Forging PDF

Introduction
Basic Knowledge
Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application
Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application 1

Directory
Page number Subject
30 Preface
4 - 80 Forging History
9 - 11 Production Statistics
12 - 14 Forging Materials
15 - 16 Grain-Flow
17 Tool Design and Profitability
18 - 19 Accuracy of Forged Pars
20 The most important forging processes
21 - 28 Forging Machinery
29 - 31 Automation
32 - 33 Pre-Forming
34 Ring Rolling
35 - 36 Open-die Forging
37 Special Process Hot Forging
38 Special Process Warm Forging
39 - 47 Cold Forging
48 - 52 Process Stages
53 Process Combinations
54 - 55 Tools
56 - 57 Heat Treatment
58 Surface Treatment
59 - 66 Quality Assurance and Material Testing
67 Machining Process
68 Forged parts in competition
69 - 81 Diversity of Forms
82 - 84 Applications
85 Diversity in Forging Technology
86 Optimization of Components NOTE:
87 - 90 Development Chain Please switch from standard view to
91 - 94 Simulation screen presentation to be able to
95 Sources of Illustrations and Information
activate and use the links.
96 Imprint
97 - 101 Bibliography
102 Annex

Preface
Dear Readers,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
This presentation of the forging industry is designed to offer you an easily comprehensible insight into the highly interesting
and, for the economy, tremendously important world of hot and cold forging.
Even in the age of the Blackberry, IP-TV, Web 2.0 and all of the other colourful accomplishments that our modern world of the
media presents us with every day, machine engineering and plant construction – which is dependent on forged components by
massive forming – is and will remain one of the most important pillars of our present-day prosperity. Without high-strength,
forged metal components, the economic and technical development that we have experienced over the last hundred years
would not have been possible. Electricity and mobility in the form of motorised vehicles of all kinds are just two of the
multifarious fields of application for modern forged parts.
And also in the future, this technology will be used to an ever increasing extent:
Thanks to worldwide economic growth in recent years, the export of forged parts from Germany to all parts of the world has
been steadily increasing. Furthermore, the need to reduce CO 2 emissions will also boost the demand for hot and cold forged
parts. The use of renewable energy by way of wind and hydroelectric power plants, economical combustion engines with high
combustion efficiency and low frictional losses, as well as efficient dual clutch transmissions are merely a few of the many
examples of environment protection which would be impossible without forged components. To enable the development and
application of these often very complex and, technically speaking, highly demanding components, an increasing use of cutting
edge computer technology and simulation software is being made in this branch of the industry.
This presentation “Basic Knowledge: Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application” is an “open” PowerPoint File.
This means that it is possible for you to take elements from it for teaching purposes for your own presentation. By using the
search function in PowerPoint, you are able to find the terms you need from the presentation in a few seconds. Besides the
clear, summarised texts on the individual pages, many pages also show more detailed, full text descriptions that will provide
you with further background information. Via directory you are able to switch within the subjects.
Hagen, 01/04/2011
Dr. Stefan Witt
Chairman of the Board
Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V.
German Association of the Forging Industry
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The art of forging is already 6000 years old
Forging is one of mankind's

oldest technological processes.
In 4000 BC metals were already

being worked by smiths
The first copper-alloys appeared

around 2500 BC - we call this the
Bronze Age
Sketch from the pictures in the grave of Rechmiré, vizir in the

18th Dynasty (ca. 1450 BC)

Forging through the ages I
Between 700 and 500 BC iron

replaced bronze.
The smelting of the iron ore and

the forging process were one
unit until the 13th or 14th
centuries.
Mediaeval smelting furnace with accompanying smithy. The furnace

and the smith's fire both used charcoal as fuel in those days.

