble advanced or withdrawn so that the ends
touches the dimension to be measured

Inside Micrometer
For wide or higher range of dimensions the inside micrometer is used alongside extension rods
ii) Depth Micrometer
The depth micrometer has same principle with the outside micrometer but with a based spindle for
taking the reading of holes, depths and recesses. The sleeve of micrometer depth gauge is
graduated in reverse form; 9, 8, 7, 6… that is the sleeve zero lapse with the thimble zero when the
instrument is fully open and as the sleeve length reduces during measuring graduation increases.
The sleeve zero line should line up with the zero on the thimble scale. If they are not aligned,
position the tip of the calibration wrench in the calibration wrench hole on the sleeve and rotate
the sleeve to achieve alignment with the thimble. To make an actual measurement,
first choose the measurement rod or the spindle suitable for the depth to be measured from the six
interchangeable extension rods supplied with the gauge. Clean the mounting surfaces of the spindle
or the measurement rod and the rod-receiving shaft. Insert and rotate the measurement rod into the
rod-receiving shaft to seat it completely. Ensure that the head or micrometer base is flush on the
top reference surface. Once the spindle or the measurement rod touches the base of the work piece
to be measured hold the base firmly on the reference surface, rotate the thimble ratchet clockwise
until it “clicks” three times. Read the depth measurement.

Depth micrometer
3.14 Principle and Construction of Vernier Calipers.
Vernier Caliper is a device which is used to measure small lengths or distance such as diameter of
a cylinder or sphere. It is a precision measurement instrument used to measure both internal and
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external diameters to an accuracy of 0.02mm as hinted earlier with the help of Vernier caliper we
can calculate correctly up to 1/1000th of centimeter or 0.1mm. A Vernier caliper consist of a
rectangular steel bar whose one side is graduated in centimeters. The working principle of Vernier
calipers based its measurement accuracy on the use of two scales slightly different in size. One of
the scale is the main scale engraved in the rectangular frame or beam of the instrument and the
other is the Vernier scale sliding along the main scale. It is a subsidiary scale that indicates where
the measurement lies in between two of the graduations on the main scale.
The Vernier scale is constructed so that it is spaced at a constant fraction of the fixed main scale.
So for a decimal measuring device each mark on the Vernier is spaced nine tenths of those on the
main scale. If you put the two scales together with zero points aligned, the first mark on the Vernier
scale is one tenth short of the first main scale mark, the second two tenths short, and so on up to
the ninth mark—which is misaligned by nine tenths. Only when a full ten marks are counted is
there alignment, because the tenth mark is ten tenths—a whole main scale unit short, and therefore
aligns with the ninth mark on the main scale
a) Working principle of Vernier Scale
The difference between the value of one main scale division and the number of Vernier scale
division is known as
i) Least count of the Vernier. It is also known as Vernier constant.
Mathematically equals to = smallest division on the main scale = 0.5 = 0.02
Number of division on the Vernier scale 25

Vernier scale

Reading a Vernier scale

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b) The error of Vernier Scale.

The error which arises due to the incorrect gradation of the scales of the Vernier calipers is called
Zero Error. If the zero of main scale coincide with the zero of the Vernier scale then the instrument
has no zero error. If the zero of the Vernier scale on the right of zero of the main scale then the
zero error will be positive, but the zero correction will be negative. To find the positive zero error,
look at the Vernier scale and not the number of divisions of the Vernier scale which coincide with
one on the main scale divisions and multiply this number by least count. If the zero of the Vernier
scale is on the left of the main scale zero, then the zero error will be negative and zero correction
will be positive. To find the zero error note the number of Vernier scale division which coincide
with one of the main scale counting from the reverse or right end of the Vernier and multiply with
least count.

c) Classification of Vernier Scale

i) Vernier depth gauge
The Vernier depth gauge has same principle with the Vernier caliper but its Vernier scale is
attached to a base that rest on the surface of the depth to be measured. The main frame with the
main scale slides inside the depth and makes contact with the end dimension of the work piece,
the clamping screw is locked then reading is taken as with the inside and outside Vernier scale.
Some scales comes with a fine adjustment wheel used to rotate the fine adjustment screw, which
in turn causes finer movement of the slide. This ensures firm but delicate contact with the surface
of the job. Exerting pressure while placing the scale against the surface of the job being measured
should be avoided. Excess pressure can initiate and accelerate wear of the instrument leading to
either damage or reduced instrument life span. It can also deform the scale resulting in wrong
measurements. The Vernier depth gauge is used to measure the depth of slots, hole and recess and
has a wide range of up to 0 to 1000mm. Periodic cleaning and lubrication is necessary to guard
against friction wear as the main scale and fine adjustment mechanism are always in motion in the
process of taking measurements. The graduation pattern is the same with micrometer depth gauge.
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Vernier depth gauge

ii) Vernier Height gauge
In a Vernier height gauge, the graduated scale is held in a vertical position by a finely ground and
lapped base. Accurate measurement of height is aided by a precision ground surface plate as a
base. The Jaw slides alone the height of the work piece to be measured and it is position in a way
that the base of the work piece is at the zero mark of the main scale. The measuring jaw is mounted
on a slider that moves up and down, but can be held in place by tightening of a nut. A fine
adjustment clamp is provided to ensure very fine movement of the slide in order to make a delicate
contact with the job

.
Vernier Height Gauge
The main scale of a Vernier height gauge is stationary while the slider moves up and down. The
Vernier scale mounted on the slider gives readings up to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
iii) The Vernier gear tooth Caliper.
This is a type vertical and horizontal scale combined in a piece used to measure the tooth thickness
at the pitch line and the chordal addendum (the height from top of the gear tooth to the chord). The
vertical scale and the horizontal are adjusted independently by adjusting the screw on each scale.
The vertical scale measure the height of the gear tooth while the horizontal measures the width all
at the pitch diameter of the gear. This scale is only used to verify the
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Vernier depth gauge

3.15 The steel rule
The steel rule is the most common and simple non-precision measuring instrument. 150mm or
300mm steel rule types are common in used. The steel rule sides are machined true and should not
be used to scratch or screw anything. Measurement are simple read off on the graduated sides. The
sides are graduated in centimeters and inches. The steel rule is a flat fine machine rule used for
linear measurement. It is made of high corrosive resistant steel. In general, a measuring device is
considered accurate to the smallest graduation. So a steel rule that is graduated to 1/64" is accurate
to about 0.015.

3.2 USE DIAL INDICATORS TO

(i) Set up job jobs on the lathe
(ii) Roundness testing etc.
3.21 The comparator
The working principle of the dial magnifies the slightest pressure on the spindle tip, which
indicates on the dial. They are classified into mechanical, electrical, pneumatic and optical
comparators. The comparator is used with gauge blocks to check/transfer standardized
measurement; roundness, alignment, parallelism to a work piece, for quality control and inspection
work, and to determine error in geometrical forms. In reading with the dial, first a standard gauge
block is used to set the dial indicator to zero through contact of the plunger or the spindle tip with
the standardized block. The block is then removed and the work piece is placed in the position of
the gauge block and deviations or difference if any is read off from the dial indicator. Some
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comparators with magnification above 2000mm exist. A deviation of 0.02mm in a 2000

magnification dial will read 40mm in the dial indicator

Comparator
a) The Dial and lever Type Mechanical Comparators
There are varying types of mechanical comparators but only the dial and level type will be treated
in this work. The dial type mechanical comparators is the simplest and common type of mechanical
comparator. Magnification is by mechanical systems, gears, plunger or spindle, rack and spring
that work together to indicate the deviations of a test specimen from the standard required. The
dial indicator is used for: Determining the error in surfaces, say alignment, Parallelism, squareness
geometrical forms, taper, roundness, etc. Practical Application of this mechanical type of
comparators include: To check the parallelism of shaping machine ram with surface, the trueness
of milling machine arbor (a shaft on which a machining tool is mounted), to check the alignment
of lathe machine centers by using a test bar between centers.
The level type mechanical comparator transmits deviations by the movement of a level, spring
system that is read off from the indicator. A compresion spring attached to the system reduces
excess presure. The Principle of operation of lever type comparator is shown in the figure below.
A slip gauge of standard dimension is placed on the anvil surface, below the plunger and the pointer
set to zero. Now, place the component to be measured on the anvil surface below plunger by
removing the pile of slip gauges. If there is any difference in size, the plunger moves up and down.
These plunger movements are magnified, by lever and deflect the pointer on a graduated scale.
A compression spring limits the measuring pressure. The magnification achieved depends upon
the length of lever both side of the pivot.

Mechanical comparators actuate by gears, levers, rack and pinion etc.; all of these are subjected
to wear and friction that affect the accuracy and useful life of the instrument
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Dial type mechanical comparator lever type mechanical comparator

b) Electrical type comparators
Electrical comparators uses a system of wheat stone brigde with a galvanometer, armature
suspended by a thin steel sheet in between coils for its magnification. They are of high reliabilty
because due to minimal moving parts and its very high magnifiction range. Electrical comparators
with magnification of more than 20000 are available. Electrical signal generated by the movement
of measuring plunger causes an inbalance in the bridge and displaces the armature from its neutral
position. This inbalance causes a current to pass through the galvanometer and the reading
indicates the required measurement of the specimen. The mechanism carrying pointer is light and
not sensitive to vibration. Due to reduced friction, wear, and with minimum moving parts, these
comparators have a high magnification/accuracy. Electrical comparators are available to read up
to 0.0001mm with magnification ranging from 1100-18,000 and up to 40,000 or higher. Despite
all these advantages, they are comparatively more expensive than the mechanical comparators.
Secondly heating of coils in the system due the current flow may cause to alter the calibration,
thirdly they instruments require an external supply of power to operate and lastly fluctuations in
voltage or frequency arising from erratic power supply may affect the accuracy of measurement.

