AC Fundamentals Alternating Current Single Phase AC Circuits

RMS Value, Average Value, Peak Value, Peak

Factor And Form Factor in AC
 Electrical Technology  1  12 minutes read

What is RMS Value, Peak Value, Average Value, Instantiations Value,

Form Factor, Peak Factor & Other related Terms to AC Circuits and
Sine wave? Fig – 1 Difference Between AC & DC

In AC, its not possible to represent the magnitudes as its amplitude of AC sine wave
Table of Contents continuously changes with time.
What is RMS (Root Mean Square) Value ?
Methods for Finding RMS Value of Sine Wave. This way, we have multiple options to expressed the magnitude and different values
Analytical Method related to an AC sine wave such as:
Method 1
Method 2. • RMS Value
Method 3 • Average Value
Graphical or Mid-Ordinate Method
• Instantaneous Value
RMS Voltage and Current Equations
• Maximum or Peak Value
RMS Voltage Value Formulas for Different Wave forms
RMS Voltage Calculator • Peak to Peak Value
What is Average Value • Peak Factor
Methods for Finding Average Value of Sine Wave. • Form Factor
Mid-Ordinate or Graphical Method
• Other related terms
Analytical Method
Average Voltage and Current Equations
We will discuses all of them in details as follow.
Average Value & RMS Value Formulas for Different Wave forms
What is Instantaneous Value
What is RMS (Root Mean Square) Value ?
What is Peak Voltage or Maximum Voltage Value ?
Peak to Peak Value The RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also known as effective or virtual value) of of an

What is Peak Factor alternating current (AC) is the value of direct current (DC) when flowing through a circuit

What is Form Factor or resistor for the specific time period and produces same amount of heat which

Other Terms Related To AC Circuits produced by the alternating current (AC) when flowing through the same circuit or

Waveform resistor for a specific time.

Cycle
Period
Frequency
Amplitude
Alternation

AC and DC Currents

It is known that the polarity of DC voltage and direction of DC current are always same
i.e. it is a unidirectional value which does not change the polarity as well as direction as
shown in fig 1.

On the other hand, (AC) Alternating Current or Voltage is one which regularly changes
its direction as well as its value. In other words, alternating current (AC) is a type of
The value of an AC which will produce the same amount of heat while passing through
current which flows first in one direction and secondly, it flows in the opposite direction.
in a heating element (such as resistor) as DC produces through the element is called
In each cycle, it changes the value from zero to the maximum and again hit the zero
R.M.S Value.
value.

In short,
The value of alternating current or voltage can be express in AC (Sinusoidal) Sine wave
as shown in fig (1) below.
The RMS Value of an Alternating Current is that when it compare to the Direct Current,

then both AC and DC current produce the same amount of heat when flowing through While the mean of square of instantaneous values of current in in half or complete cycle
the same circuit for a specif time period. is:

For a sinusoidal wave,

The Square root of this value is:

or

IRMS = 0.707 x IM , ERMS = 0.707 EM

Actually, the RMS value of a sine wave is the measurement of heating effect of sine Hence, the RMS value of the current is (while putting I = Im Sin θ):

wave. For example, When a resistor is connected to across an AC voltage source, it

produce specific amount of heat (Fig 2 – a). When the same resistor is connected across
the DC voltage source as shown in (fig 2 – b). By adjusting the value of DC voltage to
get the same amount of heat generated before in AC voltage source in fig a. It means
the RMS value of a sine wave is equal to the DC Voltage source producing the same Now,
amount of heat generated by AC Voltage source.

Therefore, We may find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current:

IRMS = Max Value of Current x 0.707

Fig 2 – RMS Values of Current & Voltage
Method 2.
In more clear words, The domestic voltage level in US is 110V, while 220V AC in UK. Let i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
This voltage level shows the effective value of ( 110V or 220V R.M.S) and it shows that
the home wall socket is capable to provide the same amount of average positive power Mean value of i2
as 110V or 220V DC Voltage.

Keep in mind that the ampere meters and volt meters connected in AC circuits
always showing the RMS values (of current and voltage).

For AC sine wave, RMS values of current and voltage are:

IRMS = 0.707 x IM , VRMS = 0.707 VM

To find the RMS value of a sine wave, We may use the following two methods.