Water and steam replace muscle power
Water-powered iron hammer (ca. 1780) Steam hammer "Fritz" in Essen (ca.1860)

The start of drop forging
The smiths of those days used hammers driven by transmission shafts to produce a wide range of
forged parts for the railways, for the car industry and for agricultural machinery
View of the production area of the Schmiedag Range of products of the Schöneweiss
company in Hagen (ca.1910) drop-forging works (ca.1910)

Development of forging technology
The development of drop forging

made possible:
- increasing batch sizes for the

automotive industry
- further development of and

specialization in steel types
- new technologies for tool

production
- development of new machine

types, new production
processes and combinations
of processes, and automation
View of a production facility with a linked automated forging line

Production figures - German forging sector
Production of forgings in 2010
Manufacturing group Production in '000 tonnes Proportion in %
Drop forging industry 1280 65
Flange manufacturers 68 3,5
Pipe-fittings producers 95 4,8
Cold-forging manufacturers 175 8,9
Open-die forgers 350 17,8
Total forging production 1968 100
Almost two-thirds of the total forging output comes from the drop-forging sector.

Markets for forged products I
More than a third of all forged parts are exported. The automotive sector, together with system
producers (tier one suppliers) receives more than 80% of the total production.
Mechanical engineering
Others 5%
10%
Export 35%
System suppliers 36%
Domestic 65% Cars 34%
Trucks 15%
Percentages of steel forged parts delivered in 2009, in tonnes.

Current status of drop-forging technology
Germany is the number two producer world-wide. Production in 2008 was 3,000 000 tonnes.

Forgeable materials I
All metals and metal alloys, with very few exceptions, are suitable for forging. There is a range of more
than 2,500 types of steel from which to choose to achieve the most economical production process.
Steel group Standard
Mild steels DIN EN 10222-1
DIN EN 10250-1/-2
Heat-treating steels DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3
Case-hardening steels DIN EN 10084
Nitriding steels DIN EN 10085
Steels for flame- and DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3
induction-hardening
Ball- and roller- DIN EN ISO 683-17
bearing steels
High-temperature DIN EN 10269
steels DIN EN 10222-1/-2
Tough-at-low- DIN EN 10269
temperature steels DIN EN 10222-1/-2/-3
Stainless steels DIN EN 10222-5
DIN EN 10250-1/-4
AFP-Steels DIN EN 10267
Forming characteristics of various material groups

Forgeable materials II
Steel group Standard Application
Mild steels DIN EN 10222-1 Machine parts with low dynamic loading and tensile strength requirements
DIN EN 10250-1/-2
Heat-treating steels DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3 Machine parts and automotive components with higher dynamic or static loading
such as steering knuckles, crank shafts, drive shafts and safety critical parts for
automobiles and for use in cable cars and aerial ropeways.
Case-hardening steels DIN EN 10084 Case-hardened gearbox and drive-line components such as gears, shafts, toothed
Nitriding steels DIN EN 10085 parts and wear-resistant forming tooling.
Steels for flame- and DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3 Very high wear-resistance for chassis components, for tracked vehicles, conveyors
induction-hardening for the mining industry, very large roller bearings with hardened tracks
Ball- and roller-bearing DIN EN ISO 683-17 Special steels for hardened roller bearing rings and bodies. The steels achieve their
steels very high hardness values by good through-hardening.
High-temperature steels DIN EN 10269 High-alloyed steels for gas turbine engines, burners and industrial furnaces, forming
DIN EN 10222-1/-2 tooling and dies.
Tough-at-low- DIN EN 10269 Machine parts for use at sub-zero temperatures, automotive components for use in
temperature steels DIN EN 10222-1/-2/-3 extreme conditions, springs and applications with high dynamic loading.
Stainless steels DIN EN 10222-5 Fittings for the chemical and food industries, components for marine use, fittings for
DIN EN 10250-1/-4 the building industry, cutlery and household wares, screws and fasteners and wire
ropes for use in damp conditions.
AFP-Steels DIN EN 10267 Application as with heat-treated steels but more cost-effective for engine and
chassis components such as connecting rods, crankshafts, steering components,
drive shafts and axles.