Electrical type comparators

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c) Pneumatic type comparator

In this type of comparator, magnification is achieved through air flow or air under pressure as the
working fluid. The air flow type is quicker than those of the more versatile air pressure types. The
measurement through a manometer is based on a double orifice arrangement with a pressure
reducer. A back flow generated due to the restriction at the second orifice mouth by the dimension
of the specimen under check is read off at the manometer already calibrated to show deviation.
Pneumatic comparators are suitable for checking deviations of multiple dimensions and are simple
to operate. The first application was the checking of the bores of motor-car cylinder blocks. Now
it is almost used in production shop for many purposes. Pneumatic Comparators can be applied to
internal and external diameter measurements, thickness measurements. They can also be applied
to check the concentricity of angular parts, best for checking ovality, roundness, taperness,
squareness, depth of blind holes, parallelism flatness, hole center distance, etc. Pneumatic
Comparators have quite a number of advantages, which include less number of moving parts thus
less friction and less inertia will leads to high accuracy, very high magnification up to 30, 000:1.
Jets of air aids in cleaning dust on measured piece if any. The Pneumatic comparator is not
portable, has almost non uniform, sensitive to humidity and temperature changes and require
auxiliary equipment for their proper functioning such as accurate pressure supply means

Pneumatic comparators
d) Optical type Comparators
These comparators types uses a fundamental optical law. There is no pure optical comparator but
large magnification is obtained by use of optical principle in optical comparators. An image is
projected on to a curved graduated scale in place of a pointer to indicate the required measurement.
A tilt in an incident ray on a mirror caused by the movement of the measuring arm increases the
reflected ray by two, which is recorded as a measuring image on the screen. A mechanical
instrument also contributes quite a lot for the overall magnification. Hence sometimes it is referred
as ‘Mech-optical comparator’. Magnification in case of optical comparators is obtained with the
help of light beams which has an advantage of being straight and weightless. Optical comparators
have their own built in light source.
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Initially ∠ACN =∠NCO in optical comparators as can be seen in the figure (a) below. Now, if the
mirror is tilted through an angle a, by the movement of the measuring plunger, the reflected ray of
light has moved through an angle of 2a. Magnification: The magnification of mech - optical
comparator is defined as the ratio between distance moved by the indicating pointer and the
displacement of plunger. The Magnification of optical comparators is usually high 1000:1, with
measuring range ±0.075 mm
Mathematically Total magnification = mechanical magnification * Optical magnification
=a
c

Optical comparators have usually a few moving linkage and hence are not subjected to wear tear,
and much friction and give high accuracy. A beam of light is used for magnification which has no
inertia and it is free from Parallax error. Notwithstanding, Optical comparators are costly than
other types like mechanical with a large size too. Same power source disadvantage as with
electrical comparators. There is a possibility of inaccuracy in measurement due to heating from
source of light and for convenience dark room is required to take readings easily and properly.

3.22 Using the dial to set up jobs on the lathe.

a) To check that a part is centered:
i. Insert part into chuck, and mount magnetic dial indicator onto carriage
ii. Position needle so it is tangential to surface of stock
iii. Zero the dial indicator
iv. Rotate chuck 180° by hand and observe dial reading
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v. If reading is not 0, move dial indicator away from stock, and use a lead hammer to tap
part towards center
vi. Check again with dial indicator to see if reading is zero.
vii. Repeat above process if necessary
b) To check if a surfaced part is centered:
i. Insert parallels into the back of the chuck, then insert part into chuck and tighten
ii. Remove Parallels!
iii. Position dial indicator on the carriage so needle is touching part as shown in picture
iv. Zero the indicator by loosening the bezel's locking knob if your indicator is a traditional
model with a rotating face. Rotate the face of the indicator until the "0" marking aligns
with the dial. Tighten the knob afterward to lock the face in position.
v. Spin chuck by hand and observe any movement of dial
vi. If dial does not read zero, tap high point with lead hammer to set face perpendicular to
axis of rotation and check with dial indicator again.
3.23 Roundness
The dial applies same functional principles in checking the roundness of an object. Roundness is
the measure of the sharpness of a particle's edges and corners. It applies to individual circular cross
sections of a surface of revolution or of a sphere. To measure roundness placed the workpiece on
a V-block and the dial used in the way discussed above to check for deviations. Rotate the part
slowly and carefully by hand, taking care not to disturb the vee-block or gauge stand and making
sure that the part rests on the two arms of the vee block all the time. If the part is truly round, with
negligible irregularity, the pointer of the gauge will not move. If, however, the part is out-of-round
the irregularities will displace the pointer as it contact the plunger and will introduce up and down
movement of the work part on the v block.

3.3 CARRY OUT EXERCISES INVOLVING FLATNESS, SQUARENESS,

STRAIGHTNESS AND SURFACE FINISH TEST.
3.31 Straightness and flatness
Straightness is the measure of the surface variation over the entire length of an object. It refers to
a practically one-dimensional straight line not being curved or bent, which is supposed to have
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only length, i.e. only one dimension. It is the degree of the accuracy of the shortest distance
between two points. Straightness only measures the variance on a straight line. While flatness is
the state of being flat without having pits and mounds or a state of being even. Flatness is related
to a two-dimensional flat surface called a plane in Geometry. A plane such as a board has both
length and breadth, which clearly mark flatness as the variance across a 2D plane. It is a shape
formed by connecting a minimum of three points by straight lines e.g. tringle, square, etc.
Engineer's straight edges are used to check for surfaces that have these properties. These properties
are of great importance in dealing with two surfaces in contact with each other such as on an engine
block and cylinder head. In the block-cylinder head arrangement, design requirement require part
of the head to flush with the other at a certain position in order to achieve a suitable fit and this
can be tested with a straight edge.

Straight edge
3.32 Sine bar
Sine bars are used to check the angle of a tapered piece, flatness of a surface, bevel gears and
locating work in a desired angle. It is made of a hard corrosive resistant steel bar with hardened
identical steel rollers at both stepped ends of the bar. The dimension of the distance between the
centers of these rollers or balls are fixed are usually a whole number (100mm, 200mm etc). The
rollers are in contact with both faces of the stepped bar at both ends. Relief holes are drilled at the
centers of the bar to facilitate handling and reduce body weight of the instrument. The diameters
of the extreme rollers of the sine bar must be equal. The surface of the bar must also be parallel to
the plane containing the center lines of the rollers. It should also have a flat surface. The work
piece to be measured is placed on a surface plate. One side of the bar is placed on the plate over
the tapered work piece under measurement and the other end the sine bar on a slip gauge of height
h. Using sin θ = h/l where l is the center to center distance of the rollers
For a better measurement of the required angle the sine bar in placed on a slip gauge of h and H as
shown in the arrangement below and the calculation done using the right angle theorem. Sine Bar
Limitations include when using a sine bar, the height setting is limited by the gauge block divisions
available (often 0.0001”). This results in an error that may be negligible, or in some cases quite
significant.
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Sine bar
3.33 Surface Finish Test or surface Roughness
Surface roughness often called roughness as a component of surface texture is high frequency,
short wave component of a surface. Roughness is quantified by the deviations in the direction of
the normal vector of a real surface from its ideal form. If these deviations are large, the surface is
rough; if they are small, the surface is smooth. On a turned part, form is the result of errors in the
way the lathe produces the part, commonly known as straightness errors, and waviness is a result
of various vibrations, both in the machine tool and from outside sources. Considerable efforts have
been made to study the influence of surface texture on friction and wear during sliding conditions.
The study showed its importance to the wear service of certain parts that are subject to dry friction,
such as machine-tools bits, stamping dies, threading dies, clutch plates, brake drums, etc. An
instrument, which uses high frequency short-waves signal called roughness tester is used to
quickly and accurately determine the surface texture or surface roughness of a material. A
roughness tester often called SURFTEST shows the measured roughness depth (Rz) as well as the
mean roughness value (Ra) in micrometers or microns (µm). Ra and RMS are both representations
of surface roughness, but each is calculated differently. Ra is calculated as the measured
Roughness Average of a surfaces microscopic peaks and valleys, the arithmetical mean of the
absolute values related to the profile deviation y within the reference length l. It is the arithmetic
mean of the departures of the roughness profile from the mean line. RMS is calculated as the Root
Mean Square of a surfaces measured microscopic peaks and valleys. There are many different
roughness parameters in use, but Ra is by far the most common and universally recognised as the
most used international parameter of roughness. To check for roughness, first the SURFTEST is
calibrated with the standards usually supplied alongside the instrument. Most of the instrument
can store up to ten thousand measurement in its memory card, and has a detachable drive unit with
spc drive that can connect it to spread sheet directly. It can measure from a distance of up to three
meters using a connecting cable. The figure below shows signal display for the roughness average
parameter of a surface. An Optical flat having a cylindrical flat at two sides’ can also be used to
check for roughness. The instrument uses wavelength of a monochromic sodium light incident on
the optical flat when slightly tilted to measure roughness.
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Portable SURTES
3.34 The Vernier bevel protractor
The bevel protractor is made of a beam, graduated disc, a blade, which is connected to swivel plate
(with Vernier scale) by thumb nut and clamp. The bevel protractor is used to establish and test
angles of various shapes to very close tolerances. It reads to 5 minutes or 1/20 o and can be used
completely through 360o. Please recall that a circle has 360 degrees (360o), and can be divided into
three hundred and sixty (360) equal angles. Each equal parts representing a degree is divided into
sixty (60) equal parts called minutes and a minute is sub-divided into sixty (60) equal parts called
seconds.
When the edges of the beam and blade are parallel, a small line on the swivel plate coincides with
the zero line on the graduated disc. Readings are obtained direct from the position of the line on
the Vernier with reference to the graduation value on the disc. Please note: for angles over 90
degrees subtract the number of degrees as indicated on the disc from 180 degrees. This is because,
the disc is graduated from 00 to 900 on both left and right of the zero mark. Now the Vernier scale
too is graduated both to the right and to the left from zero making it possible to measure any
required angle. The readings can be taken either to the right or to the left, according to the direction
in which the zero on the main scale is moved. Each graduation the Vernier scale is 5 minutes less
than two spaces on the main scale. Twenty four spaces on the Vernier scale equal in extreme length
twenty three double degrees. Thus, the difference between the space occupied by two degrees on
a main scale and the space of the Vernier scale is equal to one twenty fourth of two degrees or one
twelfth of one degree (or five minutes). Alternatively, twelve divisions on one side of the Vernier
coincides with twenty three divisions on the main disc, therefore one division on the Vernier equals
to 23/12. So the difference between two division on the main scale and a division the Vernier is 2
- (23/12) = (1/12)0 = 5 minutes. Read off directly from the main scale the number of whole degrees
between 0 on this scale and the 0 of the Vernier scale. Then count, in the same direction, the
number of divisions from the zero on the Vernier scale to a line it coincides with on the main scale;
multiply this number by 5 and the product will be the number of minutes to be added to the whole
number of degrees. For example: Zero on the Vernier scale has moved 28 whole degrees to the
right of the 0 on the main scale and the 3th line on the Vernier scale coincides with a line upon the
main scale as indicated. Multiplying 3 by 5 equals 15;-the number of minutes to be added to the
 18