1. Mid Ordinate Method

2. Integration Method.

Lets see how to find the R.M.S values of a sine wave.

Methods for Finding RMS Value of Sine Wave.

Analytical Method Method 3
Method 1 Let i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
We know that the value of sinusoidal alternating current (AC) =

Im Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
 The RMS Voltage is calculated as follow:

This way, The Value of RMS Voltage is 6.97V by using the graphical or mid-ordinate
method to find the RMS value of voltage.

Graphical or Mid-Ordinate Method • Related Post: Three Phase Current Values in a 3-Phase System

This method is known as mid ordinate or graphical method to find the value of RMS RMS Voltage and Current Equations
voltages by using mid-ordinates or finding the instantaneous value of AC waveform. For
RMS Values of Current and Voltage related to Peak Value or Max Value (Both are
clear understanding, a solved example is given below the explanation.
same).

There are many instantaneous voltages in an AC sine wave and its depends on the time
interval. As shown in the fig 3 below where the number of mid ordinates are 12, (The
more the mid ordinates, the more accurate will be the result). It shows at instance of t =
1, t = 2, t = 3 …. tn, the instantaneous voltages levels are V1, V2, V3 …. Vn respectively. VRMS = 0.707 x VPK , IRMS = 0.707 x IPK

VRMS = 0.707 x VM , IRMS = 0.707 x IM

RMS Values of Current and Voltage related to Peak to Peak Value.

VRMS = 0.3536 x VP-P , IRMS = 0.3536 x IP-P

Fig 3 – Mid-Ordinate or Graphical Method for RMS
RMS Values of Current and Voltage related to Average Value.
First, We will find the instantaneous values of voltages for each each time period like t =
1, t =2 … t = n etc. To find the RMS value, We would have to find the square values of
each voltage levels in the AC waveform which shows the square part of the RMS Value.

VRMS = 1.11 x VAV , IRMS = 1.11 x IAV

V12 + V22 + V32 + ….. Vn2

Here all in one picture.

Now the squired values of voltages are divided by the number of mid-ordinates which
shows the mean value of the RMS voltage.

For Example,

Number of ordinates used in above fig 3 = 12

Assume the peak value voltage (Max Voltage i.e. amplitude = VPK or VMax) is 12V for the
alternating waveform. The waveform is divided in 12 mid-ordinates as shown below:

Voltage 2V 4V 6V 8V 10V 12V 10V 8V 6V 4V 2V 0V

Angle 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o 105o 120o 135o 150o 165o 180o

RMS Voltage Value Formulas for Different Wave forms

In the below table, the RMS Voltage Value formulas are shown for different kind of
sinusoidal wave forms.

Waveform Type Formula for RMS Value (VRMS)

Sine Wave VPK / √2

Half wave rectified sine wave VPK / √2

Full wave rectified sine wave VPK / √2

Square wave VPK

Fig 5- Average Value of Current
Triangle waveform VPK / √3

Sawtooth waveform VPK / √3 In short, The average value of a sine wave taken over a complete cycle is always zero,
because the positive values (above the zero crossing) offset or neutralize the negative
values (below the zero crossing.)
RMS Voltage Calculator

In the RMS Voltage Value Calculator, You can calculate the value of RMS voltage from
Related Post: Star Connection (Y): Three Phase Power, Voltage & Current Values
different related values like Average Value, Peak Value and Peak to Peak Value.

Methods for Finding Average Value of Sine Wave.

What is Average Value
Mid-Ordinate or Graphical Method
If we convert the alternating current (AC) sine wave into direct current (DC) sine wave
In this method, the half cycle of a sin wave is divided in equal number of time periods
through rectifiers, then the converted value to the DC is known as the average value of
where the duration of each time period is “t/n”.
that alternating current sine wave.

Suppose the average values of instantaneous currents in each time interval is I2, 12, I3
… In. To find the average value for each time interval, both the left and right vertical lines
are added and divided by two. The same apply to all time intervals to find the average
value for each instance.

Now, all the average values are added and divided by the number mid-ordinates (i.e.
time periods) which shows the overall average of half cycle of a sine wave. the formula
for average value is shown below:

Fig 4 – Average Value of Voltage

If the maximum value of alternating current is “IMAX“, then the value of converted DC Example:

current through rectifier would be “0.637 IM” which is known as average value of the AC
Sine wave (IAV).