Forgeable materials III
For special applications, materials such as titanium, aluminium, nickel alloys and AFP-steels are also
forged.
Medical components Front-wheel swing Heat-resistant turbine Connecting rods for

(Hip joints) in titanium bearing blades in nickel alloys truck engines in AFP
steel (precipitation
hardening ferritic-perlitic
steel)

Grain-flow I
Grain-flow takes place during rolling through the longitudinal alignment of segregations in the steel. In
an optimal forming process, this grain-flow is retained and runs parallel to the surface of the
component.
Four cylinder crankshaft with counterweights
Optimal grain-flow increases the dynamic strength of the component

Grain-flow II
The grain-flow (with the segregated core of the raw material) runs from left to right through the
component. Grain-flow breaking out of the side would result in an undesirable stress-raising notch
effect.
Automobile gearbox shaft cold The gear profile is milled in the two collars. In the area of the
formed in two stages teeth, the grain-flow is perpendicular to the direction of the load

Tool design and profitability
The required quantities

Small quantity Medium quantity High quantity
and batch sizes
determine the form of Low degree of Moderate degree of High degree of
the tooling and the most adaptation to the adaptation to the adaptation to the
finished form finished form finished form
economical production
process to use.
Expensive tooling and/or
several pre-forming
tools are easier to justify
for high quantities. The
production costs can be
lowered by process
Costs
optimization and
automation. The total
costs can also be Finished part Machining Finished part Machining Finished part Machining
lowered by reducing the Production Production Production
amount of machining As-forged As-forged As-forged
Material Material Material
required. part part part
Tooling Tooling
Tooling
Dependence of the costs of forgings and of finished parts on the quantity

produced

Accuracy of forged parts
= Achievable with conventional production equipment Precision forged pair of bevel

= Achievable using special methods or in exceptional cases
gears with helical teeth and
Generally, for steel drop-forgings the dimensional clutch dogs
tolerances laid down in DIN EN 10243-1 apply.
Closer tolerances can be agreed individually between
manufacturer and customer.
For steel open-die forgings, special tolerances apply.

Accuracy of forged parts
The tolerances that are technically possible for

forgings depend on
• the position of the dimension; thickness

dimensions which are formed across the
parting line of the dies require larger
tolerances than height and diameter
dimensions contained entirely in one die-half
• the complexity of the forging; here a

distinction is made depending on the fine
detail of the forging
• the weight and size of the forging
• ease-of-forging, depending on the type of

material
The calculation of tolerances is laid down in

DIN EN 10243-1
Tighter tolerances are possible using extra
measures and must be agreed with the
manufacturer.

The most important forging processes
Five main methods are used Gripper jaws
in forging: Upper die Upsetting punch
- Drop-forging
- Upsetting
Lower die
- Extrusion
- Open-die forging
- Ring rolling Workpiece
Workpiece
Drop-forging Upsetting
Punch
Main roll
Saddle Axial rolls
Die Mandrel
Workpiece
Workpiece
Workpiece
Saddle
Extrusion Ejector Open-die forging Ring rolling
All hot-forming processes take place at around 1,200C

Forging machinery I
Three main types

Main types of machine
Of machine are
used for Forging:
- energy-
dependant press-force-
energy-dependant machine-stroke-dependant
- press-force- dependant
dependant
- machine-
stroke- with linear with rotary
dependant stroke working motion
Double-acting
Eccentric presses
hammers Ring rolling
Hydraulic Crank presses
Counterblow Reducer rolling
presses Upsetting
hammers Cross rolling
machines
Screw presses

Forging machinery II
Presses
energy-dependant press-force-dependant machine-stroke-dependant
The machine types are shown depicting the limiting conditions at the end of the working stroke. Each
machine type has its advantages and disadvantages and is specially chosen depending on the part to
be produced.
Hammers for drop forging I
1 Power unit
1
2 Ram
2 3 Upper die
4 Lower die
3
5 Anvil block
4 Vibration damper
6
elements
5
The double-acting hammer To dampen the vibrations, the

(energy-dependant) is hydraulically hammer is mounted on spring
or pneumatically driven. elements

