AES 402A – Material Science & Engineering

IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS

A. Learning objectives & expectations after this lecture - deleted

B. INTRODUCTION
All crystalline material contain a large number of defects or imperfections. Often specific characteristics are
deliberately fashioned by the introduction of controlled amounts or numbers of particular defects. Several
different imperfections are :

1.) Point defects - those that are associated with 1 or 2 atomic positions.
2.) Linear defects - one dimensional defects.
3.) Interfacial or boundary defects.

C. POINT DEFECTS
1.) vacancy
Vacancy - an atom is missing from a lattice site that is
normally occupied.
2.) Self-interstitial - is same atom from the crystal that is
crowded into an interstitial site.
3.) Interstitial impurity - the solute or impurity atom fills the
fvoid or the interstices among the host atoms
4.) substitutional - the solute or the impurity atom replace
or substitute for the host atom

The crystal lattice

1.) Vacancy or vacant lattice site - an atom is missing from a lattice site that is normally occupied.
Refer to the figure below . All crystalline solids contain vacancies. The equilibrium number of
vacancies ( Nv) is given below :
N = total number of atomic sites, atoms / m 3
Nv = N exp(-Qv / kT) Qv = energy of vacancy formation, J / atom or eV / atom
k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/atom-K, or 8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
T = temperature in Kelvin
Exercise - Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic meter for copper at 1000
deg. C. The vacancy formation energy is 0.9 eV/atom. The atomic weight of copper is 63.5
g/mole, and its density (at 1000 deg C) is 8.4 g/cm3.
2.) Impurities & defects in solid solutions
A solid solution forms when, as a solute is added to the host material, the crystal
structure is maintained, and no new structure is formed. The solution is homogenous;
ie, the solute atoms are randomly & uniformly dispersed with in the solid, analogous
to solution of miscible liquids. Two types of impurity point defects are found in solid
solutions :
a.) substitutional - the solute or the impurity atom replace or substitute for the host atom. Refer to the
illustration in the figure below. There are several features of the solute and the solvent atoms that
determine the degree to which the former dissolves in the latter; these are :
i.) Atomic size factor - Appreciable quantities of the solute maybe accomodated in this type ofsolid
solution only when the difference in atomic radii between the two atom types is lessthan ( + / - )
15 %; Otherwise, the solute will create substantial lattice distortion & a newphase will form.

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 ii.) Crystal structure - For appreciable solid solubility, the crystal structure for metals of both
atom types must be the same..
iii.) Electronegativity - The more electropositive one element and the the more electronegative the
other , the greater is the likelihood that they will form an intermetallic compound instead of a
substitutional solid solution.
iv.) Valences - Other factors being equal, a metal will have more of a tendency to dissolve
another metal of higher valency than one of a lower valency.

An example of substitutional solid solution is copper and nickel. These elements are completely
soluble in one another at all proportions. Referring to the above rules that govern solubility, the
atomic radii for copper is 0.128 nm, & for nickel 0.125 nm; both have the FCC crystal structure, &
their electronegativities are 1.9 & 1.8 respectively, and finally the most common valence of copper
is +1 (although sometimes +2), & for nickel +2.
b.) interstitial - the impurity atoms fills the voids or the interstices among the host atoms. Refer to the
illustration at the figure below. Normally, the maximum allowable concentration of interstitial
impurity atoms is low (less than 10%) . Even very small impurity atoms are ordinarily larger than
the interstitial sites, and as a consequence they introduce some lattice strains on adjacent host
atoms.
D.) IMPURITY IN SOLIDS
1.) It is impossible to refine metals to a purity in excess of 99.9999%. At this level, impurity atoms will be
present in the order of 1022 to 1023 atoms per cubic meter. Metals are not highly pure; rather they are
alloys, in which impurity atoms have been added intentionally to impart specific properties to the
materials. Example is sterling silver (92.5% silver & 7.5% copper). Pure silver is highly corrosion
resistant, but also very soft. Alloying silver with copper enhances its mechanical strength, without
depreciating its corrosion resistance appreciably.

Regarding alloys : i.) Solvent - represents the element or compound that is present in the greatest
amount. Solvent atoms are the called host atoms. ii.) Solute - elements or compounds present in
minor concentration. A solid solution forms when, as a solute is added to the host material, the crystal
structure is maintained, and no new structure is formed. The solution is homogenous; ie, the solute
atoms are randomly & uniformly dispersed with in the solid, analogous to solution of miscible liquids.
2.) Specification of compositions of metal alloys (alloy with composition A and B) You may print this portion
only for your reference during quizzes/exams
a.) wt % A = (wt. A)/(total wt. A & B) x 100
wt % B = (wt. B)/(total wt. A & B) x 100
b.) atom % A = (moles A)/(total moles A & B) x 100
atom % B = (moles B)/(total moles A & B) x 100
c.) Conversion of wt % to atom %
atom % A = wt% A x atomic wt. B)/(wt% A x atomic wt B + wt% B x atomic wt A) x 100
atom % B = wt% B x atomic wt. A)/(wt% A x atomic wt B + wt% B x atomic wt A) x 100
d.) Conversion of atom% to weight% :
wt % A = atom% A x atomic wt A)/(atom% A x atomic wt A + atom% B x atomic wt B) x 100
wt % B = atom% B x atomic wt B)/(atom% A x atomic wt A + atom% B x atomic wt B) x 100
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e.)* Conversion of wt% to kg/m (data on densities of A and B are needed)
* density in grams/cm 3
3
kg/m A = (wt% A)/[(wt% A/density A) + (wt% B/density B)] x 1000
kg/m3 B = (wt% B)/[(wt% A/density A) + (wt% B/density B)] x 1000
f.)* Ave. density of the alloy A & B = 100/[(wt% A/density A) + (wt% B/density B)]

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 = (atom% A x atomic wt A + atom% B x atomic wt B)/[(atom% A x atomic wt A)/density A
+ (atomic% B x atomic wt B)/density B]
g,)* Ave. atomic weight of alloy A & B = 100/[(wt% A/atomic wt A) + (wt% B/atomic wt B)]
= (atom% A x atomic wt A + atom% B x atomic wt B)/100

* Note : equations e.) to g.) are not exact, but assumption is valid for dilute
solution and over the range where solid solution exist.
E.) DISLOCATIONS - LINEAR DEFECTS
Dislocation is a linear or one dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are mis-aligned. There
are several types as follows :

1.) edge dislocation is a linear defect that centers around the line
that is defined along the end of theextra half plane of atoms.
Within the region aroundthe dislocation line there issome
localized latticedistortion. The atoms above the dislocation line
aresqueezed, andthose below are pulled apart.

2.) screw dislocation 3.) mixed

- formed by shear distortion -
stress that is combinations
applied to form the of edge &
distortion. screw
distortions.

F.) INTERFACIAL DEFECTS

Interfacial defects are boundaries that have 2 dimensions & normally separate regions of the materials that
have different crystal structures &/or crystallographic orientations. These defects are :

1.) External surfaces - surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest neighbors, and
are therefore in a higher energy states than the atoms in the interior positions. The bonds of these
surface atoms that are not satisfied give rise to surface energy. To reduce these surface , materials
tend to minimize if at all possible, the total surface area.

2.) Grain boundaries - a defect as a boundary separating 2 small grains or crystal having different
crystallographic orientations in polycrystalline materials : a.) small angle, b.) tilt, c.) twist

3.) Twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a specific mirror lattice
symmetry.

G.) BULK OR VOLUME DEFECTS

These are larger defects which include pores, cracks, foreign inclusions, etc; which are introduced during
processing and fabrication steps.
H.) ATOMIC VIBRATION
Every atom in a solid material is vibrating very rapidly about its lattice position within the crystal. In a
sense, these vibrations maybe thought of as imperfections or defects.

I.) MICROSCOPY - MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURES

Microscopy is the examination and investigation of the microstructures ( grains and shapes ) of metallic
materials that are in the order of microns in sizes. Most techniques employ photo- graphic equipments
with the microsscope.

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 1.) Optical microscopy - the light microscope is used to study the microstructure of metals. Investigation
of this type is often called "metallographic", since metals surfaces where first examined using this
technique. The specimen surface must first be meticulously prepared - grounded, polished, &
"etched" to reveal the details of the microstructures.
2.) Electron microscopy
a.) Transmission electron microscopy - using electron beam passing thru the specimen. Magnification
of 1,000,000x are possible.
b.) Scanning electron microscopy - the surface of the specimen being examine is scanned by
electron beam and the reflected electron beam is collected then displayed on a cathode ray tube
(similar to TV). Magnification up to in excess of 50,000 diameters are possible.
c.) Scanning probe microscopy - neither light nor electrons are used to produce an image; rather the
scanning probe with a very sharp tip is brought to a very close proximity ( in the order of
nanometer ) of the specimen surface. The data recorded are sent ot the computer which then
generate a 3-dimensional surface image.

============= study guide up to this line only. The entry below is optional for you ================

I. GRAIN SIZE DETERMINATION

1.) by "intercept method"
a.) Straight lines of same length are drawn thru several photomicrographs.
b.) Count the grains intersected by each line segments.
c.) Divide the line length by the average number of grains intersected, taken all over the line segment
d.) The ave. grain diameter is found by dividing the result by the linear magnification of the micrograph
2.) by use of standard comparison chart devised by ASTM. The society had prepared several standard
comparison charts, all having different average grain sizes. To each is assigned a number ranging from
1 to 10, which is termed as a grain size number; the larger the number, the smaller the grains. A
specimen must be properly prepared to reveal its grain structure, which is photograph at a
magnification of 100 x. The grain size is expressed as grain size number of the chart that most nearly
matches the grains in the photomicrograph. It can also be expressed in terms of "grains per square
inch" by :

N = 2 n-1 where : n = grain size number, N = Ave. number of grains / sq. inch

Exercise #1 - Estimate the grain size of the specimen shown in the photomicrograph
below using the incercept method.

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