Average Value of Current = IAV = 0.637 IM

Average Value of Voltage = EAV = 0.637 EM

The Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is
Fig 6 – Mid-Ordinate or Graphical Method for Average Value of Current
expressed by that Direct Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same
amount of charge as is transferred by that Alternating Current (AC) during the same Number of ordinates used in fig 6 = 12
time.
Assume the peak value of current(Max Current i.e. amplitude = IPK or IMax) is 12A for the
Keep in mind that the average or mean value of a full sinusoidal wave is “Zero” the value alternating waveform. The waveform is divided in 12 mid-ordinates as shown below:
of current in first half (Positive) is equal to the the next half cycle (Negative) in the
opposite direction. In other words, There are same amount of current in the positive and
negative half cycles which flows in the opposite direction, so the average value for a Current 2A 4A 6A 8A 10A 12A 10A 8A 6A 4A 2A 0A

complete sine wave would be “0”. That’s the reason that’s why we don’t use average
value for plating and battery charging. If an AC wave is converted into DC through a Angle 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o 105o 120o 135o 150o 165o 180o
rectifier, It can be used for electrochemical works.
This way, The Average Value of current is 6A by using the graphical or mid-ordinate value of voltage and current respectively with the constant 0.637.
method to find the average value of current.
For example, if the max value or peak value of the sinusoidal wave is 360VPK or
• Related Post: Delta Connection (Δ): 3 Phase Power, Voltage & Current Values 360VMax, by using the above equation, the average value of the voltage would be:

Analytical Method 0.637 x 360VPK = 229.32 Av.

We know that the standard equation of alternating current is
• Related Post: Difference between Star and Delta Connections – Comparison Of
i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ Y/Δ

• Maximum value of current on sine wave = Im Average Value & RMS Value Formulas for Different Wave forms
• Average value of current on sine wave = IAV In the below table, the Average Value and RMS Voltage Value formulas are shown for

• Instantaneous value of current on sine wave = i different kind of sinusoidal wave forms.

• The angle specified fir “i” after zero position of current = θ

Formula for Avg
• Angle of half cycle = π radians Waveform Type Formula for RMS Voltage
Voltage
• Angle of full cucle = 2π radians
Sine Wave VRMS = VPK/√2 VAV = 0
(a) Average value of complete cycle:
Full rectified wave VRMS = VPK/√2 VAV = 0.637 VPK

Let i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ Half rectified wave VRMS = VPK/2 VAV = 0.318 VPK

2
Sine wave with DC offset VRMS = √(VDC +VPK2/2) VAV = Vdc

Half sine with duration T and

VRMS = VPK x √(f x T/2) VAV = 2f x T x VPK/π
frequency f

Positive square wave with

VRMS = VPK x √(f x T) VAV = f x T x VPK
duration T and frequency f

Thus, the average value of a sinusoidal wave over a complete cycle is zero. Saw tooth wave with duration T
VRMS = VPK x √(f x T/3) VAV = f x T x VPK/2
and frequency f
(b) Average value of current over a half cycle
Trapezoidal wave with frequency
VRMS = VPK x √(fx ((B- VAV = f x VPK x
f, top segment T, and base
T)+3xT)/3) ((T+B)/2)
segment B.

What is Instantaneous Value

The value attained by an alternating quantity at any instant is known as instantaneous
value. It is denoted by “i” and e.

in other words, the value of an alternating current or voltage at any particular moment us
Average Value of Current (Half Cycle) called an instantaneous value.

IAV = 0.637 VM In fig 7 below, different instantaneous values of voltages or currents are shown at
specific point and time period. The value of instantaneous current or voltage are “+” in
Similarly, the average value of voltage over a half cycle the positive cycle and “-” in negative cycle in a sinusoidal wave. The curves are showing
the values of different instantaneous voltages while the same curve can be drawn for
VAV = 0.637 VM current as well. In the fig 7, the value of instantaneous voltages are 2.5V at 1μs, 5.1V at
2μs, 8.9V at 3μs. While it is -2.3V at 4μs, -6.1V at 5μs and -9.2V at 6μs.
Average Voltage and Current Equations

Its mean the value of average voltage or current is equal to multiplication of max or peak

For a sinusoidal alternating voltage:

Fig 7 – Instantaneous Value of Voltage

What is Peak Voltage or Maximum Voltage Value ?