Hammers for drop forging II
1 Drive
1
2 Ram
2
3 Upper die
3 4 Hammer frame
5 Lower die
4
6 Lower ram
5 7 Hydraulic ram
clutch
The counterblow hammer is driven 6
pneumatically – ideal for large
pieceweights 7
The counter movements of the ram

reduce vibrations

Presses for drop forging I
1 Frame
8
6 2 Punch slide
9 3 Punch guide
4 Screw spindle
7 5 Spindle nut
4 Clutch
6
5 7 Flywheel bearings
8 Spindle brake Hydraulic
9 equipment
1
10 Ejector
11 11 Pneumatic
3
counterweight
2
10
The screw press is suitable for A large amount of forming energy

long runs and can be automated is available

Presses for drop forging II
1 Hydraulic cylinder
5 2 Ram
1 3 Table
2 4 Machine frame
4 5 Electric motors
6
6 Walking beam
8 automation
7 Forming station
8 Material feed
3
The hydraulic press offers a constant It is particularly suited for hot- and
maximum press force over the whole cold-extruding with a long working
stroke stroke

Presses for drop forging III
5
9
8 2
4 10
1
The eccentric press is machine stroke 1 Frame 6 Counterweight

dependant and readily automated at high 2 Ram 7 Ram adjustment
rates of production (strokes per minute) 3 Connecting rod 8 Reduction gearbox
4 Ram guide 9 Double-helical gearing
5 Clutch and brake system 10 Upper and lower ejector

Presses for drop forging IV
8 1
2 5
3 4
10
The wedge press is tip-resistant and is 1 Frame 6 Counterweight

ideal for off-centre forging
2 Ram 7 Ram adjustment
3 Wedge 8 Reduction gearbox
4 Ram guide 9 Double-helical gearing
5 Clutch and brake system 10 Upper ejector

Automation of important forging equipment
1
3
2
5
6
4 7
Walking beam system Tongs arm system
1 Feed gripper 4 Walking beam unit 1 Feed gripper 5 Tongs slide

2 Power unit 5 Press frame 2 Transport grippers 6 System drive unit
3 Transport 6 Lower die 3 Lower die 7 Transverse slide
grippers 4 Tongs arms 8 Press framer

Automated multi-die hot-forging presses
Multi-die presses for hot forging (e.g. Hatebur) are fully automatic in operation.
The speed is continuously variable and large numbers of pieces can be produced
Automatic multi-die hot-forging press with Tool area of a multi-die hot forging press with
inductive pre-heating equipment four dies

Automated production line
A series of eccentric presses linked to form a production line using robots – the operator is keeping an
eye on the whole process

Pre-forming 1
1 10 9
2 8
4 5 6
1 Length compensation cylinder 6 Roll drive with automatic

backlash compensation
Reducer rolling, through the distribution
2 Servo-controlled electric transverse feed
of material, optimises flash and saves 7 Water-cooled brake and
raw material when forging 3 asbestos-free brake pads
Crank-rocker drive mechanism
8 Clutch with asbestos-free pads
4 Eccentric mounting of the lower roll for
adjusting the distance between rolls 9 Flywheel with large energy reserve
5 Feeder device to position the workpiece 10 Automatic rocker arm

between the grippers of the manipulator

Pre-forming 2
Cross-wedge rolling is suitable for parts with a 1 Roll segments

circular cross-section and is used to distribute 2 Work rest
material in one production step. For simple
shafts it can be suitable for the production of 3 Machine frame
finished parts. 4 Electric motors

Ring rolling
Seamless rolled rings are

typical products of the
forging industry.
Ring rolling can produce

seamless rings with square
and rectangular cross
sections as well as rings with
internal and/or external
profiles.
The largest diameter which

can be produced today is
approx.
8 metres
Typical radial-axial ring rolling machine

Open-die forging I
Open-die forging is the oldest method of forging.

It is used for one-off workpieces, short production runs and for very heavy parts
1 3
4
5
Open-die forging press with underfloor-

mounted equipment and an integrated rail-
mounted manipulator
Automated open-die forging using underfloor-
mounted equipment with a freely movable 1 Forging press 4 Forging saddle
manipulator
2 Workpiece 5 Forging saddle
3 Manipulator

Open-die forging II
Longitudinal forging machine with four radially-arranged tools.
1
The arrangement of the tooling on a longitudinal
2
forging machine for high precision rotary swaging
of hollow parts with an optimized weight 3 4 5
1 Manipulator 4 Workpiece
2 Forging tools 5 Manipulator
3 Forging machine

Special forging processes
These special processes are Anvil plate Contact electrode Upper tool
largely used for the mass Hydraulic cylinder

production of families of similarly Workpiece
shaped parts Lower die
Workpiece
Electric upsetting Die rolling
Base tool Wobble bell Tool segment

Roll segment
Upper die Workpiece

Workpiece
Workpiece
Roll segment
Lower die Tool segment Tool segment

Base tool
Cross-rolling Wobble forging Swaging

Special process warm forging
Shaft for a tripod CV-joint manufactured

using a combination of warm forging
and cold sizing.
A drive shaft component manufactured using a

combination of warm forging and cold sizing.
As-forged part on the left, finished part on the right

Cold Forging
Definition:
Cold forging = no heating of the workpieces and/or forming starts at room temperature.
Most producing companies are medium-sized companies.
up to 49 employees
50 – 199 employees
200 – 399 employees
400 and more employees

Cold Forging
Cold forging Worldwide 2008 Cold forging Europe-wide 2008
450 North America

399 Europe
160 China 298 Germany
122 Japan 50 France

40 Russia 160 UK
25 Australia 122 Spain
17 India 19 Rest
Annual production in thousands of tons Annual production in thousands of tons
German share German share

Globally: 24.6% Europe-wide: 74.7%

Cold Forging
Advantages Difficulties
Near-net-shape forming Extensive treatment of the workpiece
Higher dimensional accuracy than with

Less degree of forming than with hot forming
forged parts
Very high degree of material utilisation Complex forms difficult to realise
No scaling Higher tool expenditure
High surface quality
High workpiece strength through strain hardening
Expedient grain flow as with hot forming
No heating necessary
Very suitable especially for large quantities

Cold Forging
Typical methods and special methods

Essential cold forming processes are:
Tapering, extruding, upsetting, thread rolling, and ironing
Forward extrusion Drawing Backward can extrusion Rotary swaging
movable roll jaw
fixed roll jaw
Raw material on which

thread is applied
Ironing Upsetting Thread rolling

Cold Forging
Exemplary parts
Gear shaft Drive junction Shaft housing (car tie Gearshift level
5000g (cardan shaft) |1000g rod) | 290g (PRINZ) | 209g
Steering fork Pinion Clutch wheel Dowel screw

(automotive) | 160g (acrument) | 137g (bicycle) | 18g (KAMAX) | 13g

Cold Forging
Special methods
Hot forging Cold forging

High formability High precision
Combination of hot and cold forming Pinion cage

Combination of hot and cold forming
Primary forming at high Part-conform finished sizes and

temperature allows high degrees surface qualities can be achieved
of forming in cold state
• The methods to be chosen depend on the process chain

• Criterion for an expedient combination: Mere cold forming would
require at least one process annealing step
Fixed joint
• Direct competition: hot forming and machining Combination of semi-hot and hot
forming

Cold Forging
Materials and machines Types of presses:

Drive type:
• Mechanical presses
• Hydraulic presses
• Servomotor presses
Number of steps:
Coil • Multi-step presses
www.asia.ru • Single-step presses
Processable types of materials:
Design: Hydraulic press
• Steel
• Horizontal
• Non-ferrous heavy metals
• Vertical
• Aluminium
• Stainless steel
Blank forming:
• Sections
• Coils
Tools of a multi-stage press

Classic cold forming material: www. zeller-gmelin.de
Preferably non-alloyed case hardening and tempering steels with a C-content
of max. 0.5 % (alloy shares at most 5%).

Cold Forging
Process chain
Forming mostly takes place

in several stages
Pre-treatment Annealing Coating Forming Post-processing
• Shearing • Lubricant carrier layer • Coating removal

• Blasting (e. g.: Zink phosphate) • Annealing
• