Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36

Review

Spent coffee
grounds: A review on commodity after petroleum (Murthy & Naidu, 2012a).
Global green coffee production increased by almost 17%,
probably due to increased yield (24%), between 2000 and
current research and 2012. Several residues are obtained during coffee process-
ing. Coffee producing countries generate residues from the
coffee fruit amounting to >50% of the fruit mass (Tsai,
future prospects Liu, & Hsieh, 2012). Spent coffee ground (SCG) is the res-
idue obtained during the brewing process (Cruz et al.,

Rocio Campos-Vegaa,*,
2012). The huge amount of residue generated annually in
the production of soluble coffee requires waste manage-
Guadalupe Loarca-Pin~aa, ment plan consistent with existing national regulations.
For example, Nestle, the world’s biggest food company
Hayd ~edac
e A. Vergara-Castan pledges to reduce waste in Europe by 2020 using spent cof-

and B. Dave Oomahb,1

a
Programa en Alimentos del Centro de la Rep ublica
(PROPAC), Research and Graduate Studies in
Food Science, School of Chemistry, Universidad
noma de Quer
Auto etaro, Queretaro, Qro 76010,
Mexico (Tel.: D52 55 1921304; e-mail: chio_cve@
yahoo.com.mx)
b be exploited as a source of value-added products. Thus, cof-
National Bioproducts and Bioprocesses Program,
Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada, Summerland V0H 1Z0, BC, Canada
c
Nucitec, S.A. de C.V., Comerciantes 15-3, Colonia
Pen~uelas, Quer
etaro, Mexico
Spent coffee ground (SCG) contains large amounts of organic
compounds (i.e. fatty acids, amino acids, polyphenols, minerals
and polysaccharides) that justify its valorization. Earlier innova-
tion explored the extraction of specific components such as oil,
flavor, terpenes, and alcohols as value-added products. Howev-
er, by-products of coffee fruit and bean processing can also be
considered as potential functional ingredients for the food in-
dustry. There is an urgent need for practical and innovative
ideas to use this low cost SCG and exploit its full potential
increasing the overall sustainability of the coffee agro-industry.
Introduction
Coffee, grown in about 80 countries, is one of the world’s
most popular beverage and second largest traded
* Corresponding author.
1
Retired.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2015.04.012
0924-2244/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
fee grounds as a source of renewable energy in more than
20 Nescafe factories. In most of the soluble coffee produc-
ing industries, the waste is collected by specialized
agencies, which sell the residues for different purposes
(i.e. composting, gardening, bioenergy production, mush-
room growth). Spent coffee grounds (SCG) contain large
amounts of organic compounds (i.e. fatty acids, lignin, cel-
lulose, hemicellulose, and other polysaccharides) that can
fee residue has been investigated for biodiesel production
(Caetano, Silva, & Mata, 2012), as source of sugars
(Mussatto, Carneiro, Silva, Roberto, & Teixeira, 2011), pre-
cursor for activated carbon production (Kante, Nieto-
Delgado, Rangel-Mendez, & Bandosz, 2012), compost
(Preethu, BhanuPrakash, Srinivasamurthy, & Vasanthi,
2007), and as sorbent for metal ions removal (Fiol,
Escudero, & Villaescusa, 2008).
By-products of coffee fruit (Fig. 1) and bean processing
can also be considered as potential functional ingredients
for the food industry. The coffee husks, peel and pulp,
comprising nearly 45% of the cherry, are the main by-
products of coffee agro-industry and can be a valuable ma-
terial for several purposes, including caffeine and polyphe-
nols extraction. Coffee husks and skins are traded as crops
and livestock products with export and import range of
857e27,209 and 490e11,474 tonnes from 2000 to 2012 ac-
cording to FAO Statistics. These export and import were
valued at 2.2e62.7 and 1.7e24.3 million US$, respectively
for the same period. Other by-products of coffee processing
such as mucilage and parchment have been less studied;
however, they are potential sources of important ingredi-
ents. The pulp is easily fermented by yeast or metabolized
by lactic acid bacteria producing alcoholic beverages and
 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36 25

components in developing a biorefinery platform to add

Abbreviations value to this inexpensive waste product.

SCG Spent coffee grounds Carbohydrates

MOS Mannooligosaccharides The coffee bean is a rich source of polysaccharides
AAA Aromatic amino acids (w50% of the green bean’s dry weight) mainly consisting
MAE Microwave assisted extraction of mannans or galactomannans, type II arabinogalactans,
FOSHU Food for Specified Health Uses and cellulose. Mannan, the main polysaccharide of coffee
DF Dietary fiber extract, is responsible for its high viscosity, which in turn
AACC American Association of Cereal Chemists negatively affects the technological processes involved in
BCAA Branched chain amino acids instant coffee production. This polysaccharide consists of
SFE Supercritical fluid extraction b-(1 / 4)-linked mannan chains substituted at approxi-
HMW High molecular weight mately every 100 residues in the O-6 position with single
HMWM High molecular weight melanoidins galactose residues. Arabinogalactans have an arabinose/
COM Cost of manufacturing galactose ratio of 0.4/1 and consist of b-(1 / 3)-linked
scCO2 Supercritical carbon dioxide galactose backbone substituted at the O-6 position with
CGA Chlorogenic acid arabinose and/or galactose residues. The side-chains
CQA Caffeoylquinic acids contain arabinose and galactose residues with arabinose
GAE Gallic acid equivalents as terminal residue. These linkages are characteristic of
PHB Poly 3-hydroxybutyrate type-II arabinogalactans, a polymer usually covalently
linked to protein (Bradbury & Halliday, 1990). The roasting
process increases both bean arabinogalactan and mannan
vinegars. Furthermore, roasted coffee silver skin has been solubility by loosening the cell-wall structure as it swells
evaluated for use as a dietary fiber rich ingredient with anti- and by polysaccharide depolymerization (Wei et al.,
oxidant properties. Finally, SCG have been studied mainly 2012). The water-soluble polysaccharides that appear after
for their antioxidant activities (Esquivel & Jimenez, 2012). roasting play an important role in retaining volatile sub-
These antioxidants have been associated with health bene- stances, and contribute to the coffee brew viscosity and,
fits (Campos-Vega, Oomah, Loarca-Pi~ na, & Vergara- thus, to the creamy sensation known as “body” in the mouth
Casta~ neda, 2013; Campos-Vega et al., 2009; Vergara-Casta- (Illy, Viana, & Roasting, 1995).
~neda, Oomah, & Campos-Vega, 2013). These galactomannans and arabinogalactans are ex-
Spent coffee ground was rarely investigated until the tracted upon coffee roasting, during the beverage prepara-
beginning of this decade with half (36 out of 72) of the total tion, using hot pressurized water (Nunes & Coimbra,
number of papers published in the last 4 years since 1973. 2010). However, most of these polysaccharides remain as
A cursory search of ‘spent coffee ground’ on “Scopus” pro- insoluble material bound to the SCG matrix (Mussatto,
duces similar result with 11, 27, 14, 15 and 2 publications Carneiro, et al., 2011; Sim~oes, Nunes, Domingues, &
annually from 2014 to 2010. This review aims to use exist- Coimbra, 2013). Galactomannans exhibit different physico-
ing knowledge on spent coffee ground and/or its chemical properties and are therefore used in many applica-
tions: they are excellent stiffeners and emulsion stabilizers,
and the absence of toxicity allows their use in the textile,
The Coffee Cherry (Fruit) pharmaceutical, biomedical, cosmetics and food industries.
The main applications of galactomannans in food are in
Skin
dairy products, fruit-based water gels, powdered products,
Bean
n
Pulp bakery, dietary products, coffee whiteners, baby milk for-
5-10 %
mulations, seasonings, sauces and soups, tinned meats
and frozen and cured meat foods (Prajapati et al., 2013).
45-50 %

