TOPIC 1 a.

The existence of hard bed rock and their

depth from inclination.
b. The mechanical properties along and
Geology – is the science of the earth.
across the site of the proposed project;
Engineering Geology – define as the branch of applied
c. Presence, nature and distribution pattern
science which deals with the application of geology for
of planes of structural weakness.
a safe and economic design and construction of a civil
d. The position of ground water table in
engineering.
totality.
e. Seismic character of the area as
Types of Engineering Geology
deciphered from the seismic history and
1. Civil Engineering
prediction about future seismicity.
2. Mining Engineering
3. Construction – Engineer are responsible for
3. Petroleum Engineering
the quality control of construction materials
4. Environmental Engineering
will derive enormous benefit from his
geological background of the nature material
Basic objective of engineering geology
such as sand, gravel, crushed rock.
1. It enables a civil engineer to understand
engineering application of certain conditions
Geology in Water Resource Development –
related to the area of construction, which are
Exploration and development of water resources have
essentially geological in nature
become very important area of activities for scientist,
2. It enables a geologist to understand the
technologies and engineers in all part of the world.
nature of geological information that is
absolutely essential for the safe design and
Geology in town and Regional Planning – a town
construction of civil engineering project.
planner is concerned essential with land utilization in
as best and as aesthetics a manner as possible for
Geology in Construction Job – in all types of heavy
developing cities and towns for meetings social needs
construction jobs such as buildings, towers, tanks,
in different areas.
dams and reservoir, highway, bridges, traffic and
hydropower tunnel etc. Full geological information
about the site of construction (or Excavation) and
about the natural materials of construction is TOPIC 2
paramount importance.

Aspect of Geology in the three aspect of Construction
1. Planning – following geological information is
greatly useful in planning an eng’g. Project.
a. Topographical Map – give details of relief
features and are essential to understand
relative merit and demerit of all the
possible sites.
b. Hydrological Map – give broad details
about the distribution and geometry of
the surface water channels and also
occurrence and depth contour of
groundwater.
c. Geological Map – Petrological characters
and structural disposition of rock types as
developed in the proposed area depicted
in geological maps.
2. Design – some of the geological characters
that have a direct or indirect bearing upon the
design of a proposed project are:
Rocks, Tectonic Plates and Continental Drift
Alfred Wegener – was a German Meteorologist,
formulated the “Theory of Continental Drift” and
published his theory entitled “The Origin of the
Continents and Oceans.”
Continental Drift Theory – stated that the continents
were joined together at one time in the pas and have
now drifted apart. It is like a jigsaw puzzle-like
appearance of the coast of Africa and South America.
– Also made of the magnetic orientation of the rocks
on either side of the ridge.
The 3 Evidences of Continental Drift.
1. Same Fossils
2. Continental Edges and Rock Formation
3. Glacial Evidences
Theory of Place Tectonics – stats that the Earth’s Crust
is divided into distinct plates that move relative to one
another on the Earth’s surface.
– Theory also states that the Earth’s crust is broken
into large and smaller pieces called plates.
Part of the Earth involves in Plate Tectonics
1. Lithosphere – The rigid outer part of the
earth, consisting the crust (Oceanic and
Continental) and the upper mantle.
2. Aethenosphere – is a part of the upper
mantle that exhibits plastic properties.
3 Types of Plate Boundaries
1. Divergent Boundary – these plate boundaries
are occurred along mid-ocean ridges and
continental rift zones. The crustal plates move
partly because of their boundaries. This
material pushes the plate’s apart, performing
new crust.
2. Convergent Boundary – at the opposite edges
of the plates, the motion causes them to
collide with other plates and either slide
under them or ride up over them.
3. Transform Boundary – occurs when the edges
of plates slide against each other. Earthquakes
are also common along transform boundaries.
Subduction – is the sideways and downward
movements of the edge of a plate of the earth’s crust
into the mantle beneath another plate.
– A geological process that takes place at convergent
boundaries of tectonic plates where one plate moves
under another and is forced down into the mantle.
Seafloor Spreading – a process that occurs at mid-
ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed
through volcanic activity and then gradually moves
away from the ridges.
- A magnetic force that cause to the rocks to spread.
Zone Divergence – the plates are pulled, and not
pushed apart. The main force driving this plate to
motion is the “slab pull” that arises when plates sink
into the mantle under their own weight at subduction
zones.