whole number of degrees, thus indicating a setting of 28 degrees and 15 minutes. In practice this
multiplications is needless as many of this instrument have Vernier scale graduated in a way that
accounts for it.

Main Scale of Universal bevel protractor

Universal bevel protractor

3.33 TAPER MEASUREMENT USING VERNIER PROTRACTOR AND SINE BARS.

Object Angles (0) using Angles (0 and minutes) Dimensions
Sine bar using Vernier Protractor a(cm), b(inches), c(mm)

Exercises
1. Using a measured rectangular metal or wood bar, saw out the figure in the table above,
measure the dimensions a, b, c and the angles in as shown.
 19

Metal Finishing
Metal finishing is used to treat the exterior of a metal product by applying a thin complementary
layer either by introduction or by removal to its surface. Varying types of metal finishing processes
can be employed for the same purpose of fine finishing depend on desirability, availability, cost,
purpose etc. Choice in selecting a metal finishing technique suitable for a project should consider
these few helpful things:
 Metal hardness: harder metals usually require more intense finishing techniques, like grinding,
or tougher abrasives than those used on softer materials
 Production speed: How quickly does the technique apply finish to the product?
 Cost-effectiveness: Certain finishing machines (such as vibratory tumblers) can be expensive,
but may compensate for their price by delivering faster cycle rates
 Potential for vulcanization.
Some advantages of applying finishing treatment to a metal product are increased durability,
improved aesthetic surface, enhanced electrical conductivity, higher electrical resistance and
chemical resistance, higher tarnish resistance.
Types of Metal Finishing
 Metal Plating
 Metal Grinding
 Metal Vibratory Finishing
 Brushed Metal
 Sand Blasting
 Hot Blackening
 Buff Polishing
 Powder Coating

Metal Plating
Metal plating machines use a chemical bath to coat or alter the surface of a substrate with a thin
layer of metal, such as nickel. The electroplating method generates an electric current to coat the
substrate, while electrolytic plating employs an autocatalytic process in which the substrate
catalyzes the reaction. Metal plating provides a number of advantages as a finishing process. It can
improve a product’s durability, corrosion resistance, surface friction, and exterior appearance. It is
also a useful option for coating other metals. However, plating machines are generally not suited
for smoothing out surface defects.
Metal Grinding
Grinding machines employ friction advantage, attrition and/or compression to smooth out surfaces.
There are several types of grinding machines designed to deliver different levels of finite
smoothness. For example, a ball-grinding mill is an excellent fine grinder for cement products, but
may not work for more extensive smoothing projects. Most metal grinding machines consist of a
substrate within a rotating drum. Rod mills are used to make metal rods, while semi-autogenous
grinding (SAG) mills and autogenous grinding mills smooth copper, gold, platinum, and silver
 20

Metal Vibratory Finishing

Mass Finishing is the process of parts being submerged in media and compound (specially treated
water) within a vibratory finishing machine. The machine vibrates causing the contents to move
in a circular motion and the media, material inside a drum filled with abrasive pellets and a
substrate to grind against the part to get the desired finish. The Vibratory Finishing process is used
for both very small and very large workpieces with either simple or very complex geometries. The
machine’s cycle speed and magnitude of vibration are usually variable
Brushed Metal
Unlike plating, brushed metal finishing is an effective method for removing surface imperfections.
These finishing machines create a uniform, parallel grain surface texture to smooth out a product’s
exterior. An abrasive belt or wire brush is usually employed to achieve this effect. In addition, the
singular direction of the belt or brush can create slightly rounded edges perpendicular to the grain.
Sand Blasting
Sand-blasting also known as bead blasting is a process used to force sand, steel shots, metal pellets
or other abrasives into a substrate at high speed into surfaces. This results in a smooth, clean
product texture, particularly in soft metals. The bead blasting machines are typically employed in
projects requiring a uniform matte texture.
Hot Blackening
Hot blackening machines spread a thin layer of black oxide onto a product’s surface to create a
matte black finish with high abrasion resistance. It is a high-temperature process in which the
product is inserted into a series of tanks containing cleaners, caustics, and coolants. Hot blackening
is most commonly used in automotive parts, firearms and tools production
Buff Polishing
If your project requires a smooth, non-textured finish, then a buff polishing machine may be your
answer. This machine uses a cloth wheel to buff the product’s surface, resulting in a high, glossy
sheen. The process is often used for decorative products that benefit from luster and smoothness.
Buff polishing machines tend to round out a product’s edges, and due to the cloth wheel’s range
limits, the process is less effective for applications requiring intricate, fragile or recessed features.
Powder Coating
Powder coating applies a decorative finish that is similar to paint, but with greater durability. The
process involves melting dry plastic powder onto the metal to produce a textured, matte, or glossy
coating. A textured powder-coating machine is also highly effective in removing surface defects.
 21

WEEK TWO (5)

Learning Objectives
4.1 Operate different types of drilling machine
4.2 Carry out drilling operations such as counter-boring and counter-sinking
4.3 Grind drill bits accurately
4.4 Select correct drilling speeds

DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE

4.0 Drilling machines and components
Drilling machines or drill presses are one of the most common machines found in the machine
shop. A drill press is a machine that turns and advances a rotary tool into a work piece. The drill
press is used primarily for drilling holes, but when used with the proper tooling, it can be used for
a number of machining operations. The most common machining operations performed on a drill
press are drilling, reaming, tapping, counter boring, countersinking, and spot facing. The drill press
comprises of parts briefly discussed below.
b) The head
The head containing electric motor, pulleys and V-belt which transmit rotary motion to the drill
spindle at a number of speeds.
c) The Spindle
The spindle is made up of alloy steel. It rotates as well as moves up and down in a sleeve. A pinion
engages a rack fixed onto the sleeve to provide vertical up and down motion of the spindle and
hence the drill so that the same can be fed into the workpiece or withdrawn from it while drilling.
Spindle speed or the drill speed is changed with the help of V-belt and V-step-pulleys. Larger
drilling machines have gear boxes for the said purpose.
d) The Drill chuck
The drill chuck is held at the end of the drill spindle and in turn it holds the drill bit.
e) The workpiece table
The workpiece table can be adjusted to move vertically up and down. The table is supported on
the column of the drilling machine and can be horizontally turned about a plane perpendicular to
the column. They generally have slots so that the vise or the workpiece can be securely held on it.
f) The Base table
The base table is the drilling machine support that holds the structure in position, it is usually of a
heavy casting. The base supports the column, which in turn, supports the table, head etc.
f) The Column
The column is a vertical round or box section which rests on the base and supports the head and
the table. The round column may have rack teeth cut on it so that the table can be raised or lowered
depending upon the workpiece requirements.
 22

4.1 Types of drilling machines

a) Portable drilling machine
b) Micro drilling machine
c) Sensitive drilling machine (Bench and Floor mounted types)
d) Radial drilling machine (Plain, Universal and semi-universal)
e) Upright drilling machine (Pillar or round column section and box column section)
f) Gang drilling machine
g) Multi-spindle drilling machine
h) Turret type drilling machine
i) Deep hole drilling machines (Vertical and Horizontal types).
a) The Portable Drilling machine
A portable drilling machine is a small compact unit and used for drilling holes in workpieces in
any position, which cannot be drilled in a standard drilling machine. It may be used for drilling
small diameter holes in large woodwork, castings or weldments at that place itself where they are
lying. Portable drilling machines are fitted with small electric motors, which may be driven by
both A.C. and D.C. power supply. These drilling machines operate at fairly high speeds and
accommodate drills up to 12 mm in diameter.

Portable hand drilling press

b) Micro drilling machine
The micro drill press is an extremely accurate, high spindle speed drill press. It is typically very
small see Figure below and is only capable of handling very small parts. Many micro drill presses
are manufactured as bench top models. Micro drill press is for precision drilling of microscopically
small holes in sizes from .03mm to .50mm diameter (.0012" to.020"). They are operated manually
and are equipped with chucks capable of holding drill bits of 1mm to 3mm in diameter.

Micro drilling machine

 23

c) Sensitive drilling machine

The sensitive drill press (see Figure below) is a light-duty type of drilling machine that normally
incorporates a belt drive vertical spindle head, horizontal table, a vertical column, a head
supporting the motor and driving mechanism. This machine is generally used for moderate-to-light
duty work. The sensitive drill press gets its name due to the fact that the machine can only be hand
fed. Hand feeding the tool into the workpiece allows the operator to "feel" the cutting action of the
tool. As the operator senses the drilling action in the workpiece, at any instant, it is called sensitive
drilling machine. Drills of diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm can be rotated in the spindle of sensitive
drilling machine. Depending on the mounting of base of the machine, it may be classified into the
floor style and the bench style models.

Sensitive drilling machine

d) Radial drilling machine
The radial arm drill press see Figure below is the hole producing work horse of the machine shop.
The press is commonly referred to as a radial drill press. The radial arm drill press allows the
operator to position the spindle directly over the work piece rather than move the work piece to
the tool. The design of the radial drill press gives it a great deal of versatility, especially on parts
too large to position easily. Radial drills offer power feed on the spindle, as well as an automatic
mechanism to swing and move the radial arm vertically up and down. Powerful drive motors are
geared directly into the head of the machine and a wide range of power feeds are available as well
as sensitive and geared manual feeds. The wheel head, which is located on the radial arm, can also
be traversed along the arm, giving the machine added ease of use as well as versatility. That is the
radial, vertical and swing movement of the drilling head enables locating the drill spindle at any
point within a very large space required by large and odd shaped jobs. Radial arm drill presses can
be equipped with a trunnion table or tilting table. This gives the operator the ability to drill
intersecting, swiveled, tilted and / or angular holes in one setup. The radial drilling machine is used
primarily for drilling medium to large and heavy workpieces. The maximum size of hole that the
machine can drill is not more than 50 mm. Depending on the different movements of horizontal
 24

arm, table and drill head, and the machine may be classified into following types; - Plain radial
drilling machine, Semi universal drilling machine, and Universal drilling machine.

Redial Drilling machine Radial arm drilling machine

e) Upright Drilling Machine
The upright drilling machine is larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling machine. It is designed
for handling medium sized workpieces and is supplied with power feed arrangement. In this
machine a large number of spindle speeds and feeds may be available for drilling different types
of work. Upright drilling machines are available in various sizes and with various drilling
capacities (ranging up to 75 mm diameter drills). The table of the machine also has different types
of adjustments. Based on the construction, there are two general types of upright drilling machine
with similar constructional features except for the column support shape namely:
(i) Round column section or pillar drilling machine.
(ii) Box column section.
i) Pillar drilling machine
The round column section upright drilling machine or the pillar drills, are quite similar to the
sensitive drilling machines but of little larger size and higher capacity (0.55 – 1.1 kW) and are
grouted on the floor (foundation). They have round column and the drill-feed and the work table
movement are done manually. These low cost drilling machines generally designed and used for
medium sized work piece.
ii) Box Column drilling machine
Box column drilling machines possess more machine strength and rigidity as compared to those
having round column section machine. They box column type drilling machine as shown in the
Figure below is much more strong, rigid and powerful than the pillar drills. In box column drills,
the feed gear box enables automatic and power feed of the rotating drill at different feed rates as
 25

desired. Such drilling machines are most widely used and have over wide range of operation (light
to heavy) work.

Column drilling machine Pillar drilling machines

f) Gang drilling machine
The gang style drilling machine see Figure below or gang drill press has several work heads
positioned over a single table. This type of drill press is used when successive operations are to be
done. For instance, the first head may be used to spot drill. The second head may be used to tap
drill. The third head may be used, along with a tapping head, to tap the hole. The fourth head may
be used to chamfer. This type of drill press is mainly used in production work.

Gang drilling machine

g) The multiple spindle drilling machine
The multiple spindle drilling machine is commonly referred to as a multi spindle drill press. This
special purpose drill press has many spindles connected to one main work head see Figure below.
 26

All of the spindles are fed into the work piece at the same time. This type of drilling machine is
especially used to reproduce the same pattern of holes in a number of identical pieces in a mass
production work located close together.

Multi-spindle drilling machine

h) Turret drilling machines
Turret drilling machines are equipped with several drilling heads mounted on a turret or having a
pentagon or hexagon turret see Figure below with a structurally rigid column but are more
productive like gang drill. Each turret head can be equipped with a different type of cutting tool.
The turret allows the needed tool to be quickly indexed into position to perform quickly the desired
series of operations progressively. Modern turret type drilling machines are computer-controlled
so that the table can be quickly and accurately positioned.

Schematic diagram of Turret drilling machine

i) Deep hole drilling machine
Large and very deep holes of L/D ratio 6 to even 30, required for rifle barrels, long spindles, oil
holes in shafts, bearings, connecting rods etc., are very difficult to make for slenderness of the
drills and difficulties in cutting fluid application and chip removal. Such drilling cannot be done
 27

in ordinary drilling machines and be ordinary drills. It needs machines like deep hole drilling
machine such as gun drilling machines with horizontal axis which are provided with; high spindle,
speed, high rigidity, tool guide, and Pressurized cutting oil for effective cooling, chip removal and
lubrication at the drill tip. Deep hole drilling machines are available with both hard automation
and CNC system. The Multi spindle drilling machines and gang drilling machines types are
generally called special purpose drilling machines. The purposes of these types of drilling
machines vary. Special purpose drilling machines include machines capable of drilling 20 holes at
once or drilling holes as small as 0.01 of an inch.
4.2 Operations on drilling machine
Drilling is a varied terminology that is related to making holes with revolving tools. A hole may
be drilled or bored; awls, gimlets, and augers also produce holes. An awl is the simplest hole
maker, like a needle, it simply pushes material to one side without removing it. Drills, gimlets, and
augers, however, have cutting edges that detach material to leave a hole.

Drilling operation
a) Boring
A drilled hole is ordinarily small and usually made in metal; a bored hole is large and in wood or,
if in metal, is usually made by enlarging a small hole. Drilling usually requires high speed and low
torque (turning force), with little material being removed during each revolution of the tool. Low
speed but high torque are characteristic of boring because the boring tool has a larger radius than
a drill. Boring is simply enlarging a hole that has already been drilled by a single point tool so that
a required or designed specification is achieved.

Boring
b) Counter boring
The machine operation of enlarging the mouth of a drilled hole to set nut head and bolt head
slightly down in a way they will not project above the work piece surface or the surface level is
known as counter boring. Counter boring drill is usually guided by a pilot pin, which fits into the
drilled hole.
 28

Counter boring
c) Counter sink
It is an operation to bevel the top of a drilled hole to impress a conical seat for a flat head screw.
A flat drill grounded to a specified angle is usually used as a counter sink tool. Fluted countersinks
bits come in several sizes, able to cut conical holes intended to fit screws of varying head
dimensions. A pilot hole is first drilled for the screw, followed by countersinking the hole to allow
a flathead screw to seat flush with the work surface.

Counter sinking
d) Reaming
This is a machine operation of enlarging a drilled hole or a simple hole to required size using a
tool to achieve a smooth finish. The tool referred to as the reamer is not designed to remove much
metal and it operates with very high accuracy. Reamers are turned in a clockwise direction during
operation and when removing from the reamed hole. Usually the reaming allowance is about
0.2mm maximum or 0.05 to 0.1mm only. Reamer possesses several cutting edges on outer
periphery and may be classified as solid reamer and adjustable reamer. There are hand reamers
and machine reamers. They mainly differ with respect to the shank (hand reamer: square, machine
reamer: taper) and to the cutting portion (machine reamers have a shorter lead). Reaming operation
ensure accuracy in size, roundness, smoothness, etc. to already drilled holes. Reamers follow the
pattern of existing drilled holes and will not correct any error previously established during
drilling. It is necessary to ensure that the reamer is square with the axis of the hole to be reamed.
A tap wrench is used to hold the reamer in place inside the drilled hole and reamed while the work
piece is fixed or clamp in a vice. Fluted hand reamers made of cast steel exist with square tangs
that are fixed in the tap wrench. Lubrication, which prolong the tool life can be applied during
reaming operation to avoid overheating and reduce unwanted wear while the reamer is slowly
operated. The reamer should not be used to removes large piece of metal to avoid wearing away
 29

of the edges and creating inaccurate sized holes. Hand reamers are primarily used for assembly
work to make parts fit better. Their main feature is a long taper lead. This ensures good guidance
in the hole and prevents canting. Hand reamers are non-adjustable or adjustable. Machine reamers
used on lathes are: non-adjustable reamers, arbor-mounted reamers, adjustable reamers, spiral-
fluted reamers and taper reamers

Figure 6 Arbor-mounted reamer (shell reamer)

Reaming operation
e) Tapping
Tapping is simply a machine operation of producing internal thread in a work piece hole using a
tool called a tap. The tap is designed and manufactured with a hardened cutting edge to produce
internal screw that will perfectly fit into a designed external thread. Taps come in sets of three to
cut any given size. They are classified as taper, intermediate, and plug. Most taps have squared
ends designed to accommodate the tap wrench and a plain shank. The diameter of the drilled hole
for tapping is often referred to as tapping size calculated as follows;
Tapping size = OD – 2 x DT
DT = PT x 0.64
Note: OD – Outside diameter, DT – Depth of thread, and PT Pitch of Thread.
The tap must be positioned squarely with the tap surface of the work piece, then screwed to produce
thread using a taper tap fixed in a tap wrench for hand tapping operation. Taper taps are often
called "starting" taps because they have more chamfered threads. Chamfer is the angled portion at
the front of the tap which helps it start threading. Lubrication is necessary to produce a fine finish
of the threads. Mineral oil or whale oil could be used as a lubricant. Threading starts once the
squareness of the taper tap is confirmed and should be slightly reversed after every half cut to clear
the threads Once a reduction in resistance is experienced, which means that the drilled hole is
through, it indicates that the tap is cutting a full thread and could be removed from the drilled hole
or tapped hole and finished with a second tap. Taps come in three main styles:
 30

i) Taper; starts narrow and tapers to full thread width, but they need to be turned farther in order
to form a full thread in a hole. Taper taps have 7 to 10 threads of chamfer
ii) Plug — the most common tap for general purposes. It has a slight taper, but allows for
threading almost to the bottom of a blind hole. Plug taps have 3-5 threads of chamfer
iii) Bottoming — for forming threads in the full length of a hole that has a bottom. It’s
recommended to use a taper or plug tap to form the initial threads. Bottoming taps have 1-2
threads of chamfer

The above is for imperial tap drill size calculation. For Metric tap drill size, the calculation is the
same but with metric units
Mathematically TDS = Major diameter (mm) – Pitch (mm).
Example; find the tap drill size for a 22 – 2.5 mm thread.
Solution D = 22 and pitch = 2.5 so simply do the subtraction, which is 22 – 2.5 = 19.5mm
So TDS = 19.5mm
Taps can be extended using tap extension to thread deep holes that cannot be easily accessible
and extracted using tap extractor.

g) Lapping
The operation of sizing and finishing a hole by removing very small amounts of material by means
of an abrasive is known as lapping. The abrasive material is kept in contact with the sides of a hole
that is to be lapped, by the use of a lapping tool.
 31

Lapping tools for polishing

h) Spot-Facing
Spot facing is the operation of removing enough material to provide a flat surface around a hole to
accommodate the head of a bolt or a nut. A spot-facing tool is very nearly similar to the counter-
bore. A spot face is a very shallow counter bore, used usually to give a high surface finish at the
top of a hole. A counter bore is just a larger hole at the top of a smaller hole, but deeper than that
used as a spot face, perhaps to fit the head of a cap screw head into, also a counter bored surface
usually has a shoulder at the bottom of the enlarged hole, while a spot faced surface is flat and
always at right angles with the axis of the hole.

Spot Facing
4.3 GRIND DRILL BITS ACCURATELY
Position the drill in a way that half part of the cutting edge will make horizontal contact with the
grinding wheel of the grinder. Put the face shield in place, switch on the grinder after proper
inspection of the arrangement to ensure safe operation. Carefully grind, making a number of
strokes, grind the other half cutting edge with same number of strokes and measure with a bevel
protractor or any other convenient angle measuring instrument. Repeat process while checking
each closely with few grinding strokes. Once required ground to required angle, softly grind the
point to remove sharp point.

WEEK THREE (5-7)

5.1 Discuss the nomenclature of a twist drill
5.2 Discuss the formulae for calculation of speed of various sizes of drills
n = v x 1000
λxd
n = no. of rev/min
d = dia of drill in min
 32

5.1 NOMENCLATURE OF A TWIST DRILL

A drill or twist drill is a grooved end-cutting tool used for manufacturing holes in firm material. It
basically a rotary end cutting tool having one or more cutting lips, and having one or more helical
flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of a cutting fluid. Twist drills (also commonly
referred to as twist bits) are the most widely used of all bit types; they will cut anything from wood
and plastic to steel and concrete. The most common type used for field and maintenance shop work
is the high-speed steel twist drill characterized by their black color because of its low cost. Carbide-
tipped metal drills are used in production work where the drill must remain sharp for extended
period of time. Other types of drills available are: carbide tipped masonry drills, solid carbide
drills, TiN coated drills, etc. They can also be used on wood or plastic, but they last longer if
reserved for metalwork. An imaginary line through the center of the drill from end to end is the
axis. The drill must rotate evenly about the axis at all time
The drill, a complex tool has to first provide a way to start and continue a hole where there was
none to begin with. That is the job of the chisel edge. This is the edge at the tip of the drill where
the web is. The chisel edge does not cut, it pushes material aside so the cutting can take place.
Next is the major cutting edge, which cuts and lifts material out of the hole. Then the lands begin
their job of regulating the depth of cut for each revolution and protecting the cutting edge. As the
drill starts to reach the full diameter of cut the margins begin to make contact. The margins cut
the edge or diameter of the drilled hole. The margin relief is there to reduce friction and reduce
binding on chips. The spiral flutes are to provide a way to evacuate the removed material. But
their most important function is to transfer the twist force of the drill motor to the drill cutting lips.
Drill diameter is measured over the margins. Usually a new drill can be measured over the shank.

a) Body
The body of the twist drill spiral grooves cut on it. These grooves serve to offer clearance to the
chips formed at the cutting edge. They also permit the cutting fluid to spread to the cutting edges.
b) Shank
It is a part that gets fitted into the drill chuck or sleeve. It might be parallel shank or taper shank.
Smaller diameter drills have straight shank. Morse taper is generally provided for large diameter
tapered drills. The taper shank brings the tang at the end of shank. This fits into a slot in the
machine spindle, sleeve or socket and gives a positive grip.
 33

c) Neck
It is the undercut portion between the body and the shank. Some details are marked at the neck.
d) Point
It is the cone fashioned end of the drill. The point is shaped to produce lip, face, and flank and
chisel edge or dead center.
e) Land
The part of the drill body between the flutes, it is a narrow strip. It ranges back on the edge of the
drill flutes. The size of drill is measured across the lands at the point end. Land retains the drill
aligned and provide the drill with much of its torsional strength reducing the land width increases
chip space, but reduces strength
f) Margin
The cylindrical portion of the land that is not cut away to provide clearance – The balance of the
land is reduced in diameter, known as “cleared diameter” or “body clearance”. Body clearance is
responsible for the prevention of excessive rubbing and friction. It also permits passage of
lubricants around the drill.
g) Web
It is the central portion of drill located between the roots of the grooves and lengthening from the
point towards the shank. The web of the drill is the metal section separating the flutes and gradually
increases in thickness toward the shank, increasing the rigidity of the drill.
h) Chisel edge
The intersection of flank forms the chisel edge, a point at which the two lips meet. The chisel edge
does not cut; - it penetrates displacing the work piece material and acts as a flat drill. It may cut a
small hole in the work piece at the beginning. Therefore cutting edges removes further materials
to complete the hole. The chisel edge must always be centered exactly on the drill’s axis for
accurate cutting action.
i) Cutting edge or lips
The cutting edges of a drill are known as lips. Both lips should have equal length, same angle of
inclination and correct clearance. They are Cutting edges that extend from the center of the drill to
the outer diameter. The cutting edge lips cut like knives when fed and rotated into the workpiece.
The lips are sharp edges formed by grinding the flutes to a conical point
j) Flank
The surface behind the lip to the following flute is called flank.
k) Face
This is the portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip. The chip impinges on it.
l) Heel
The edge which is formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body clearance is
known as heel. It is the conical shaped portion of the point.
 34

m) Point angle
It is the angle between the cutting edges. It is generally 118 degree. Its value depends upon the
hardness of the work piece to be drilled. For harder material, larger angles are used. For general
purpose drilling a point angle of 59° (118° included angle) is recommended. The point angle may
vary somewhat, one way or the other, but the variation should be uniform in both cutting lips.
Drills can be ground to any desirable point angle but the common point angles in use are shown below.

n) Rake angle
It is the angle between the face and the axis of the drill that forms the cutting edge. At the periphery
of the drill, it is equal to the helix angle. Generally, the rake angle is between 180 and 450, with
30° being the most common. The rake angle partially governs the tightness with which the chips
curl and the amount of space they occupy. If the rake angle is too small, the lips may be too thin
and break under the strain of drilling. Too large of a rake angle makes the drill chatter and vibrate
excessively.

o) Helix angle
It is the angle between the leading edge of the land and the axis of the drill. It is also called as
spiral angle. It is simply the angle of the flute in relation to the work surface or the angle, which
measures the twist of the drill flutes. For general-purpose twist drills the helix angle is about 32°
 35

but most twist drills have about a 30º helix angle, called the standard helix. Low helix drills, or
slow spiral angle drills, typically have about a 12º helix. They are used with high spindle speeds
on hard-to-drill materials. These low helix angle drills have increased cutting edge strength and
work well on materials with a tendency to gall or clog the drill hole. This standard helix angle
optimizes chip ejection, drill cross-sectional strength and drill rigidity.
p) Lip clearance angle
It is the angle formed by the portion of the flank adjacent to the land and a plane at right angles to
the drill axis measured at the periphery of the drill. The lip clearance is the amount of slope given
to the heel in back of the drill lips. This clearance is necessary to keep the heel from rubbing the
bottom of the hole being drilled. Rubbing would prevent the drill from cutting.
q) Chisel edge angle
It is the obtuse angle between the chisel edge and the lip. Generally, this angle is 120 and 135
degree. The angle of the chisel edge to the lips is a guide to the clearance. Too much clearance will
cause the drill to break down because of insufficient support of the lip, and there will not be enough
lip thickness to carry away the generated heat. Too little clearance will result in the drill having
little or no cutting edges, and the increased pressure required to feed it into the hole will cause the
drill to break. By looking straight onto the cutting tip of the drill, the operator can see if the chisel
edge is correct. If the chisel edge is correct at 45° to the lips, then it is an indication that the lip
clearance angle is correct. An incorrect chisel edge is usually produced by holding the drill at an
incorrect angle to the wheel when grinding. A good guide is to hold the drill parallel to the ground,
and make slight adjustments.
5.2 Calculating RPM of the Drill
The RPM setting for drilling depends on the cutting speed of the material and the size of the drill
bit. The RPM setting will change with the size of the bit. As the drill bit gets smaller, the RPM
must increase to maintain the recommended surface footage. Take the case of the wheel. Think of
the drill bit as a wheel and the cutting speed as a distance. A larger wheel (drill bit) will need to
turn less revolutions to cover the same distance in the same amount of time than a smaller wheel
(drill bit). Therefore, to maintain the recommended cutting speed, larger drills must be run at
slower speeds than smaller drills.
Machine Speed: To achieve a specific cutting speed:

N is machine speed i.e. spindle speed (rpm)

k is a constant to “correct”
π is the circular constant → 3.14
Vc is desired cutting speed, a Handbook Value (mpm. Mps or sfpm)
Diameter is of the tool (mm)
V given in surface feet per minute (sfpm), D in inches: k = 12
V given in meters per second (mps), D in mm: k = 60000
 36

V given in meters per minute (mpm), D in mm: k = 1000

For the cutting Speed for a given RPM, considering Equ (1 ) above and solving for Vc
Then mathematically Vc = π N D / k
a) Feed (Vf) = N x fz x Z
Where Vf is feed (mm/revolution or inch/revolution)
fz is feed per tooth (mm/tooth)
Z is number of flutes

Example; A 0.50 drill is being used to drill a piece of 1018 steel with a brinnel hardness of 200.
Calculate the Spindle speed setting to perform this drilling operation.
Cutting Speed = 70 (fpm) from Table.
Diameter of Cutter = 0.500
RPM = (4 x Vc)/ 4 = (4 x 70) /0.50 = 280/0.50 = 560 rpm
Example: How fast should a 3/8 inch drill be turning when drilling mild steel?
From our recommended cutting speed Table below, use a cutting speed of 100 for mild steel.
(100 x 4) / .375 = 1066 RPM
Although you have calculated the RPM, remember that this is only a recommendation. Some
judgment must be made in selecting the actual R.P.M. setting to use. There are always outside
factors that must go into deciding on the proper speed and feed to use. Ask yourself these questions
before deciding on an R.P.M. setting. How sturdy is my setup? Go slower for setups, which lack
a great deal of rigidity. Am I using coolant? You may be able to use a faster speed if you are using
flood coolant. How deep am I drilling? If you’re drilling a deep hole, there is no place for the heat
to go. You may have to slow the RPM down for deep whole drilling.
The greatest indicator of proper and improper cutting speed is the color of the chip. When using a
high-speed steel drill bit, the chips should never be turning brown or blue. Straw-colored chips
indicate that you are on the maximum edge of the cutting speed for your cutting conditions. When
using carbide, chip colors can range from amber to blue, but never black. A dark purple color will
indicate that you are on the maximum edge of your cutting conditions.

Cutting Mild Carbon Aluminum Soft Cast Iron Annealed

tool steel steel Brass stainless
(HSS) annealed
sfpm 100 80 250-350 175 100 80-100 Cutting
speed
Recommended cutting speed for six High speed steel cutting tool for the second example
 37

Material Hardness Cutting speed Material Hardness Cutting speed

(Bhn) (sfpm) (Bhn) (sfpm)
Carbon steel Tool steel
AISI 1019, 120-150 80-120 Water hardening 150-250 70-80
1020, 150-170 70-90 Cold work 200-250 20-40
1030, 170-190 60-80 Shock Resisting 175-225 40-50
1050, 190-220 50-70 Mold 100-200 50-70
1060, 220-280 40-50 High-speed steel 250-275 30-40
1070, 280-350 30-40 15-30
1090 350-425 15-30
Grey cast iron 110 140 90-140
Alloy steel 125-175 60-80 150-190 80-100
AISI 1320, 175-225 50-70 190-220 60-80
3121, 225-275 45-60 220-260 50-70
4012, 275-325 35-55 260-320 30-40
4120, 325-375 30-40
4720, 375-425 15-30 Malleable iron 110-116 120-140
4820, Ferric 160-200 90-110
5020, Pearlitic 200-240 60-90
6120, 240-280 50-60
8720, 9315

Recommended Cutting Speeds using High-Speed Steel Tools.

WEEK FOUR (7)

5.1 Carry out reaming operations
a. on the bench
b. on drilling/lathe
5.2 Select correct speeds for reaming small and large holes.
In reaming factors such as machine, fixture and tooling rigidity, horsepower available, coolant
application and others significantly affects the performance. Mathematically Speed of Reamer
(RPMr) = (SFPM x 4)/Reamer Diameter or RPMr = (K x Vc)/(π x D). The table below shows
recommended speed
 38

WEEK FIVE (8)

Exercises:
Select correct tapping drill size
Select correct taps
Carry out tapping operation
(i) on the work bench
(ii) on drilling machine
(iii) on lathe

WEEK SIX (10-15)

6.1 Know and state the applications of the following (their operations and maintenance):
6.11 Geometric/marking out tools e.g. try square, dividers and gauges
6.12 Planning tools e.g. Jack, smooth, try planes, spoke shaves, etc.
6.13. Cutting tools e.g. saws, chisels, knives, boring tools
6.14. Impelling tools e.g. hammer and mallets
6.15 Pneumatic tools
6.2 Describe portable electric hand tools in wood work, e.g. portable saw, portable
Planer, portable drill, portable sander and jigsaw.
6.3 Carry out various woodwork operations using the tools in 6.1
6.4 List basic wood working machines such as
1. Surface planning and thickening machine
2. Circular sawing machine
3. Morticing machine
4. Single ended tenoning machine
5 Drilling machine
 39

6. Band sawing machines and safety precaution in their operations

GEOMETRIC/MARKING OUT TOOLS
6.1 Geometric/marking out tools
To get a designed dimension or cut material to size in a wood work require instruments known as
marking out tools. Common marking out tools includes: scribers, punches, try squares,
combination sets, surface gauges, angle plates, spring dividers-use to draw an arc or mark out a
distance from a two points etc. The trammel is also a marking out tool that consist of a bar and two
movable heads used to draw an arc that are out the limit of the dividers.
a) The try square also known as the Engineer’s square
Try square consists of a steel blade fitted into a steel stock of rectangular cross-section. They are
well hardened and tempered to suit the need. Both inner and outer surface of the blade are kept
truly at right angles to the corresponding surfaces of the stock. The try square is used in wood
working for marking and measuring a piece of wood. The square refers to the tool's primary use
of measuring the accuracy of a right angle (900); to try a surface is to check its straightness or
correspondence to an adjoining surface. A combination square is a tool used for multiple purposes
in woodworking, stonemasonry and metalworking. It is composed of a ruler and one or more
interchangeable heads that may be affixed to it. The most common head is the standard or square
head which is used to lay out or check right and 45° angles.

8" Tri Square 9", Sliding T-Bevel with wooden handle and a combination set

Try square with spirit level Try square with wooden head
 40

The trammel in use

b) Bevel Gauge
Whenever angles other than right angles are required to be set and marked, sliding bevel square or
bevel gauge is used. It consists of a steel stock of rectangular cross-section carrying a slotted steel
blade at its end. This blade can be made to slide, set at any desired angle and secured in that
position by means of a screw and measurement taken.

Bevel gauge

c) The spirit level

A spirit level is designed to indicate whether a surface is level on the horizontal or vertical planes,
and there are a variety of sizes and designs for every project. The most important feature on any
spirit level is the glass or plastic vial. This vial contains a coloured liquid that has a bubble of air
that moves horizontally or vertically along the vial.
The best spirit level to buy is one that features both a horizontal and vertical vial. The vials feature
two graduation marks that are spaced to allow positioning of the bubble between these two
graduations, which then indicate horizontal or vertical level. Accuracy of level depends on the
quality of the spirit level used. The bubble should sit between the graduation marks. Where the
bubble sits over or out of the graduation marks, adjust the left or right side. When the left side is
too high the bubble will sit on the right side of the graduation marks and vice-versa for the opposite
 41

side. Using this as a guide, you can now make the necessary adjustment to create a perfectly level
project. There are varieties of spirit level for different designs but the longer the spirit level the
more accurate the reading.

Spirit level
d) Punches
This is one the bench work tools used in marking out. The punch is used in drilling operations to
set out the center of the work piece to be drill. It is made of about 10mm octagonal cast steel that
is 100mm long. The body is knurled for easy gripping with the end one pointed end ground to a
designed angle of 600, 900 etc. depending on the type. The punches is also used for marking out
ends of a work piece to be centered for turning in a lathe machine and centers of circles or lines to
be drawn by the divide.

Punches

e) V –Block
V-Blocks are precision metalworking jigs typically used to hold round metal rods or pipes for
performing drilling or milling operations. A ‘V” block serves as a very useful support to the work
in marking. It usually works in conjunction with a U-clamp. Round bar is placed longitudinally in
the block and the screw in the clamp tightened. Its specific use is in holding the round bars during
marking and center drilling their end faces, which are to be held between centers on the lathe. Also
it is very suitable for holding round bars in drilling operations when the axis of the drill is to be
kept normal to the axis of the bar.
 42

Vee block
f) Simple Scriber
Simple scriber is a round hardened sharp pointed steel piece of about 3 to 5mm in diameter and
150 to 300mm long. One sharp pointed end is bent and used to scribe in a hole or place difficult
for the straight pointed.

Simple scribers
g) Ordinary scribing block. It is principal marking tool in a fitting/working shop and is made in
various forms and sizes. It consists of a cast iron sliding base fitted with a vertical steel rod. The
marker is fitted into an adjustable device carrying a knurled nut at one end. By means of the nut
the marker can be loosened or tightened to set it at any desired inclination, moved to and fro inside
the hole accommodating it or adjust its height along the vertical pillar . Normally it is used in
conjunction with either a surface plate or marking table. Its specific use is in locating centers of
round rods held in V-block, describing straight lines on work held firmly in its position by means
of a suitable device like angle plate and also in drawing a number of lines parallel to a true surface.

Ordinary scribing block

 43

h) Universal Surface Gauge

It consists of a cast base, perfectly planed at the top, bottom and all sides. Two guide pins that can
be used against the edge of the surface plate or any other finished surface for guiding the instrument
during scribing. The pins are located at the rear end of the base can be pressed down to project
below the base.
A swivel bolt is provided at the top of the base in which the spindle is fitted. This spindle can be
swung and locked in any desired position by means of the adjusting screw. The scriber is fitted in
an adjustable screw on the spindle and is capable of being adjusted at any inclination and height
along the spindle. A rocker is provided at the top of the base and it carries an adjusting screw at its
rear end.

Universal surface gauge

i) Gauge
Lengths and angles of any object are determined (measured) using a gauge by comparison with a
measuring instrument, where the exact value measured can be read on a scale. They are not
graduated and cannot entirely be called a measuring instrument. There can be no linear or angular
adjustment in gauging a piece. Gauges are most often used to confirm a known diameter, depth,
gap or thickness. It is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides of an
object, a simple tool used to measure gap widths. Now depending on the usage, a gauge can be
referred to as a measuring instrument but in reality a gauge is used to find whether the dimensions
of a part lie within certain desired limits or not. Lengths and angles of any object are determined
(measured) using a gauge by comparison with a measuring instrument, where the exact value
measured can be read on a scale. They are not graduated and cannot entirely be called a measuring
instrument. There can be no linear or angular adjustment in gauging a piece. Gauges are most often
used to confirm a known diameter, depth, gap or thickness.
Depth gauge is used in measuring the depth of a blind hole, height of shoulders in holes, grooves
etc. The gauge is made up of a steel rule, sliding head and a hole in a straight line formation. The
rule simply read off the value required. Telescopic gauge, which has a straight handle and two rods
at one end of it. The two rods are designed in a telescopic way where one can press into the other
 44

in a spring-rod arrangement. The other end has a knurled nob for locking the two rods in a required
position.

j) Calipers
Calipers are used together with a calibrated instrument to transfer and confirm dimensions. There
are outside calipers, spring type calipers, inside calipers and dual purpose calipers known as
Hermaphrodite or odd leg calipers. Inside, outside, transfer and spring type calipers are used with
steel rule to read off measurement. The odd leg calipers are mainly used for marking out lines
parallel to the edge of the work and for locating the centers of a cylindrical work. Dividers which
may be spring type or firm joint type. Dividers are used in marking out curves and circles,
transferring dimensions and general layout work

6.12 PLANNING TOOLS

The bench plane has three jobs in the woodshop: to straighten the wood, to smooth it and to remove it.

a) Fore planes have a sole that ranges from 14″ to 20″ long. The traditional (but by no means
only) job of the fore plane is to remove material quickly. By virtue of its longish sole it also
 45

tends to straighten the wood to some degree. The fore plane is typically the first bench plane to
touch the wood to get it to rough size.
Jointer planes have a sole that ranges from 22″ up to 30″ (in wooden-bodied planes). The
primary job of jointer planes is to straighten the wood, a task it excels at by virtue of its long sole
(the longer the sole, the straighter the resulting work). The jointer plane is used after the fore
plane but before the smoothing plane.
Smoothing planes have a sole that ranges from 5″ to 10″ long. The primary job of the smoothing
plane is to prepare the wood for finishing. It is typically the last plane to touch the wood
Short bench planes like a smoothing plane are good for smoothing the wood to create a glassy,
finish-ready surface. Jack planes are slightly larger. They're used in the early milling stages to
remove the hills and valleys on the surface of a board. ... They feature long flat soles to straighten
or “joint” the wood.
b) A spoke shave is a tool used to shape and smooth woods in woodworking jobs. Once you learn
how to tune a spoke shave and use it properly, it will be a tough tool to put down. It’s a flexible
tool that works well in many situations– often for use as wheel spokes, in planning chair legs or
particularly complex shapes. It can also be used to carve canoe.

Spokeshave

6.13 CUTTING TOOLS

Desired lengths of woods, bar stocks, rods, tubes, iron flats and metal sheets, etc. are always
required to be cut in a workshop to produce dimensioned parts for manufacturing products. The
operation of cutting these workpiece to sizes are done using various types of instruments, some of
which are listed below:
a) Saws
Saws are used to cut a piece of wood into designed shapes and to cut off unwanted parts. It comes
in various types and shapes such as hack saw, coping saw, tenon saw etc. The Hack-saw a much
stronger, tougher version of the junior hacksaw, this saw can cut through much thicker wood and
the manual type is designed to be used two handed. It consists of a metal frame, fitted with a
 46

wooden handle, carrying metal clips with wing-nut at its curved end to. The clip carrying the wing
nut is threaded so as to stretch the blade to the desired extent. The frame can be either of fixed
type, which can accommodate the same length of blades or adjustable type which is capable of
accommodating different lengths of blades. Hack saw blades are made of high carbon steel or low
alloy steel. The blade is the main part. Push type blades, those which cut in forward stroke only,
are generally used. In these, the teeth always point away from the operator. The blades in common
use are generally 0.7 mm thick, 12.7 mm wide and 20 cm to 30 long. About 5 to 7 teeth per cm
length of blade from the coarse group and 8 to 12 Tpcm from the fine group of teeth. The Jigsaw
is the grand master of cutting shapes in a variety of materials. A coping saw is used to cut through thin
pieces of wood and plastic. The thing that the coping saw can do better than most other saws is cut
curves and corners. Junior hacksaw: this saw is designed to cut through thin metal plate. Tenon
saw: because of the stiffness of the blade, a Tenon saw can only cut straight lines although it can
do so very accurately if used properly. The wood or metal should be held in a vice or properly
secured and the line to be cut should be marked with a scriber when using the cutting instruments.

Different parts of a hack saw

.

Coping Saw Junior hacksaw Jig saw blade

Tenon saw Jack saw

b) Knifes
Marking our knives are layout tool used to scribe a line into a workpiece. The knife's edge helps
make accurate cuts that can be followed with a handsaw or chisel.
 47

There are many varieties of chisels used for chipping work in the workshop to generate a desired
shape. They are used to generate blind rectangular holes in wood working. Some very commonly
used forms in wood working are Full length of the chisel is never hardened, only a small length
about the cutting edge (say about 20 to 30 mm) is hardened.
The included angle at the cutting edge varies between 400 and 700, depending upon the material
on which it is to be used. A flat chisel is a general purpose chisel which is most widely used in
cutting work, chipping large surface.

A flat Chisel

c) A file is a tool used to remove fine amounts of material from a work piece. Most are hand tools,
forged out of high carbon steel, hardened and tempered. One or more surfaces cut with sharp,
generally parallel teeth. All the files, irrespective of their shape, size and grade, essentially consist
the blade, heel, and tang

A file

d) Hand brace and auger

Auger bits are exceptionally old tools that have survived through the centuries to find their place
among modern drill bits. They are used alongside with hand brace to drill neat holes in wood work
and not only to most woodworking and furniture making applications, but also to construction and
garden-based woodworking, such as drilling through decking.. What auger bits possess in terms
of finesse, they lack in terms of speed. Due to the angle and size of their cutting lips, auger bits
must be used at a slower speed than many other types of drill bit. In some cases, the guide screw
or feed screw or gimlet point of an auger bit has been known to break if it hits a knot in the wood
 48

6.14 Impelling tools

a) Hammers
The hammer is one of the most widely used in a workshop. It is used for striking chisels in chipping
and cutting and the punch in marking. Hammers used in the workshop are comparatively lighter
in weight than the smith’s hand hammers. They normally weigh from 0.45 kg to 0.7 kg. Ball peen
hammer is the most commonly used hammer. The peen is ball shaped. It is used to shape the head
of a rivet or reach into small recesses, chipping, drawing and laying out. The weight of the hammer
varies from 0.11 to 0.91 kg (as per IS standards). A Claw hammer is a good general purpose
hammer although it has a curved claw specifically designed for the removal of bent nails from
wood. Cross peen hammer resembles the ball peen hammer in shape except that its peen is in
wedge shape and at right angles to the eye. This hammer is used for bending and hammering in
the corners. Straight peen hammer has a peen in line with the handle and is used for peening or
stretching the metal.
b) Mallets
When materials need to be driven in or knocked together are soft enough to be easily damaged,
the solution is usually to use a Mallet instead of a Hammer. There are a wide range of materials
used to make the heads of Mallets; Rubber, Plastic (Nylon), Wood, Copper etc. The most common
type of Mallet found in the workshop is a Hide (Leather) Mallet. Rubber Mallet

Ball peen hammer Claw hammer Cross Pen straight pen Mallet

6.15 Pneumatic power tools

Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air. Some of the tools are sanders- a power tool used
to smooth surfaces by abrasion with sandpaper. All portable electric sanders fall into one of three
broad categories: disk sanders, orbital sanders (also called finishing sanders) or belt sanders.
 49

Ratchet- mechanical device consisting of a toothed wheel or rack engaged with a pawl that permits
it to move in only one direction. Impact wrench- socket wrench power tool designed to deliver
high torque output with minimal exertion by the user, by storing energy in a rotating mass, then
delivering it suddenly to the output shaft. It is used in screwing a socket ring lock in place. Angle
grinders-a handheld power tool used for grinding (abrasive cutting) and polishing. Portable die
grinder-widely used in automobile, engineering and metal processing industries for finishing metal
surface. Portable shear- are lightweight, hand held power tools used to cut through sheet metal.
These shears are capable of continuous cutting along a straight or irregular line on a workpiece.
Field and machine shop maintenance personnel use the portable metal cutting shears for sheet
metal trimming, auto body work, duct work, aircraft structural repair, and cutting template
patterns. These tools can be powered by an electric motor or air depending on the model selected.

6.2 Portable electric hand tools in wood work

6.21portable saw
6.22portable Planer
6.23portable drill
6.24 portable sander
6.25 Jigsaw.
 50

6.3 VARIOUS WOODWORK OPERATIONS

s/n Drawing Operation name Tools used Precautions taken
 51

6.4 WOOD WORKING TOOLS AND OPERATION

Industrial wood working is a difficult procedure and many people are of the view that the best
results in this field can be achieved with the effective use of different manual techniques.
Nevertheless, very similar to the other manufacturing procedures, even industrial woodworking
requires some assistance from different varieties of equipment. The use of woodworking
machinery helps in making the workload easier while delivering the best results expected of the
consumers. This is the main reason why many industries deal in woodwork advocate the use of
highly technological and useful machinery. Basic Wood working machines are as follows;
a) Surface planning and thickening machine
The wood purchased from big box retailers and suppliers are most often never completely straight
or flat. Warped, twisted, and cupped lumber are unsuitable for building furniture. A jointer and a
planer can remedy this. A jointer is used to make a board perfectly flat and will remove warps,
bow and twists in the board. It is simply tool used for creating flat surfaces along a piece of wood's
edges and faces. So rough lumber should be run through a jointer first, and then a use a thicknesser
(known in the US as a planer) to get the board to a consistent thickness and perfectly parallel. A
thickness planer or thickening machine is a woodworking machine to trim boards to a consistent
thickness throughout their length and flat on both surfaces. It cuts wood into the desired thickness,
while creating perfectly parallel surfaces. There are many ways to determine if a job requires a
planer or jointer.

Jointer machine Surfacing and thickening machine

b) Morticing machine
Mortice in wood work is the practice of creating special holes for joints that a rectangular pair
piece called the tenon fits in and create a desired design. Mortise and tenon joints are made in a
number of different types. The blind mortise and tenon is the most common. It is used extensively
in cabinetmaking for joining rails to legs or stiles, and in many other constructions well. When
properly designed, proportioned, and well made, mortise and tenon joints are strong and neat in
appearance.
 52

.
Morticing machine
c) Tenoning Machine
Tenoning machines use cutter heads and/or saw blades to form projections (tenons) on pieces of
stock. Each tenon can be inserted into a cavity (mortise) on another piece of wood to form a mortise
and tenon joint. Single End Tenoners are basically a double end tenoners with only one drive
chain/cutter at one side. A part to be worked on is put on a table which is usually manually fed
through the machine, numerous cutters, saws shaper heads, etc. operating at the same time will do
various operations to the edge of the piece depending on the application. There can be one head,
two heads and sometimes up to six heads doing different jobs to the edge of a piece of wood as it
passes through each cutter. The first head could be a cut off, just to cut to length; the next head
could be a scoring blade that will leave no rough edges; the next head could be a top tenoning head
which will put a groove in the top of the part; then a bottom tenoning head to put in the bottom
groove; and various other heads doing other specific jobs at the same time. Used either in the panel
industry for edge work on a panel, or can be used for the solid wood industry for doing certain
parts. Double end tenoners are just extensions of single end tenoners as they are double sided
machines. Doing two sides at once, they have a chain drive on both sides of the machine.
 53

d) Drilling machine.
Originally, carpenters and craftspeople drilled holes by hand using a "brace and bit. The brace and
bit is seldom used now, but the same concept applies to drilling holes by hand using a hand-
operated drill driver or portable drill press. The drill driver has a crank, which powers a gear
mechanism, which turns the chuck and bit. This tool is fairly inexpensive and easy to use in tight
working spaces. Drills powered by electric motors became widely used many years ago, but they
have been replaced in recent years by battery-powered cordless drill drivers. These battery-
powered devices can also be used to drive in wood screws. The electric motor press can sit on a
workbench or larger models can sit on the floor. A steel column connects the base to the top of the
press where the motor powering the chuck which holds the bit is located. There is a geared
mechanism that the operator can use to lower or raise the bit with a lever.
18

e) Circular sawing machine

Table circular sawing machine is used for straight-line oblong, cross and angular cuts as the most
common circular sawing machine

Circular saw machine

 54

f) Band sawing machines and safety precaution in their operations

The bandsaw, although widely considered French in origin, was invented by the Englishman,
William Newberry. A bandsaw (also written band saw) is a saw with a long, sharp blade consisting
of a continuous band of toothed metal stretched between two or more wheels to cut material. They
are used principally in woodworking, metalworking, and lumbering, but may cut a variety of
materials. Advantages include uniform cutting action as a result of an evenly distributed tooth load,
and the ability to cut irregular or curved shapes like a jigsaw.[1] The minimum radius of a curve is
determined by the width of the band and its kerf. Most bandsaws have two wheels rotating in the
same plane, one of which is powered, although some may have three or four to distribute the load.
The blade itself can come in a variety of sizes and tooth pitches (teeth per inch, or TPI), which
enables the machine to be highly versatile and able to cut a wide variety of materials including
wood, metal and plastic.
A coarse tooth blade (2, 3 TPI) should be used for resawing wood and cutting thicker stock up to
8″. A fine toothed blade (18 to 32 TPI) should be used for thinner metals and plastics under 1/4″.
For general cutting of 3/4″ wood 4 TPI will provide a fast cut and 14 TPI will cut slow, but leave
a smoother finish.

Band sawing machine