Mucilage
Spent coffee ground is rich in sugars polymerized into
Parchment 90 % cellulose and hemicellulose structures, which correspond
(Hull) total waste to almost half (45.3%, w/w, dry weight) of the material.
45-50 %
Spent coffee ground
SCG contains 46.8% mannose, 30.4% galactose, 19%
Silverskin glucose, and 3.8% arabinose, with mannans as the major
polysaccharides (Mussatto, Carneiro, et al., 2011). Howev-
er, further investigation by the same group (Mussatto,
Machado, Carneiro, & Teixeira, 2012) revealed a lower
(2.2-fold) sugar composition for the same SCG consisting
Fig. 1. The coffee cherry fruit wastes (With information of: Murthy & of 21.2% mannose, 13.8% galactose, 8.6% glucose, and
Naidu, 2012a; Esquivel & Jimenez, 2012). 1.7% arabinose. This SCG can be hydrolyzed
26 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36
(100 mg H2SO4/g dry matter; liquid/solid ratio 10 g/g;
163
C, 45 min), and efficiently (>85%) fermented to
ethanol by yeast (Mussatto et al., 2012). Sim~ oes et al.,
(2009) reported the presence of mannose (57%), followed
by galactose (26%), glucose (11%), and arabinose (6%);
the differences in chemical composition of SCG probably
reflect the variety of beans and processes used in roasting
and extraction. Earlier study (Stahl, Bayha, & Fulger,
1984) showed that mannan, more prevalent than cellulose
in SCG, is substantially separately from cellulose enabling
production of pure mannan hydrolysate. This hydrolysate
produces high (40%) mannitol yield with sorbitol as a co-
product.
Mannooligosaccharides (MOS), non-digestible oligo-
saccharides composed principally of mannose, has also
been derived by hydrolyzing mannan in spent coffee
grounds at high temperature (220
C) and pressure
(Asano et al., 2001). The major components of manno-
oligosaccharides were mannobiose, mannotriose, and man-
notetraose. Studies in Japan (Takao et al., 2006 and refer-
ences therein) showed that MOS could promote
bifidobacteria growth in the intestines and improve the
fecal characteristic on human subjects. Furthermore, a
daily intake of a 300 ml drink containing MOS (1 or
2 g/100 ml) reduced abdominal and subcutaneous fat level
in humans when administered daily for twelve weeks.
Further studies showed that MOS inhibited intestinal fat
absorption from a high fat diet by decreasing fat accumu-
lation in the parametrial adipose tissue and liver, while
simultaneously increasing fat excretion. MOS derived
from coffee mannan has been developed as active prebiotic
ingredient in Japan (Aginomoto Co. Inc.) and approved as
Food for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU) oligosaccharide
functional food ingredient (Fukami, 2010).
Espresso (dark roasted Arabica) SCG consisted mainly
of mannose (46%), galactose (27%), glucose (20%), and
arabinose (7%) with galactomannans as the major polysac-
charide accounting for approximately 50% the total carbo-
hydrates (Sim~ oes et al., 2013). Roasting SCG (160
C)
improves the extractability of galactomannans (total 56%)
without degradation, preserving their b-(1-4)-Man back-
bone, Gal and Ara side chains, and acetylation. Microwave
assisted extraction (MAE) allows the recovery of arabino-
galactans, while a re-extraction of the residual material
(MAE2) enables higher galactomannan yield. Through
this method 74% and 66% of total galactose and mannose
could be extracted from SCG (Passos & Coimbra, 2013).
The carbohydrate composition of exhausted coffee waste
is reduced to only two monomers: glucose (59.2 and 62.9%
of total sugars) and mannose (40.8 and 37.1%) by alkali
extraction (Pujol et al., 2013). However, the hemicelluloses
reported by these authors contrast with previous studies
(Mussatto, Ballesteros, Martins, & Teixeira, 2011; Sim~oes
et al., 2009) indicating the presence of galactose and arab-
inose in SCG. These two monosaccharides are probably
easily hydrolyzed during alkali extraction.
SCG are primarily composed of neutral detergent fiber
(45.2%) occurring as hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin-
associated compound, and acid detergent fiber (29.8%),
consisting of cellulose and lignin (Vardon et al., 2013).
The isolation of dietary fiber (DF) from plant by-products
can be accompanied by the recovery of other constituents
like antioxidants or proteins; SCG, for example contains
43% total fiber (35% and 8% soluble and insoluble, respec-
tively) (Murthy & Naidu, 2012b). Furthermore, the coffee
fibers from SCG exhibit antioxidant properties: 2.4 mmol
of trolox/100 g of dry weight (Murthy & Naidu, 2012b)
similar to well-known food antioxidant such as red wine
products (43%) and peaches (36%). Therefore, DF from
SCG can be categorized as antioxidant dietary fiber, useful
as potential dietary supplement.
Proteins
SCG contain significant amount of proteins (13.6%, w/
w). Total coffee nitrogen compounds are relatively stable
between species or even during roasting, ranging from 8.5
to 13.6% (Belitz, Grosch, & Schieberte, 2004). Crude pro-
tein reported by Cruz et al., (2012) in espresso coffee res-
idues vary between 12.8 and 16.9%. The mean protein
content of SCG is 13.6% after soluble coffee preparation
(Mussatto, Ballesteros, et al., 2011; Silva, Nebra,
Machado Silva, & Sanchez, 1998).
According to Arya and Rao (2007), roasted coffee con-
tains on average 3.1% (w/w) protein. The protein content in
SCG is higher than in the coffee bean due to concentration
of the non-extracted components during instant coffee prep-
aration. The protein content in SCG may be overestimated
due to the presence of other nitrogen-containing substances
(caffeine, trigonelline, free amines and amino acids)
(Delgado, Vignoli, Siika-aho, & Franco, 2008). However,
many authors report similar protein contents, varying be-
tween 6.7% and 9.9% (Lago, Antoniassi, & Freitas, 2001)
and up to 14% (Ravindranath, Khan, Obi Reddy,
ThirumalaRao, & Reddy, 1972).
Data on amino acids content is limited to a single report
(Lago et al., 2001) of SCG collected from three instant cof-
fee producers using four different extractors. SCG protein
has similar or higher levels of the essential amino acids
leucine, valine, phenylalanine, and isoleucine than conven-
tional feed products such as soybean meal (Table 1). Isoleu-
cine, leucine and valine contents of SCG are over twice the
levels in soybean meal. Lysine content is low in SCG,
although it is as high in coffee pulp and 11S protein as in
soybean meal (on a per gram nitrogen basis) (Elıas,
1979). The essential amino acids comprise almost half
(w49%) of the total SCG amino acid mainly leucine
contributing 13 or 21% of the total content. Most SCG
amino acid contents, except arginine, aspartic acid, lysine,
phenylalanine, serine and threonine are considerably higher
than those in coffee pulp and/or 11S protein. The 11S pro-
tein, similar to other plant storage proteins, accounts for
approximately 45% of total proteins in coffee endosperm
 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36 27

Table 1. Amino acid content (% protein) and characteristics of cof- have been used to treat patients with hepatic encephalopa-
fee protein and by products. thy (Udenigwe & Aluko, 2010); thus the SCG protein could
Amino acids Min Max Instant Pulp 11S Soymeal
be used to formulate food products with multiple human
health benefits during liver diseases, oxidative stress and
Alanine 4.8 5.4 4.0 3.5 3.5 2.3
Argininea 0.1 0.2 0.5 2.8 8.4 4.0
hypertension. The lysine/arginine ratio, a determinant of
Aspartic acid 0.2 1.9 3.0 7.1 4.0 6.3 the cholesterolaemic and atherogenic effects of a protein,
Cystine nd 5.1 0.3 0.3 1.0 0.8 is high for SCG protein, suggesting that it can contribute
Glutamic acid 11.5 13.8 12.9 7.7 8.6 9.8 to hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic physiological ef-
Glycine 2.4 7.9 4.7 4.2 5.0 2.3 fects. SCG protein is also an excellent source of arginine,
Histidinea 0.1 5.3 1.6 2.5 2.1 1.4
Isoleucinea 5.1 5.3 4.2 3.3 4.3 2.3
glutamine and histidine, the three amino acids known to
Leucinea 10.6 10.9 8.5 4.7 8.7 4.2 have strong effects on the immune functions of the body.
Lysinea 1.9 2.3 1.4 3.4 6.4 3.3 The high cysteine and methionine content of some SCG
Methioninea 1.0 1.9 1.2 0.3 0.3 0.8 protein can boost the body’s antioxidant levels, potentially
Phenylalaninea 0.5 6.7 5.2 3.0 7.3 2.6 stabilizing DNA during cell division and reducing the risk
Proline 3.1 4.7 5.6 3.7 4.3 3.0
Serine 0.9 1.2 1.6 3.3 4.5 3.1
of certain forms of colon cancer. The essential amino index
Threoninea 0.3 2.2 2.6 3.1 2.9 1.7 of SCG is high (79e129%) relative to soybean protein and
Tyrosine 2.9 4.0 3.1 1.9 2.8 1.8 higher than those of soymeal (Table 1) due primarily to the
Valinea 6.0 6.8 5.7 3.7 5.7 2.4 contribution of leucine and isoleucine.
BCAA 21.7 23.0 18.4 11.7 18.7 8.9 Early studies (Silva et al., 1998 and references therein)
AAA 0.9 8.9 7.8 6.1 10.2 4.3 showed that coffee grounds have low nitrogen content
Fischer ratio 24.1 2.6 2.4 1.9 1.8 2.1 (w2%), high acidity (w4.2 pH) containing only half of
Lys/Arg 19.0 11.5 2.8 1.2 0.8 0.8
the essential amino acids required for animal feed. In vivo
Arg þ Glu þ His 11.8 19.3 15.0 13.0 19.1 15.2
Met þ Cys 1.0 7.0 1.5 0.6 1.3 1.6 evaluation of SCG in sheep showed negative metabolisable
EAI (%) 79.3 128.8 94.6 74.7 117.3 58.2 energy contents (1.5 & 1.1 MJ/kg dry matter), based
BCAA (Val þ Leu þ Ile). AAA (Phe þ Tyr). Fischer ratio (BCAA/
primarily on the negative crude protein digestibility
AAA). nd, not detected. Data calculated from Lago et al. (2001). (0.53 & 0.92) despite the high gross-energy content
Data from http://www.feedipedia.org/node/11612 Data from (Givens & Barber, 1986). However, the high non-protein ni-
Rogers et al. (1999). Soymeal data from Karr-Lilienthal, Kadzere, trogen (w46% of the total nitrogen) present in SCG (Sikka,
Grieshop, and Fahey (2005). Bakshi, & Ichhponani, 1985) may partly explain its low
a
Essential amino acid.
biological effect observed in several animal feeding studies.
SCG (12.55% protein) at 10% of an isonitrogenous concen-
trate mixture has been safely incorporated in fattening pig
tissue, representing 5e7% of coffee dry bean weight (esti- ration without adverse health effects on carcass quality
mated on 11e15% protein). This storage protein consists of (Sikka & Chawla, 1986). However, 15% SCG significantly
a high (a-component, w32 kDa) and a low (b-component, depressed daily live weight gains and feed conversion effi-
w22 kDa) molecular subunit easily recognized on two- ciency. Feed conversion ratios were 6.88, 6.95, and 8.10 for
dimensional profiles of green coffee proteins (Rogers control (conventional feed ingredient formulation), 10%
et al., 1999). The low level of the hydroxyl-amino acids and 15% SCG rations, respectively. The poor feedlot per-
serine and threonine in SCG relative to those in coffee formance of the pigs was attributed to the higher fiber con-
pulp and/or 11S protein reflects their reactivity during the tent (14.8, 16.7, and 19.1% for control, 10%, and 15%
brewing process producing volatile heterocyclic com- SCG, respectively), thereby reducing the digestion of
pounds, alkylpyrazines (Oestreich-Janzen, 2010). energy-yielding nutrients. SCG has low nitrogen solubility
SCG protein is high in the essential branched chain (28.6%) primarily due to protein denaturation and low
amino acids (BCAA) and Fischer ratio, higher than those pepsin digestibility (35.3%) resulting from intramolecular
of soymeal or soybean protein (Table 1). Some SCG protein linkage formation during coffee bean roasting (200
C,
with low (<1%) aromatic amino acid content has high 20 min), limiting enzyme hydrolysis (Sikka et al., 1985).
Fischer ratio similar to those generally derived by hydroly-
sis and extensive purification process. Proteins with high Non-protein nitrogeneous compounds
BCAA, Fischer ratio and low content of aromatic amino Nitrogenous compounds (free amino acids, peptides, al-
acids are sought for producing physiologically functional kaloids) contribute considerably to the development of cof-
foods for specific needs, such as in patients with malnutri- fee flavor and quality during roasting. The protein profile of
tion associated with cancers, burns, trauma, and liver fail- coffee changes during roasting, the proteins are both frag-
ure, and for nutritional support of children with chronic mented and polymerized, and integrated into melanoidins.
or acute diarrhea or milk protein allergies (Oomah, 2001 Other protein components such as peptides and free amino
and references therein). Protein with Fischer ratio higher acids constitute up to 1.5% of green coffee, whereas alka-
than 20 and aromatic amino acids (AAA) lower than 2% loids (3e4%), of which trigonelline represents about 1%,
28 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36
are transformed during roasting (Oestreich-Janzen, 2010).
According to Oestreich-Janzen (2010), total amino acid
content of Arabica roast and brew amount to 10.1 and
6.4% dry weight, respectively, suggesting that 3.7% dry
weight of amino acids can be found in SCG.
The content of non-protein nitrogenous compounds in
SCG could be useful in agriculture. Compost and reclama-
tion substrates from SCG can be used for intensive remedi-
ation, positively affecting microbial activity and reducing
leaching of mineral nitrogen (Nmin) from the arable soil
(Elbl et al., 2014). Compost available carbon increases mi-
crobial activity, resulting in increased capacity for mineral
nitrogen retention (additionally supplied from compost and
another mineral fertilizer). Nmin is captured in soil organic
matter (Diaz, Bertoldi, & Bidlingmaier, 2011). In this re-
gards, SCG, after oil extraction, has a carbon/nitrogen ratio
of 19.8:1 (wt) (Kondamudi, Mohapatra, & Misra, 2008),
similar to soil needs (20:1) (Elbl et al., 2014). Despite
this, the use of SCG is limited to gardens as compost for
the plants. Recently, the positive soil amendment impact
of SCG has been confirmed in enhancing the physical
and nutritional features of lettuce, endorsing its potential
use in agroindustry (Cruz et al., 2014).
Caffeine
Caffeine, 1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine, a purine alkaloid, is
the quintessential single most popular compound recog-
nized in coffee and coffee products/ingredients. This alka-
loid is removed from coffee beans by the decaffeinating
process commonly used in the industrial scale. Although
the caffeine content in coffee waste is lower than that in
coffee beans, a large amount of caffeine still remains.
Higher caffeine can be extracted from coffee husks
(Tello, Viguera, & Calvo, 2011) or coffee pulp (Murthy
& Naidu, 2012a, 2012b) than from SCG. Caffeine concen-
trations range from 0.734 to 41.3 mg/mg of spent coffee
ground extracts, obtained by low-pressure extraction (ultra-
sound and Soxhlet) and supercritical fluid CO2 extraction
(SFE) varying in yield from 9 to 15% (Table 2) (Andrade
Table 2. Caffeine content of SCG and roasted coffee.
Extraction Solvent/condition (mg/mg extract)
Ultrasound Hexane 0.734
Dichloromethane 38.2
Ethanol 25.7
Soxhlet Hexane 3.27
Dichloromethane 25.9
Ethanol 11.8
SFE CO2 200 bar/331.15 K 27.2
300 bar/331.15 K 41.3
SCG (Arabica-Ar) H2O(92  5
C/6 h) 25  2
SCG (Robusta-Rb) H2O(92  5
C/6 h) 10  3
Roasted Coffee (Ar) Medium roast
Roasted Coffee (Rb) Medium roast
SCG
SCG (espresso)
et al., 2012). The polar solvent, dichloromethane extracts
the most caffeine at low pressure, whereas SFE at high
pressure (300 bars) is more efficient, both in terms of gener-
ating higher caffeine yield and environmental footprint.
Caffeine obtained from SCG is equivalent to 18e48% of
those extracted from coffee beans by supercritical CO2
(Salda~na, Mohamed, Baer, & Mazzafera, 1999) or
8e31% of roasted coffee (Ramalakshmi, Rao, Takano-
Ishikawa, & Goto, 2009). Supercritical CO2 has long
been used to decaffeinate coffee beans and therefore can
be integrated in processing SCG. Various caffeine concen-
trations (0.007e0.5%) have been reported depending on
extraction process and SCG source (Andrade et al., 2012;
Cruz et al., 2012; Murthy & Naidu, 2012a, 2012b;
Ramalakshmi et al., 2009). Thus, caffeine content for
Arabica range between 0.9 and 1.6%, Robusta
(1.4e2.9%), mix (60 Arabic/40 Robusta) (1.7%). In
espresso-style percolation, the very short time available to
extract caffeine from the cellular structure leads to
75e85% extraction yield with only15e25% caffeine left
in the SCG (Oestreich-Janzen, 2010).
Spent coffee extracts of both Arabica (0.5%) and
Robusta (0.2%) contain lower caffeine than low-grade
green coffee beans (1.7%) (Ramalakshmi et al., 2009).
However, high caffeine (6e11.5 mg/g dry matter) were de-
tected in the extracts of SCG from coffee bars; the higher
amount observed in SCG from Robusta was nearly twice
that from Arabica (Panusa, Zuorro, Lavecchia, Marrosu,
& Petrucci, 2013). Caffeine was low in SCG extracts
from capsules (obtained from an automatic espresso ma-
chine), (0.96e0.97 mg/g dry sample) (Panusa et al.,
2013). In this regard, caffeine content ranged from 1.94
to 7.88 mg/g (DW), with a mean of 4.53 mg/g (DW) in
espresso coffee (Cruz et al., 2012). The caffeine extract-
ability coefficient in espresso coffee is 75e85%, so these
figures correspond to predicted mean caffeine content of
22.5 mg/g (DW) in the original roasted beans, in accor-
dance with the literature (Bicho, Leit~ao, Ramalho, &
Lidon, 2011; Casal, Oliveira, Alves, & Ferreira, 2000).
Yield (%) Content (%) Reference
9 0.007 Andrade et al. (2012)
9.9 0.378
12.2 0.314
12 0.039
10.8 0.28
15 0.177
9.1 0.248
10.5 0.434
0.5 Ramalakshmi et al. (2009)
0.2
1.6
2.4
0.02  0.1 Murthy and Naidu (2012)
0.18 Cruz et al. (2012)
 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36
Caffeine (1.8 mg/g SCG) present in SCG prepared from
espresso coffee may serve as a chemical defence mecha-
nism in some plants, while adversely inducing toxicity in
other plants such as lettuce (Cruz et al., 2012). Caffeine
in SCG is completely degraded by Pleutotusostreatus
LPB 09 fungal cultures enabling economical utilization of
SCG as substrates for edible fungi/mushroom cultivation
without any pretreatments (Fan, Pandey, Mohan, &
Soccol, 2000). This observation has been used in the devel-
opment of a patent application where mycelium is used in
reducing coffee bitterness. Caffeine presence as a nitrogen
precursor plays an important catalytic role in hydrogen sul-
phide oxidation in the preparation of activated carbon from
SCG (Kante et al., 2012). It also contributes significantly in
lowering/reducing interfacial tension equilibrium in oils,
important in defining the emollient characteristics of phar-
maceutical and/or cosmetic products.
Brown-colored compounds
The nitrogenous brown-colored compounds of coffee
result from the non-enzymatic browning (Maillard) reaction
between reducing sugars and compounds with a free amino
group forming various products including the melanoidins
(Moreira, Nunes, Domingues, & Coimbra, 2012). Maillard
reaction products may be useful for functional food appli-
cation and/or as food preservative, since they exhibit anti-
oxidant capacity and inhibit lipid peroxidation (Jung,
Park, Ahn, & Je, 2014). Melanoidins are the high molecular
weight (HMW) brown products containing nitrogen, end
products of the Maillard reaction (Nunes, Cruz, & Coimbra,
2012) with small amounts (<6%) of amino acids, primarily
glutamic acid and glycine released by acid hydrolysis. Dur-
ing coffee brewing, only 33% of the original green coffee
bean protein is extracted with hot water, the residual protein
remains insoluble due partly to denaturation and associa-
tion with cell wall arabinogalactans representing nearly
92% of the total nitrogen present in the high molecular
weight melanoidins (HMWM) (Nunes, Cruz, & Coimbra,
2012). Ethanol (70e80%)-soluble HMWM has the highest
protein content, but amino acid composition similar to all
melanoidin fractions. The amino acid composition of these
melanoidin fractions (abundant in alanine, aspartic acid/
asparagine, glutamic acid/glutamine, and glycine) is similar
to those reported for roasted coffee beans and roasted cof-
fee brews.
Browning index of SC extracts from Arabica (0.165) and
Robusta (0.145) coffee from filter coffeemaker was 3e5-
fold higher than those obtained from espresso and plunger
coffeemakers (Bravo et al., 2012). Aqueous extracts from
soluble SCG has lower browning index (0.271) compared
to that from roasted coffee brews (0.305) (Yen, Wang,
Chang, & Duh, 2005). Furthermore, a solideliquid method
has been proposed as an efficient extraction of brown com-
pounds measured by absorbance at 420 nm (from 0.090 to
0.160) (Bravo, Monente, Juaniz, De Pe~ na, & Cid, 2013).
Passos and Coimbra (2013) suggested that SCG consists
29
of 16% melanoidins, whose chemical composition has not
yet been established (Nunes & Coimbra, 2010).
Lipids
Spent coffee grounds have often been reported to
contain 10e15 % (Jenkins, Stageman, Fortune, & Chuck,
2014), and sometimes higher average 20% (range
19.9e27.8%) lipids (Lago et al., 2001) or 13.9e29.2%
ether extract, on dry weight basis (Silva et al., 1998). Dur-
ing the brewing process, lipids stick to the spent grounds
and are filtered off, in filter home brew as well as in instant
coffee production (Oestreich-Janzen, 2010). Lipid yield
(7e13% dry weight) is low when SCG suspended in fresh
heptane (1:10 weight ratio) is stirred (3 h) at room temper-
ature (Jenkins et al., 2014). SCG extracted with hexane
yield high oil (15.3%), with low acid (3.65%) and saponi-
fication (173) values, parameters important for fatty acid
methyl ester (FAME) manufacturing (Al-Hamamre,
Foerster, Hartmann, Kr€oger, & Kaltschmitt, 2012). Com-
mercial ethanol (99%) has been used to recover lipids
from industrial spent coffee grounds containing 25.6% oil
(dry weight petroleum ether extraction). Maximum oil
yield (82%) was obtained at 1:7 SCG: alcohol ratio,
75
C and not affected by extraction time (1 or 2 h) and pre-
treatment (milling or extrusion). The extracted oil had char-
acteristics similar to petroleum ether extract (Freitas,
Monteiro, & Lago, 2000).
SCG total lipids range from 9.3 to 16.2% (Cruz et al.,
2012), 10e15% and 14e15.4% from espresso coffee resi-
dues, filter and industrial soluble coffee, respectively
(Calixto et al., 2011; Couto, Fernandes, da Silva, &
Sim~oes, 2009; Kondamudi et al., 2008). Also, the yield of
SCG oil extracted using Soxhlet, is a function of extraction
conditions, particularly, the choice of solvent and the dura-
tion of extraction. Supercritical carbon dioxide extracts up
to 85% of the total amount of SCG oil after 3 h (corre-
sponding to a maximum yield of 15.4 goil/100 gdry SC)
(Couto et al., 2009).
Although hexane is the most widely and commonly used
solvent, modern environmentally friendly technology such
as SFE is increasingly being used for SCG oil extraction.
A manufacturing cost of US$ 48.60/kg has been estimated
for spent coffee oil obtained by supercritical technology
(200 bar, 50
C, 90 min) and may reach US$ 460/kg de-
pending on process conditions (Andrade & Ferreira, 2013).
Commercial SCG contains higher oil (16.7 & 17.2%)
compared to raw (9e12.6%), roasted (12e15%), or labora-
tory extracted SCG (7.9e14%); free fatty acids (120e148
vs 4e10 acid value), and lower unsaponifiable matter
(5.9e9.4% vs 9e13.2%) relative to those produced in the
laboratory (Ravindranath et al., 1972). Coffee brews pre-
pared by different methods showed that lipids (90.2%)
mainly remained in SCG with the following lipid composi-
tion (% total lipids), 84.4% triacylglycerols, 12.3% diter-
pene alcohol esters, 1.9% sterols, 1.3% polar material,
and 0.1% sterol esters. The lipid composition is similar to
30 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36

those of boiled or filtered coffee with 87e93% triglycer-
ides, 7e13% diterpene alcohol esters, 0.2e0.9% sterols,
and up to 0.8% polar material (Ratnayake, Hollywood,
O’Grady, & Stavric, 1993). However, the lipid composition
of SCG may vary analogous to those of green coffee oil de-
pending on the source, although generally up to 80e90% of
the oil will be glycerides, including free fatty acids, with
the rest of the lipids containing terpenes, sterols and to-
copherols (Jenkins et al., 2014). Raw green coffee oil con-
sists of: triacylglycerols (75%), terpene esters (14%),
partial acylglycerols (5%), free fatty acids (1%), free sterols
(1.5%), sterol esters (1%), and polar lipids (<1%) (Niko-
lova-Damyanova et al., 1998, cited in De Azevedo et al.,
2008). Khan and Brown (1953) provide a good review on
earlier investigation on raw and roasted coffee bean oil
characteristics and composition. Coffee oil contains exces-
sive amounts of unusual unsaponifiables, 19% (or 24% for
defective coffee beans) according to Oliveira, Franca,
Camargos, and Ferraz (2008), the presence of which makes
the oil unfit for most uses. However, the unsaponifiables
containing the diterpenes kahweol and cafestol known for
their beneficial physiological effects (UVB skin protection,
anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activ-
ities) (Silva, Vieira, & Hubinger, 2014) can be completely
removed by molecular distillation.
SCG oils consist predominantly of linoleic, palmitic,
stearic and oleic acids (Table 3). Arachidic (7%) and lino-
lenic (<5%) acids are also present in most SCG oils,
whereas lauric and myristic acids are rarely detected de-
pending on extraction conditions, processing and origin.
The contrasting fatty acid profile exemplifies the effects be-
tween two processes used in obtaining SCG oil (Todaka,
Kowhakul, Masamoto, Shigematsu, & Onwona-Agyeman,
2013). SCG oils can be conveniently categorized into two
clusters based on their fatty acid profile; those with low pal-
mitic (<40%) and high linoleic (>40%) acids and
conversely those with high palmitic (>40%) and low
linoleic (<40%) acids (Table 3). These clusters result in
polyunsaturated/saturated ratios <1 or >1 of the extracted
oils. SCG oils with polyunsaturated/saturated ratio >1 are
less atherogenic and thrombogenic than those with ratio
<1 due to the potential favorable reduction of serum
cholesterol and atherosclerosis and prevention of heart dis-
eases (Rudel, Parks, & Sawyer, 1995). The cholesterol-
raising factor from coffee beans has been attributed to the
presence and/or concentration of the diterpenes kahweol
and cafestol that varies depending on several factors
(Urgert, Schulz, & Katan, 1995) including the oil extraction
process (Acevedo et al., 2013).
High palmitic acid SCG oils represent a rich and suitable
source of palmitic acid for soap manufacture and/or the
acid itself according to Ravindranath et al. (1972). Further-
more, the combination of high linoleic (w44%), palmitic
(w36%) and oleic (w9%) acids, predominant in SCG
oils can result in high biomass and polyhydroxylalkanoates
(PHA)-an alternative completely biodegradable synthetic
polymer-yields (Obruca et al., 2014). Fatty acid composi-
tions of SCG oils differ significantly under different SFE
(pressure, temperature, co-solvent: CO2 mass ratio) condi-
tions (Ahangari & Sargolzaei, 2013; Couto et al., 2009).
SCG oil has efficiently been extracted (>90% yield) by su-
percritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) recently in a pilot plant
(Cruz et al., 2014) and used for producing high yielding
PHA (0.77 kg PHA/kg SCG oil; 97 kg per ton of SCG
processed).
SCG oil also contains minor lipid components, such as
sterols well known for their serum cholesterol lowering ef-
fect by reducing intestinal absorption of cholesterol. Sterols
constitute about 5.4% of the total lipids in Arabica coffee
and consist of sitosterol (53%), stigmasterol (21%), cam-
pestol (11%), cycloartenol (8%), and the remaining sterols
are each 5% or less of the total sterol fraction (Spiller,
1998). Sterol content of SCG depends on the origin and
source of roasted coffee (Table 4) with sitosterol,

Table 3. Fatty acid composition of SCG.

References C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 C20:0 SFA PUFA PUFA/SFA AI TI
Acevedo et al. (2013) nd 0.05 32.45 8.35 9.00 45.04 4.12 nd 41.0 50.0 1.22 0.55 1.26
De Melo et al. (2014) nd nd 37.37 7.07 8.31 44.67 1.42 1.16 45.6 46.1 1.01 0.69 1.44
Cruz et al. (2014) nd 0.1 32.80 7.10 10.30 44.20 1.50 2.60 42.5 45.7 1.08 0.58 1.25
Jenkins et al. (2014) nd nd 35.40 6.70 6.70 22.00 nd 0.00 42.1 22.0 0.52 1.23 2.93
Jenkins et al. (2014) nd nd 41.40 13.50 24.00 49.90 1.40 1.50 56.4 51.3 0.91 0.55 1.49
Ahangari and Sargolzaei (2013) 3.58 2.00 43.64 6.55 8.18 32.35 1.31 2.39 58.2 33.7 0.58 1.32 2.15
Todaka et al. (2013) (Hex)Drip nd 0.4 0.50 0.30 12.90 56.90 8.50 9.80 21.7 65.4 3.01 0.03 0.01
Todaka et al. (2013) (Hex)Esp nd 0.3 1.00 28.00 0.60 24.90 5.50 37.80 69.0 30.4 0.44 0.07 0.33
Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
Acevedo et al. (2013) nd nd 35.78 6.25 nd 46.53 2.02 nd 42.2 49.1 1.16 0.62 1.32
De Melo et al. (2014) nd nd 37.48 6.02 9.53 44.52 0.99 1.46 45.0 45.5 1.01 0.68 1.45
Ahangari and Sargolzaei (2013) nd nd 34.04 5.45 5.45 25.83 nd 1.89 41.4 25.8 0.62 1.09 2.52
Couto et al. (2009) nd nd 35.86 5.26 7.56 35.35 nd 1.53 42.7 9.9 0.24 0.84 1.92
Ahangari and Sargolzaei (2013) 11.69 4.36 36.86 11.32 15.87 44.15 2.16 6.91 71.1 46.3 0.65 1.06 1.43
Couto et al. (2009) 7.4 2.42 41.87 10.4 15.79 41.19 1.88 4.29 66.4 46.7 0.91 1.00 1.91
SFA, saturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids; AI, atherogenic index; TI, thromogenic index; nd, not determined.
 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36 31

Table 4. Sterol (%) composition of SCG and their sourced roasted Mg, P, Ca, Na, Fe, Mn, and Cu) content of espresso SC varies
coffee. from 0.82 to 3.52%, confirming mineral leaching during
Sterols SCG1 SCG2 Coffee 1 Coffee 2
espresso coffee preparation, although not as exhaustive as
with soluble coffee (Cruz et al., 2012). Potassium, the major
Oil content (%) 26.74 20.34 5.84 5.74
Unsaponifiables (% DW) 2.12 1.37 1.23 0.79
mineral of espresso SC, ranges from 3.12 to 21.88 mg/g
Sterols (% oil) (Cruz et al., 2012). The industrial SCG contains lower abso-
Campesterol 16.08 18.36 15.66 16.83 lute (3.55 mg/g) and relative amounts (22%) of this element.
Stigmasterol 21.75 22.48 22.82 21.94 Coffee is regarded as an important source of Mg, comprising
Sitosterol 52.66 48.00 52.27 48.78 11% of the SCG minerals, again higher than those of indus-
D5 Avenasterol 5.30 9.07 4.05 8.81
D7 Stigmastenol 1.65 0.62 2.01 1.68
trial SC (Mussatto, Ballesteros, et al., 2011).
D7 Avenasterol 1.42 0.80 1.74 0.70
Phenolic compounds
Data derived from Lago et al. (2001).
Phenolic compounds are the major determinant of anti-
oxidant potentials found in high concentrations in plants
stigmasterol, and campesterol as the most abundant sterols, (Balasundram, Sundram, & Samman, 2006). Recently, in-
predominating in higher plants and in typical diets. These terest in plant-derived natural products has grown, mainly
three sterols account for 88e92% of the total sterols in because synthetic antioxidants suffer from several draw-
SCG or roasted coffee oils. The concentration of the minor backs. SCG contain several human health related com-
sterol, D5-avenasterol also varies in accordance with the pounds, such as phenolics with demonstrated antioxidant,
level in roasted coffee (Table 4) reaching up to 9% of the anti-bacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory and anti-
total sterols. In fact, sitosterol and D5-avenasterol are the carcinogenic activities (de Souza et al., 2004).
two most differentiating sterols used to separate Arabica The recovery of phenolic compounds from the coffee in-
from Robusta coffee varieties (Carrera, Le on-Camacho, dustry by-products and their antioxidant activity has been
Pablos, & Gonzalez, 1998) because its polymerization pro- investigated recently. Phenolic compounds from coffee
tects oils from oxidation. by-products (coffee pulp, husk, silver skin, and SC) have
Several methods have been devised to extract/prepare been extracted using solvent mixture of isopropanol and
the diterpenes, cafestol and kahweol from coffee oil water (Murthy & Naidu, 2012b). The coffee by-products
because of their potential use and applications in pharmaco- contained about 1e1.5% total polyphenols with the highest
logical and cosmetic preparations. Cafestol is minimally yield for silver skin (25%), followed by spent waste (19%)
affected by various treatments of coffee beans and is one and cherry husk (17%) when pretreated with viscozyme.
of the components that remains in spent coffee grounds Chlorogenic acid (CGA) was the major phenolic compo-
(1.2%) (Spiller, 1998). Khan and Brown (1953) identified nent when analyzed with high-performance liquid chroma-
kahweol as one of the unsaponifiables with characteristic tography. In fact, phenolic compounds are mainly found in
brown precipitate formation of SCG oil extracted from green coffee beans as CGA (up to 12% solids) (Esquivel &
fresh roasted blend of Brazilian, Colombian, and Venezue- Jimenez, 2012). These CGA are water-soluble esters
lan coffees. Direct saponification produces high level of di- formed between quinic acid and one or two moieties of caf-
terpenes (2.14 and 4.66 mg/g SCG of kahweol and cafestol, feic acid, a trans-cinnamic acid. Caffeoylquinic acids
respectively) compared to saponification of oil extracted by (CQA) are the most abundant phenolic compounds in cof-
solid liquid extraction or supercritical extraction (Acevedo fee. Monocaffeoylquinic acids (3-CQA, 4-CQA, 5-CQA)
et al., 2013). Diterpene yield from SCG depends on pro- and dicaffeoylquinic acids (3,4-diCQA, 3,5-diCQA, 4,5-
cessing conditions during supercritical CO2 extraction; diCQA) were identified and quantified in SC obtained
thus concentration of cafestol (0.207 mg/g SCG) and kah- from different coffeemakers (filter, espresso, plunger, and
weol (0.114 mg/g SCG) are lower at 40
C/98 bar than mocha) and in their respective coffee brews by Bravo
those at 80
C/379 bar (0.828 and 0.425 mg/g SCG for ca- et al. (2012). All SCG, with the exception of those from
festol and kahweol, respectively) (Acevedo et al., 2013). the mocha coffeemaker, have relevant amounts of total caf-
feoylquinic acids ranging from 11.05 mg (espresso) to
13.24 mg (filter) per gram of Arabica SC and from
Minerals 6.22 mg (filter) to 7.49 mg (espresso) per gram of Robusta
SCG also contains ash (1.6%), which, according to the SC. Espresso SCG shows high variability, with 5-CQA
ICP-AES analysis, consists of several minerals. Potassium ranging from 0.397 to 2.642 mg/g (DW) and total CGA
is the most abundant element, followed by phosphorus and varying from 2.12 to 7.66 mg/g (DW) (Cruz et al., 2012).
magnesium (Mussatto, Ballesteros, et al., 2011). Potassium The antioxidant phenolic compounds from SCG have
is also the predominant mineral in coffee beans, correspond- been extracted by the conventional solideliquid method.
ing to 40% of the oxide ash (Grembecka, Malinowska, & For example, extraction with 60% methanol (40 ml/g
Szefer, 2007). Most minerals are easily extracted with hot SCG solvent/solid ratio, 90 min) produces a high phenolic
water during instant coffee preparation. Total mineral (K, extract (16 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g SCG) with
32 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36

high antioxidant activity (FRAP of 0.10 mM Fe(II)/g)
simultaneously (Mussatto, Ballesteros, et al., 2011).
Phenolic compounds from SCG [coffee bars (SCG-1) or
coffee capsules (SCG-2)] have been extracted by an envi-
ronmentally friendly and cost-effective process, using
aqueous ethanol under mild temperature conditions to pre-
serve the activity of the phenolic compounds (Zuorro &
Lavecchia, 2012). Total phenolic content of SCG-1 and
SCG-2 were 17.75 and 21.56 mg GAE/g, respectively.
Thus phenolic-rich extracts can be obtained from SCG us-
ing an environmentally friendly and simple solvent-
extraction procedure. Ethanol also influenced microwave-
assisted extraction of natural antioxidants from spent filter
coffee (Pavlovic, Buntic, 
Siler-Marinkovic, & than its conversion to animal feed or transportation fuel,
Dimitrijevic-Brankovic, 2013). The highest total phenolic
compounds (399 mg GAE/g extract, dry matter) was ob-
tained with 20% aqueous ethanol under just 40 s of micro-
wave radiation (80 W), implying that the method is very
effective, saving time and chemicals. The extracts (20 mg/
mL) exhibited high in vitro antioxidant activities inhibiting
90% of DPPH radicals, supporting their biological stability.
This research group later found that total phenolic com-
pounds of SCG were strongly correlated with their DPPH
scavenging activity, and therefore mainly responsible for
the antioxidant activity. An UHPLC-PDA-TOF-MS system
was used to separate, identify, and quantify phenolic and
non-phenolic compounds in the SCG extracts. High
amounts of CGA and related compounds as well as caffeine
demonstrate the high potential of SCG, a waste material
that is widely available in the world, as a source of natural
phenolic antioxidants (Panusa et al., 2013).
Ingenuity/knowledge gap
Table 5 provides a short survey of product and/or pro-
cess innovation using SCG or coffee products including
SCG. Earlier innovation (pre 2005) explored the extraction
of specific components such as oil, flavor, terpenes, and al-
cohols as value-added products. Later studies focus exten-
sively on innovation in bioenergy and biorefinery using
SCG as a source product. In reality, there has been minimal
attempt in complete integrated fractionation and utilization
of SCG components for industrial and/or other use,
although these components have been individually well re-
searched (Fig. 2).
Spent coffee grounds represent a resource for an inte-
grated product focused biorefinery. It has been proven
that the conversion of biomass waste to bulk chemicals
for example was nearly 7.5 and 3.5 times more profitable
respectively, highlighting the marginal value of 1st genera-
tion food supply chain waste recycling (anaerobic diges-
tion, composting, animal feed) (Pfaltzgraff, Cooper,
Budarin, & Clark, 2013). The key to go beyond 1st gener-
ation waste valorization is to make use of all the valuable
components in waste, taking into consideration the pres-
ence of high-value products. A good example of 2nd gener-
ation products is succinic acid obtained through sugar
fermentation of enzyme-hydrolyzed carbohydrates from
SCG (Koutinas et al., 2013).
SCG oil is the single most economically valuable
component easily extractable and a potential low-cost and
good quality feedstock source for fatty acid methyl esters
production by direct single step transesterification of SCG
oil in supercritical methanol (Calixto et al., 2011). The
oil quality can be improved for use in cosmetic and phar-
maceutical applications or as a source of other valuable
products such as caffeine, sterols, terpenes and tocopherols
by fractionation similar to those used for green coffee oil
(De Azevedo et al., 2008). The fractionated oil or its com-
ponents can be stabilized by the spray drying process used

Table 5. Products and/or processes innovation using SCG or coffee products including SCG.

Component Claim References

Spent grounds volatile Aromatic flavor components (diacetyl and acetaldehyde) are recovered from an Cale et al. (1990)
compounds aroma stream generated by thermal hydrolysis of a partially extracted roasted and
ground coffee. The flavor can be used as a natural ingredient and/or in soluble coffee
processing.
Ground/Green/Whole Antioxidant-rich biofuel is produced by transesterifying triglycerides extracted from Misra, Mohapatra,
roasted/spent-coffee beans coffee products including SCG. Glycerin resulting from the transesterification and Kondamudi (2013)
process can be isolated, purified and used in foods, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and
other products.
Spent coffee grounds A process is described for manufacturing powdered coffee carbons as an Lu and Lee (2013)
environmentally friendly activated carbon source
Dried spent coffee grounds SCG is converted to an alternative solid combustible fuel-a wax-less fire log White and Burns (2013)
Spent coffee grounds Coffee oil is recovered from hydrolyzed SCG simultaneously using the residual Gottesman (1985)
aqueous hydrolyzate as an economically valuable soluble coffee solids in soluble
coffee processing
Coffee extraction residue A process for preparing low-cost high yield manno-saccharide alcohols such as Stahl et al. (1984)
mannitol (a value added expensive specialty food, chemical, and pharmaceutical
ingredient)
Spent coffee grounds Terpenes containing kahweol and cafestol (10.7 and 14.7 mg/g coffee oil, Baechler (2002)
respectively) are extracted from SCG.
 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36 33

Brown-colored compounds
Caffeine
e Browning index 0.155
B
16% melanoidins
1
C
Carbohydrates
y
galactomannans and
arabinogalactanss
Mannooligosaccharidess SCG
AnƟoxidant dietary fiber M
Minerals
K Mg, P,
K, P Ca, Na, Fe, Mn, and Cu

Non-protein
otein nitrogeneous compounds P
Phenolic compounds
Carbon/nitrogen raƟo of 19.8:1 (wt): microbial acƟvity Natural phenolic anƟoxidants
N
Soil amendment impact 1–1
1.5%
5% ttotal
1–1.5% otal polyph
pheenols
polyphenols
Chlorogenic acid (12% solids)
C
Lipids
Oil manufacturing cost US$ 48.60/kg- earning up to US$ 460/kg
Polyunsaturated/saturated raƟo > 1
Mix linoleic, palmiƟc and oleic acids/ polyhydroxylalkanoates-biodegradable syntheƟc polymer

Fig. 2. Value-added products/sustainability of the coffee agro-industry.

for encapsulating green coffee oil (Silva et al., 2014),
particularly applicable to the unsaponifiable fraction con-
taining the diterpenes for medical and other associated
uses.
Oil extracted from SCG can be used as a substrate for
the production of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB). PHB
is similar in mechanical properties to polypropylene or
polyethylene and is therefore considered a completely
biodegradable alternative to synthetic polymers (Obruca
et al., 2014). When compared to other waste/inexpensive
oils, the utilization of SCG results in the highest biomass
as well as PHB yields (up to 0.88 g of PHB per g of oil
vs 0.85 for soybean oil, or 0.83 for waste rapessed oil)
(de Cruz Pradella, Ienczak, Delgado, & Taciro, 2012;
Obruca, Marova, Snajdar, Mravcova, & Svoboda, 2010;
Obruca et al., 2014). The utilization of oil extracted from
SCG as a feedstock for PHB production presents several
advantages. The coffee industry is steadily growing; the
annual worldwide production of green coffee beans ex-
ceeded eight million tons (Murthy & Naidu, 2012a). There-
fore, SCG are available in millions of tons especially in
coffee-producing countries. Moreover, since oil extraction
decreased the calorific value of SCG by only about 9%
(from 19.61 to 17.86 MJ/kg), residual SCG after oil extrac-
tion can be used as fuel to at least partially cover heat and
energy demands of fermentation, which should even
improve the economic feasibility of the process (Obruca
et al., 2014). In addition to oil extraction, several processes
such as pyrolysis and gasification have been used to convert
industrial SCG into fuel, hydrogen-enriched fuel, bio-oils,
liquid product mixture comparable to fossil fuel oil and
valuable biocide. Bio-oils produced from pyrolysis of
coffee grounds contain large amounts of various carboxylic
acids enabling their further upgrade into biodiesel or other
petrochemical products and/or promote their conversion
into noncondensable volatiles that may be beneficial for
combustible gas or syngas production from SCG (Kan,
Strezov, & Evans, 2013). The glyceride portion of SCG
oil can be transesterified with methanol to produce fatty
acid methyl esters, known as biodiesel. Potentially 1.3
billion litres of biodiesel (based on w8 million tonnes of
globally produced coffee containing 10e15 % wt lipids
[80e95% glycerides] could be added to the world fuel sup-
ply from SCG, a value comparable to waste cooking oil
(Jenkins et al., 2014). Furthermore, spent coffee defatting
and extract lyophilization produces spent coffee extracts
powder with high antioxidant capacity that can be used as
an ingredient or additive in food industry with potential
preservation and functional properties (Bravo et al., 2013).
Enzyme technology (hydrolysis) can be used to hydro-
lyze SCG polysaccharides into valuable food additives
such as mannitol and higher mannosaccharide alcohols or
source raw material for bioethanol production (Jooste,
Garcıa-Aparicio, Brienzo, van Zyl, & G€orgens, 2013;
Stahl et al., 1984). Alcohol production similar to process
generally used in distilled beverages generates a beverage
with 40% ethanol alcohol, comparable to liquors such as
vodka and tequila with a pleasant smell and taste of coffee
(Sampaio et al., 2013). Additionally, the residual solid ma-
terial obtained after the hydrothermal process is rich in
sugars that can be reused as raw material for the production
of other valuable products, which would give additional
value to spent coffee grounds into a bio-refinery concept.
Furthermore, the cellulose and hemicellulose fractions of
34 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 24e36
SCG have potential applications in sorbitol, hydroxyme-
thylfurfural, levulinic acid, formic acid, xylitol, arabitol,
mannitol, galactitol, furfural and, emulsificant production
(Mussatto, Carneiro, et al., 2011). High pressure and tem-
perature hydrolysis of SCG generates MOS, already mar-
keted in Japan as a functional food primarily as a
probiotic for digestive health (Fukami, 2010).
Waste from brewing coffee could be a valuable resource
for the production of hydrophilic bioactive antioxidants for
dietary supplements according to Spanish researchers
(Bravo et al., 2012). All spent coffee (from filter, plunger
and espresso-type coffeemakers) had relevant amounts of
total caffeoylquinic acids, mainly dicaffeoylquinic acids
that were 4e7-fold higher than their respective coffee
brews. Solvent mixture of isopropanol and water can selec-
tively extract phenolic antioxidant adjunct for food process-
ing from SCG and other coffee by-products (Murthy &
Naidu, 2012b). Melanoidins, another antioxidant compo-
nent exert bacteriostatic activity at low concentration
decreasing pathogenic virulence and may be good candi-
dates as natural antimicrobial agents in thermally processed
foods (Rufian-Henares & De La Cueva, 2009). The anti-
tumor and anti-allergenic (inhibition of histamine release)
activities of SCG extract (Ramalakshmi et al., 2009) pro-
vides yet another new opportunities for its pharmaceutical
use.
Current available technologies enable the complete inte-
grated use/exploitation of SCG adding value to an already
abundant low-cost product simultaneously reducing the
environmental footprint of the coffee industry. The accu-
mulated body of knowledge generated since 1950 and
earlier has now been refined and there is an urgent need
for practical and innovative ideas to use this low cost
SCG and exploit its full potential increasing the overall sus-
tainability of the coffee agro-industry.
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