Peak value is also known as Maximum Value, Crest Value or Amplitude. It is the For a sinusoidal alternating current:
maximum value of alternating current or voltage from the “0” position no matter positive
or negative half cycle in a sinusoidal wave as shown in fig 8. Its expressed as IM and EM
or VP and IM.

Equations of Peak Voltage Value are: What is Form Factor

The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating quantity (Current or
VP = √2 x VRMS = 1.414 VRMS
Voltage) is known as Form Factor.

VP = VP-P/2 = 0.5 VP-P

VP = π/2 x VAV = 1.571 x VAV

In other words, It is the value of voltage or current at the positive or the negative
maximum (peaks) with respect to zero. In simple words, it is the instantaneous value
In the below table, the form factor formulas and values are shown for different kind of
with maximum intensity.
sinusoidal wave forms.

Waveform Type Formula for Form Factor Value

Sine Wave π/2√2 1.11072073

Half wave rectified sine wave π/2 1.5707963

Full wave rectified sine wave π/2√2 1.11072073

Square wave 1 1

Triangle waveform 2/√3 1.15470054

Saw-tooth waveform 2/√3 1.15470054

Fig 8 – Peak or Maximum Values of Voltages

Peak to Peak Value Other Terms Related To AC Circuits

The sum of positive and negative peak values is known as peak to peak value. Its
expressed as IPP or VPP.
Equations and formulas for Peak to Peak Voltage are as follow:
Waveform
The path traced by a quantity (such as voltage or current) plotted as a function of some
variable (such as time, degree, radians, temperature etc.) is called waveform.

Cycle
VP-P = 2√2 x VRMS = 2.828 x VRMS
1. One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quality (such as
VP-P =2 x VP voltage and current) is known as cycle.
2. The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time is called cycle.
VP-P = π x VAV = 3.141 x VAV 3. A distance between two same points related to value and direction is known as
cycle.
In other words, the peak to peak value of a sine wave, is the voltage or current from
4. A cycle is a complete alternation.
positive peak to the negative peak and its value is double as compared to peak value or
maximum value as shown in fig 8 above. Period
The time taken by a alternating quantity (such as current or voltage) to complete one
• Related Post: Peak Voltage and Peak to Peak Voltage Calculator
cycle is called its time period “T”.

What is Peak Factor

It is inversely proportional to the Frequency “f” and denoted by “T” where the unit of time
Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
period is second.

It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating wave.
Mathematically;

T = 1/f
Frequency
Frequency is the number if cycles passed through per second. It is denoted by “f” and
has the unit cycle per second i.e. Hz (Herts). Basic Concepts EE Questions / Answers Over Head Lines Power System

The number of completed cycles in 1 second is called frequency. Why Don’t Birds and Squirrels Get
Electrocuted on Power Lines?
It is the number of cycles of alternating quantity per second in hertz.
 Electrical Technology  1  4 minutes read

Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completed in one second or the
number of cycles that occurs in one second.
Why Don’t Birds Setting on Power Lines Get Electrocuted?
f = 1/T We mentioned many times that electricity is our best friend as well as a worst enemy. If
you give it a chance to kill you, remember that it will never disappoint you. It means, only
Amplitude sparkies and professional electrical engineers can play even with naked wires who know
The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity such as voltage or very well how to control and manage our friend/enemy (electricity). But my friend, what
current is known as its amplitude. Its denoted by VP, IP or EMAX and IMAX. about birds setting and squirrels running on the live power lines carrying high
voltage levels? Lets see below how does this happen?
Alternation
• Related Post: Why Electric Power Transmission is Multiple of 11 i.e 11kV,
One half cycle of a sine wave (Negative or Positive) is known as alternation which span
22kV, 66kV etc?
is 180° degree.

Table of Contents

Birds and Squirrels on Power Lines

Birds and Squirrels are not Good Conductors
Does this Role Apply to the Human Body?
When Birds Electrocuted on Power Lines?
Be afraid, Be very Afraid, Don’t Try this at Home.