Major Plates – is any plate with an area greater than
20 million km².
The seven Major Plates
1. African Plate
2. Antarctic Plate
3. Eurasian Plate
4. Indo-Australian Plate
5. North American Plate
6. Pacific Plate
7. South American Plate
Minor Plates – is any plate with an area less than 20
million km² but greater than 1 million km².
The eight Minor Plates
1. Caribbean Plate
2. Arabian Plate
3. Juan de Fuca Plate
4. Nazca Plate
5. Scotia Plate
6. Philippine Plate
7. Cocos Plate
8. Indian Plate
Three types of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks – Formed when magma cools
and hardens.
2. Metamorphic Rocks – Formed under the
surface of the earth from metamorphosis
(change) that occurs due to intense heat and
pressure (squeezing).
3. Sedimentary Rocks – Formed from particles of
sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of
materials.
The Rock Cycle – most rocks on earth began as igneous
rocks. When igneous rocks are exposed on the surface,
time and weather break the rock down into smaller
pieces. This process is called weathering or erosion.
– wind and water carry the smaller pieces of igneous
rocks into piles called sediment beds.
TOPIC 3
Volcanology, Folds, Faults, and Joints
Volcanology – Made up of two words. Vulcan and
logos with Vulcan being a latin word “the ancient god
of fire”, and logos being a greek word for a branch of
knowledge. A branch of Geology that, from the root
word itself, deals with Volcanoes.
Volcanoes – are landforms that mostly occur in
destructive and constructive boundaries where plates
are pushed together or dragged apart. Volcanoes are
vents in the Earth’s crust through which lava, rock
fragments, hot vapor, and gases are ejected.
– Volcanic eruptions created the Earth’s first
atmosphere. Magma ejected from a volcano is called
lava.
– Volcanoes erupt because of density and pressure.
The lower density of the magma relative to the
surroundings rocks causes it to rise.
Formation of Volcanoes – it’s formed when magma
rises up to the Earth’s surface. The magma, now called
lava, will cool and harden on the Earth’s crust and will
pile up and as time passes by, the volcano will become
bigger and bigger.
Hotspots – Existed below the plates that would provide
localized sources of high heat energy (thermal plumes)
to sustain volcanism. In 1963, J. Tuzo Wilson,
Canadian geophysicist who discovered transform
faults, came up with an ingenious idea that became
known as the “Hotspot Theory”.
Parts of Volcano
1. Main Vent – is the weak point in the earth’s
crust where hot magma has been able to rise
from the magma chamber and reach the
surface.
2. Volcano’s Throat – The uppermost section of
the main vent. Its the entrance to the volcano.
3. Crater – is the opening at the top of a volcano.
Where the lava comes from as an eruption
happens.
4. Ash Clouds – the cloud of ash emitted into the
sky created during an eruption. Consist of
small pieces of pulverized rock, minerals and
volcanic glass.
5. Secondary Vent – is where some of the extra
magma is pushed out from. Often flows
molten lava onto the flanks (sides) of the
volcano.
6. Magma Chamber – is a large underground
pool of molten lava underneath the earth’s
crust.
7. Lava – is the silicate rock that is hot enough to
be in liquid form, and which is expelled from a
volcano during the eruption.
8. Sills – these forms when lava goes between
cracks, pools, and then crystallizes in the
vents.
9. Dikes – accumulated ash and solidified lava.
10. Parasitic Cone – small cone-shaped volcano
formed by an accumulation of volcanic debris.
Types of Volcanoes
1. Composite Cone Volcano – also called
stratovolcanoes, these are cone shaped
volcanoes composed of layers of lava, ash,
and rock debris.
2. Shield Volcano – these volcanoes are broad,
and domed-shaped with along, gently sloped
sides. Such volcanoes can cover very large
areas but never grow tall due to the
composition of lava that flows from it which
are very fluid.
3. Cinder Cone Volcano – Composed almost
entirely of loose, grainy cinders and almost no
lava. These kind of volcanoes are usually small
with vey steep sides and a small crater on top.
4. Calder Volcano – A volcanic feature formed by
the collapse of a volcano into itself, making it
a large, special form of volcanic crater.
Classification of Volcanoes
1. Active – a volcano will be classified as active if
at the present time it is expected to erupt or is
erupting already.
2. Dormant – A classification of volcano that is
currently not erupting and is not active but is
expected to erupt within recordable history
and is expected to erupt again in the future.
3. Extinct – A volcano that is not expected to
erupt any time soon. This is because these
volcanoes lost their lava supply.
Classification of Eruption
1. Explosive Eruption – Happens because of a
build-up of gas under very viscous slow
flowing and thick magma.
2. Fissure Eruption – Will emit a lot of lava from
a fracture or fissure. Because lava would
usually have a low viscosity, the gas can easily
escape.
Types of Volcanic Eruptions
1. Hawaiian Eruption – a fluid basaltic lava is
thrown into the air in jets from a vent or line
of vents (a fissure) at the summit or on the
flank of a volcano.
2. Strombolian Eruption – are distinct burst of
fluid lava (usually basalt or basaltic andesite)
from the mouth of magma-filled summit
conduit. Are often associated with small lava
lakes.
3. Vulcanian Eruption – is a short, violent,
relatively small explosion of viscous magma.
 4. Plinian Eruption – The largest and most
violent of all the types of volcanic eruptions.
5. Lava Domes – it form when very viscous,
rubbly lava is squeezed out of a vent without
exploding.
6. Surtseyan Eruption – are a kind of
hydromagmatic eruption, where magma or
lava interacts explosively with water.
Lava Viscosity – The character of volcanic eruption are
largely controlled by the viscosity – “gooeyness” or
resistance to flow – of the magma: low viscosity fluids
flow more easily that high viscosity fluids.
Folds – When the layer of rock in the Earth’s crust fold.
The land’s surface is pushed up as a hills or mountains.
This process is called orogeny.
Classification of Folds
1. Symmetrical Fold – Folds with the same angle.
2. Asymmetrical Fold – Folds with different
angles.
3. Isoclinal Fold – similar to symmetrical folds,
though not only does it have the same angles.
But these folds are also parallel to each other.
These folds are both symmetrical and aligned
in a parallel fashion.
4. Overturned Folds – Such folds are so intense
that the fold appeared to have turned over on
itself.
5. Recumbent Folds – These folds are even more
extreme compared to overturned folds as
these are nearly horizontal.
6. Chevron Folds – Folds in a zigzag pattern,
instead of a curving pattern, these folds have.
Types of Folds
1. Anticline – a fold that arches up as both sides
of the rock are pushed inward.
2. Syncline – a fold that sinks down as both sides
of the rock are pushed inward.
3. Monocline – a one sided slope connecting two
horizontal or gently inclined strata.
4. Domes – like anticlines but instead of an arch,
the fold is in a dome shape, like an inverted
bowl.
5. Basins – are like synclines but again, instead
of a sinking arch, the fold is in the shape of a
bowl sinking down into the ground.
Faults – are a large crack in the Earth’s crust where the
rocks move against each other. It is not easy to shift
massive chunks of crust, so it takes a great amount of
pressure to build up before the rocks will move.
Kinds of Faults
1. Normal Fault – where the crust is being pulled
apart, normal faulting occurs, in which the
overlaying (hanging-wall) block moves down
with respect to the lower (foot wall) block.
2. Reverse Fault – where the crust is being
compressed, reverse faulting occurs, in which
the hanging-wall block moves up and over the
footwall block – reverse slip on a gently
inclined plane is referred to as thrust faulting.
3. Strike-slip Fault – Crustal blocks may also
move sideways past each other, usually along
nearly vertical faults. Described as sinistral
when the far side moves to the left, and
dextral, when the far side moves to the right.
Earthquakes – are cause by a sudden slip on a fault.
Stresses in the earth’s outer layer push the sides of the
fault together.
Aftershocks – part of living with earthquakes is living
with aftershocks. Earthquakes come in cluster.
Aftershocks are earthquakes that usually occur near
the mainshock.
Foreshocks – sometimes what we think is a mainshock
is followed by a larger earthquake. Then the original
earthquake is considered a foreshock.
Difference of Magnitude and Intensity
a. Magnitude – determined from measurement
seismographs. Intensity measures the
strength of shocking produced by the
earthquake at a certain location.
b. Intensity – determined from effects of the
earthquakes on people, structures, and the
environment.
Joints – also called fractures are surfaces along which
rocks or minerals have broken, thus generating two
free surfaces where none existed before.
Types of Joints
1. Systematic Joints – roughly planar, parallel to
each other, usually regularly spaced.
2. Non-systematic Joints – curved and irregular.
No obvious spatial relationship
 3. Joint system – form when two different joints d. Specific Gravity – mineral is a comparison
set occur in the same rock. or ratio of the weight of the mineral to
4. Sheet joints, or exfoliation joints – curved the weight of an equal amount of water.
fractures characteristic of intrusive igneous e. Hardness – is how resistant a mineral is to
rocks. scratching, not how easily it breaks.
5. Columnar joints – are typical of extrusive Hardness depends on the bonds within
igneous flows and shallow tubular intrusive the mineral, the stronger the bond, the
igneous roks. harder the mineral.
f. Fracture and Cleavage – describe how a
mineral breaks. If the mineral break very
TOPIC 4 nicely along smooth planes, it’s called
cleavage.
Type of Cleavage
Mineral Exploration & Development, Economic
a. Cubic
Geology, & Paleontology
b. Octahedral
c. Pinacoidal
Mineral – is a naturally occurring chemical compound,
d. Rhombohedral
usually of crystalline form and abiogenic in origin.
e. Muscovite (one direction)
f. Feldspar (two direction)
Mineralogy – is the study of minerals.
g. Halite (Three Direction)
h. Calcite (Four Direction)
Composition of Minerals
g. Tenacity – describes how the particles of
a. Naturally occurring
mineral hold together or resist
b. Solid Substance
separation.
c. Inorganic Origin
Types of Tenacity of Mineral
a. Brittle
Properties of Minerals
b. Sectile
1. Physical Properties
c. Malleability
a. Color – is the most obvious property of a
d. Flexibility
mineral, but it is often non-diagnostic.
e. Elastic
Sometimes distinctive, often unreliable,
f. Softness
affected by chemical impurities, surface
g. Tensile
coating, grain size & weathering.
h. Fragility
b. Streak – is the color of the mineral in
2. The Chemical Properties
powdered form, it shows the true color of
- the chemical properties of minerals mainly
the mineral.
reflect the chemical properties of the atoms
c. Luster – is the property of minerals that
present in each minerals.
indicates how much the surface of a
mineral reflects light.
3. Crystalline Properties
- Metallic: opaque and reflects light as a
- The process of mineral form is known
metal
CRYSTALLIZATION. Crystal form is the
- Submettalic: opaque and dull. And it is
outward expression of the orderly
dark colored.
arrangement of atoms inside the mineral.
- Nonmetallic: does not reflect light like a
metal.
Classification of Minerals
- Waxy: looks like paraffin or wax
1. Native Elements – The category of the pure.
- Vitreous: looks like broken glass.
Most minerals are made up of combinations
- Pearly: appears iridescent, like a pearl.
of chemical elements. In this group a single
- Silky: looks fibrous, like silk
element like the copper shown here are found
- Greasy: looks like oil in water.
in naturally pure form.
- Resinous: looks like hardened tree sap.
2. Silicates – the most widespread of the
- Adamantine: looks brilliant, like
minerals they are made up of oxygen and
diamond.
silicon.
 3. Oxides – mineral compounds combining a
metal with oxygen or a metal combining with
oxygen and hydrogen.
4. Sulfides – made up of sulphur combined with
another mineral, usually a metal.
5. Sulfates – made of compounds of sulphur
combined with metals and oxygen. Tend to be
soft, and translucent.
6. Carbonates – comes from the combination of
carbon, oxygen and a metal or semimetal
element. It can easily dissolve even in mild
acids.
7. Phospate – not as common in occurrence as
the other families of minerals. They are often
formed when other minerals are broken down
by weathering.
8. Mineraloids – the term used for those
substances that do not fit neatly into any of
the eight classes of minerals.
Rock Forming Minerals – any mineral that forms
igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks and that
typically, or solely, forms as an intimate part of rock-
making process.
Mineral Exploration & Development – it is a
investigative activities prior to mining. Mineral
Exploration is a process of finding a concentration of
minerals.
Mineral Exploration & Development Factors
1. Geological Factors – Geological risk can be
thought of as the likelihood and degree to
which actual mineralization (its quantity &
quality) differs from what is anticipated at the
point a decision is made to undertake
exploration or development.
2. Technical Factors – Technical risk can be
thought of as the likelihood and degree to
which actual recovery of a mineral during
mining and processing differs from what was
anticipated.
3. Environmental, Social, and Political Factors –
A resource be extracted in ways that are
consistent with a nation’s preferences and
policies for environmental protection. It can
be extracted in ways consistent with
preferences and policies of local communities.
4. Economic Factor – Economic risk is an
overarching type of risk because it
incorporates and reflects the three other
categories of risk cited above.
Sub-stages of Mineral Exploration – in which mineral
deposits are identified, evaluated, and prepared for
mining. Exploration and development can be
subdivided into sub-stages.
A. Available Land Resources – mineral
exploration is a temporary use of the land. It
requires looking for clues over a large area to
find rare, valuable and hidden minerals.
B. Prospecting & Early Exploration – Explorers,
in the early stages of mineral exploration,
explorers are often called prospectors. Early
exploration involves very little ground
disturbance. Using hand tools , mineral
explorers take a very small sample of rock,
earth and water for analysis and make maps
of geology and other feature.
C. Intermediate Exploration – exploration
activities include geological mapping and
aerial surveys to obtain detailed geological
data. Intermediate exploration will begin,
once an exploration plan is submitted to
mines or an exploration permit is obtained.
a. Drilling and Trenching – looking deeper
into the earth helps geoscientist better to
understand what is hidden from view and
estimate the quantity and value of
resources.
b. Covering the Cost – Mineral exploration is
expensive and does not generate
revenue.
D. Advance Exploration
a. Drilling and Bulk Sampling – Drilling
result in many rock samples being taken.
Bulk sampling takes a large amount of
rock out of the ground. The lab to test the
samples may be either on-site or at
specialized facility off-site.
b. Project Development Design – They
begin to make plan to extract the rock,
process it and handle by-products.
E. Mineral Development
a. Plans – planning occurs at all stages of the
mineral exploration life cycle but is a
particular focus during the development
stage, which focuses on formal plans for
project construction, operation and,
finally, closure and reclamation.
b. Engagement & Consultation – it is
important part of mineral exploration life
cycle.
c. Agreements – Formal Agreements are
developed with government, aboriginal
communities and key stakeholders to
 provide a framework for understanding
key commitments for mineral
development, operation, benefit sharing
and caring for and restoring the
environment.
d. Site Development – Construction
proceeds after government approval and
can take several years to complete
depending on the scope and location of
the project.
F. Restoration & Reclamation – this means that
most equipment, buildings and facilities will
be removed and any affected land reclaimed
and restored. Planting and other site
treatments are used to restore grasses, plants
and trees on rock pile and disturbed surface
areas.
Economic Geology – is concerned with earth materials
that can be used for economic and/or industrial
purposes.
Economic Potential – the capacity of the earth to
supply materials needed for economic and/or
industrial purposes.
Mineral Deposits – naturally occurring accumulations
or concentrations of metals or minerals of sufficient
size and concentration that might, under favourable
circumstances, have economic value.
Ore Deposits – a mineral deposits is sufficiently rich to
be worked at a profit is called an ore deposits, and in
an ore deposit the assemblage of ore minerals plus
gangue is call the ore.
Renewable vs. Non-renewable Resources
1. Renewable – will not run out because they
are replaced as quickly as they are used.
2. Non-renewable – are used faster than they
can be replaced, so the supply available to
society is limited.
Mineral Resource – is a concentration or occurrence of
material of intrinsic economic interest in or on the
earth’s crust in such form, quality & quantity that there
are reasonable prospects for eventual economic
extraction.
Paleontology – it is the study of the fossils of ancient
plant and animals. The study of past life using fossils. It
is an important source of evidence.
Fossils – the remains or evidence of ancient plants and
animals may be either the whole organism or part of it.
Paleontologist – the person who study the fossils.
Type of Fossils – fossils can be divided into two
categories, fossilized body parts (bones, claws, teeth,
skin, embryos, etc.) and fossilized traces, called
ichnofossilis (which are footprints, nest, dung,
toothmark, etc.)
1. Mold Fossils – a fossilized impression made in
the substrate, a negative image of the
organisms.
2. Cast Fossils – formed when a mold filled in.
3. Trace Fossils, incnofossils – fossilized nests,
gastroliths, burrows, footprints.
4. True form Fossils – fossils of the actual animal
or animal part.
6 Ways of Organism Turns into Fossils;
1. Unaltered Preservation – like insect trap or
plants parts trapped in amber, a hardened
form of tree sap.
2. Permineralization – petrification – in which
rock-like minerals seep in slowly and replace
the original organic tissue with silica, calcite or
pyrite, forming rock fossils. Can preserve hard
and soft parts.
3. Replacement – an organism’s hard parts
dissolve and replaced by another minerals.
4. Carbonization – Coalification – in which only
the carbon remains in the specimen – other
elements, like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
are removed.
5. Re-crystallization – hard parts either revert to
more stable minerals or small crystals turn
into large crystals.
6. Authigenic Preservation – molds & cast of
organinsms that have been destroyed or
dissolve.
Classification of Fossils
1. Biological Classification – this system has a
detailed system that include description of the
body. All species related to earth, air, fire and
water and classified accordingly.
2. Fossils of Animals – are classified, as are living
specimens, by observing the body structures
and functions.
 3. Classification Division 3. Paleobotany – is the study of ancient plants.
a. Kingdom These fossils can be impression of plants left
b. Phylum on rock surfaces.
c. Class 4. Micropaleontology – is the study of shells
d. Order from deep-sea microorganisms in order to
e. Family understand how earth’s climate has changed.
f. Genus
g. Species

Source of Evidence
TOPIC 5
a. Body of Fossils - Fossils of organisms’ bodies
Earthquake Engineering, Earthquakes and Effects, and
are usually the most informative type of
Earthquake Waves
evidence. The most common types are wood,
bones, and shells.
Earthquake Engineering – is an interdisciplinary branch
b. Trace Fossils – Trace fossils consist mainly of
of engineering that designs and analyzes structures,
tracks and burrows, but also include coprolites
such as buildings and bridges, with earthquakes in
(fossils feces) and marks left by feeding.
mind.
c. Index Fossils – Index fossils are used to
determine approximate age.
Earthquake – is a result of a sudden release of energy
d. Geochemical Observation – may help to
in the earth’s crust that creates seismic waves.
deduce the global level of biological activity,
Seismic Waves – is an activity of an area refers to the
or affinity of certain fossils.
frequency, type, and size of earthquakes experienced
over a period of time.
Fossil Fuels – are fuels formed by natural processes
such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead
Hypocenter (Focus) – is the point on the fault where
organisms, containing energy originating in ancient
rupture occurs and the location from which seismic
photosynthesis.
waves are released.
Caboniferous Period – occurred from about 360 to 286
Epicenter – is the point on the earth’s surface that is
million years ago. At the time, the land was covered
directly above the focus, the point where an
with swamps filled with huge trees, ferns and other
earthquakes or underground explosion originates.
large leafy plants.
Fault Line – is the surface trace of a fault, the line of
Type of Fossil Fuels
intersection between the earth’s surface.
a. Coal – is a hard, black colored rock-like
substances. It is made up of carbon, hydrogen,
Fault Plane - are the cracks or sudden slips of the land.
oxygen, nitrogen and varying amounts of
sulphur.
Fault Scrap – is the topographic expression of faulting
b. Oil – is another fossil fuel. It was also formed
attributed to the displacement of the land surface by
more than 300 million years ago. Some
movement along faults.
scientist say that tiny diatoms are the source
of oil.
Why Earthquakes Happen? – earthquakes are usually
c. Natural Gas – is lighter than air. Natural gas is
caused when rock underground suddenly breaks along
mostly made up of a gas called methane.
a fault.
Sub-Disciple of Paleontology
Mainshock – in a series of earthquakes which occur
1. Vertebrate Paleontology – the study of fossils
over a relatively short period of time in a particular
of animals with backbone.
area, the mainshock is the quake of greatest
2. Invertebrate Paleontology – examine the
magnitude.
fossils without backbones – such as molluscs,
corals, arthropods.
Foreshock – are those earthquakes which occur
immediately preceding a mainshock in the exact same
area in which the mainshock occurs.
Aftershock – are smaller earthquakes that occur
afterward in the same place as the mainshocks.
Causes of Earthquakes
a. Surface Cause – Great explosions, landslides,
slips on steep coasts, dashing of sea waves,
avalanches, railway trains, heavy trucks, some
large engineering project cause minor tremor.
b. Tectonic Cause – Structural disturbance
resulting in the parts of the lithosphere is the
main cause of this type of earthquake.
c. Volcanic Cause – Volcanic eruption produce
earthquakes. Earthquakes may proceed.
Effect of Earthquakes
a. Ground Shaking – shaking of the ground by
the passage of seismic waves, especially
surface waves near the epicentre of the
earthquakes are responsible for the most
damage during an earthquakes.
b. Faulting and Ground Rupture – when an
earthquake event occurs, ground rupture is
only where the fault zone moves.
c. Landslides and ground subsidence –
avalanches, landslides, slumps and rock slides
are triggered by ground shaking.
d. Damage to man-made structures – such as
roads, bridges, dams and buildings from
ground motion depends on the type of
construction.
e. Fires – often associated with broken electrical
and gas lines, is one of the common side
effects of earthquakes.
f. Soil liquefaction – Groundwater, san and soil
combining during seismic shaking to form
liquefaction during a moderate to powerful
earthquake.
g. Flooding – can come from many sources such
as broken water main pipes, dams that fail
due to the earthquakes and earthquakes-
generated tsunami.
h. Injuries and Death – damage and loss of life
sustained during an earthquakes result from
falling structures and flying glass and objects.
i. Tsunami – are a giant waves that can cause
floods and in some cases may reach up to 100
feet in height.
Earthquake Waves
1. Seismology – is the study of earthquakes and
seismic waves that move through and around
the earth.
2. Seismic Waves – are the waves of energy
caused by the sudden breaking of rock within
the earth or an explosion.
3. Body Waves – travelling through the interior
of the earth, body waves arrive before the
surface waves emitted by an earthquake.
4. P Waves (Primary Waves) – this is the fastest
kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the
first to arrive at a seismic station.
5. S Waves (Secondary Waves) – is the
secondary waves, and are easily distinguish on
a seismogram as a result.
6. Love Waves – the first kind of surface wave.
It’s the fastest surface wave and moves the
ground from side-to-side. It produced entirely
horizontal motion.
7. Rayleigh Waves – the other kind of surface
waves. A Rayleigh Wave rolls along ground
just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
It moves the ground up and down, and side-
to-side in the same direction that the wave is
moving.
Seismographs – earthquakes are recorded by
instrument called seismographs. The recording they
make is called a seismogram.
Magnitude – measures the energy released at the
source of the earthquakes.
Intensity – measures the strength of shaking produced
by the earthquake at a certain location. It is
determined from the effects on people, human
structures, and the natural environment.
TOPIC 6
Footing & Foundation; Shallow & Deep Foundation
Superstructure – part of the building that is entirely
above the foundation or basement.
Substructure – lower portion that transmits the load of
the superstructure into the supporting soil.
Foundation – lowest part of a structure constructed
below the ground level that’s transfer the structural
loads from a building safety into the ground.
Bearing Capacity – capacity of soil to support the loads
applied to the ground.
Footing – the lowermost portion of the foundation
which is in direct contact with the sub-soil and is often
called shallow foundation.
Khair – Cutch Tree (Acacia)
Load – forces, deformation, or acceleration applied to
a structure or it’s component.
D/B – Depth with ratio.
Cast-in-situ – cast in place.
Frost heave – the lifting of a soil surface or pavement
due to the freezing of moisture in the underlying soil.
Purpose of Foundation
1. To support the structure
2. To distribute the weight of the structure over
large area so as to bring down the intensity of
load within the safe bearing capacity of soil.
3. To distribute the non-uniform load of the
superstructure, uniform the sub-soil.
4. To increase the stability of the structure as a
whole.
Factors affecting selection of Foundation
1. Loads from the building
2. Types of soil
3. Types of structure in neighbourhood
4. Types of foundation
Two Types of Foundation
1. Shallow Foundation – the depth at which the
foundation is placed is less than its width. D/B
≤ 1.
2. Deep Foundation – the depth at which is
placed is greater than its width. D/B ≥ 1.
Types of Shallow Foundation
1. Spread footings/ foundation
2. Mat or raft footing foundation
3. Combined footings/ foundation
4. Grillage footings/ foundation
Types of Deep Foundation
1. Pile foundation
2. Caisson (Well or Pier) foundation
3. Shaft foundation
Settlement – is the vertically downward movement of
structure due to the compression of underlying soil
because of increased load.
Loads from Structure
a. Dead Load – Weight of Building
b. Live Load – Weight of Occupants and
Furniture.
c. Lateral Load – Wind and Seismic
d. Any other such as Uplift etc.
e. Weight of Equipments
Requirements of Foundation
1. Structural Stability
2. Not impairing Function of the Building
3. Durability
4. Economy
Types of Settlement
1. Uniform (No settlement) – all pans of the
structure undergo equal settlement.
2. Tilt/Tipping – tilt occurs when an entire
structure rotates due to non-uniform
settlement.
3. Differential or uneven – settlement occurs
when the soil beneath a structure cannot bear
the weights imposed. Can cause a building to
shift out of plumb causing cracks in the
foundation, structure, or finish.
Causes of Settlement
1. Weak bearing soil
2. Poor Compaction
3. Changes in moisture content
4. Maturing trees and vegetation
5. Soil consolidation
Causes of Foundation Failure
1. Evaporation
2. Transpiration
3. Plumbing Leaks
4. Drainage
5. Inferior Foundation Construction
6. Inferior Ground Preparation
7. Poor Soil Condition
Footing – is the lower part of the foundation which is
constructed below the ground level in solid surface.
Purpose of Footing
 Transfer the “Live & Dead Loads” of the
structure of the soil over a large enough area
so that neither the soil nor the building will
move.
 Resist settlement & lateral load.
Requirements for Footing Design
 Allowable Bearing Capacity of soil (building
codes of various organizations in diff.
Countries gives the allowable bearing capacity
that can be used for proportioning footings.
 Total Load( live load + dead load)
 Length and width of Column.
Spread Footing – it is a type of structural component
that acts as a base for a building’s foundation.
Individual Footing – also called single footing or
isolated footing. Most simple type of foundation
footing.
Wall footing – often called strip footing or Continuous
footing, commonly found in load-bearing masonry
construction.
Inverted Arch Footing – it is used to be provided for
multi-storeyed buildings in olden times.
Single Footing – in which the loaded area (b x b0 of the
column has been spread to the size. B x B through a
single spread. The base is generally made of concrete.
Stepped Footing – for heavily loaded column, which
requires greater spread.
Sloped Footing – concrete base does not have uniform
thickness, but is made sloped, with greater thickness at
its junction with the column and smaller thickness at
the ends.
Mat / Raft Foundation – a large slab foundation that is
used instead of multiple spread footings. Typically used
when there are poor and weak soil conditions.
Type of Mat Foundation
1. Flat Slab
2. Flat Slab thickened under column
3. Two way Beam and Slab Types
4. Flat slab with pedestal
5. Rigid Frame Mat
6. Piled mat
Flat Plate / Slab – a mat is used for fairly small and
uniform column spacing and relatively light loads.
Flat Slab Thickened under Columns – columns
subjected to a very heavy loads usually the flat plate is
thickened under columns to guard against shear and
negative moments.
Two way beam and Slab – when the column spacing is
large and carries unequal loads it would be more
economical.
Flat slab with pedestals – for columns subjected to
very heavy loads usually the pedestal are provided at
the base of the column.
Rigid Frame Mat – used when columns carry extremely
heavy loads. In such designs, basement walls act as ribs
or deep beam.
Piled Raft – the mat is supported on piles. Used where
the soil is highly compressible and the water table is
high.
Combined Footing – a footing supporting two or more
columns in one row.
Strap Beam Combined Footing – also called concreted
or cantilever footing. Consist of two or more footing on
individual columns, connected by a beam, called strap.
Grillage Footing – it is used when heavy structural
loads from column, piers or stanchions are required to
be transferred to a soil of low bearing capacity.
Types of Grillage Footing
1. Steel Grillage – foundations consists of steel
beams also known as grillage beams which are
provided in single or double tiers.
2. Timber Grillage – Where the soil encountered
is soft and is permanently water-logged
building walls can be economically supported
by suitably designed timber grillage
foundation.