Birds and Squirrels on Power Lines

If you have ever seen (I bet you have seen before) a squirrel running or birds setting on
live wires. It shows that they are not getting electrocuted by electricity due to some
reasons. Let’s explain these reasons in detail as follows.
Fig 9 – Different Terms used in AC Circuits and Sine Wave

Related Posts:

• What is the difference between AC and DC Resistance & How to calculate it?
• How to Find the Number of Nodes, Branches, Loops and Meshes in a Circuit?
• Q Factor in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
• Components of Admittance

 Tags AC Circuit Form Factor Instantaneous Value Peak Factor Peak Value RMS Value RMS Voltage

Sine Wave
Birds and Squirrels are not Good Conductors
wp.me/p4O3ZJ-5GY Copy URL Well, We know that electricity is too lazy like us (except me) and they find the easiest
and short path with little resistance as compared to high resistance.

Electricity always flows from high level to the low level (same like water). Firstly, they find
SHOW ALL COMMENTS
the easiest way (like a short conductor with parallel of a high resistance) to flow. Same
as it flows from the live (Line) to the neutral (ground level of voltage is zero). In short,
electricity flows when there is a potential difference between two points.

completed and current will flow through their bodies and they may get electrocuted even
if they can die.

• Related Post: Which Bulb Glows Brighter When Connected in Series and
Parallel & Why?
• Related Post: Why Earth Pin is Thicker and Longer in a 3-Pin Plug?

Below are some images showing how to protect the bird’s lives while sitting on power
Now, when a bird sets on the live wire, his body has some resistance i.e. it acts like an
lines.
insulator and there is already a short path (as copper wire) for current to flow through it.
(As shown in below fig). This way, birds and squirrels don’t get electric shock because
current doesn’t flow through their bodies due to the same voltage level i.e. there is no
potential difference. So the current will bypass their bodies as there is a short path with
very less resistance (in case of copper wire). In this case, the current flow is shown in fig
(c) (green line).

Bird Proofing Transmission Lines, did you know

Does this Role Apply to the Human Body?

Same as the case for human beings. If someone touches the live wire (Line) while he is Bird Protection Russian solutions

not touching the ground (even on chairs, ladders etc), He will not get electrocuted unless
they touch the ground wire or another wire that has a different voltage level. This way,
there will be a potential difference due to different levels of voltages, so current will start
to flow through it, the same like loads connected in parallel circuits. the “Human body is
not a good conductor” will not apply then as it is acting as a “load” where current will flow
through it. So be afraid, be very afraid and don’t try this at home.

If you wanna see live examples, birds setting and squirrels running on the lines are live
examples. In addition, this is how the lineman are working on the live lines from the
Insulated Cover over insulator to save birds from getting shocked
helicopter while they are in air (which is a good insulator) but before maintenance or
repairing, they use a rod to equalize the line voltage to the helicopter potential. Be afraid, Be very Afraid, Don’t Try this at Home.
As mentioned above, please don’t play with electricity. Now you also know that you may
• Related Post: What are the Colored Aerial Marker Balls on Power Lines For?
touch the Live (Line) wire while being in the air and not touching the ground or any other

For low voltages, the impedance (Z) is too high which won’t be able to make an arc to object like chair, ladder, wall etc., You are safe. But don’t give it a try as we have shown

the birds through the air. But in case of very high voltage, if a bird with different potential some examples like birds setting on the power lines, lineman working on the live power

level is set on the lines, It will electrocute the bird the same as arc flashing to the rod in lines from the helicopter. Stay safe.

case of a helicopter.
Related Posts:

When Birds Electrocuted on Power Lines?

• Which One Kills ? Current or Voltage and Why? Amps vs Volts
As explained above, when the birds or squirrels on line make a direct contact with
• Which One is More Dangerous? 120V or 230V and Why?
another wire having different levels of voltage or ground wire (having zero voltage) at the
same time. This difference of voltage levels causes the flow of current through the birds • AC or DC ? Which One is More Dangerous And Why ?

between two conductors. • Which One is More Dangerous? 50Hz or 60Hz in 120V/230V & Why?
• Is Lightning AC or DC ?
This also applies to living things including human beings. In this case, the circuit is
• Electrical Shock Hazards & Its Effects on Human Body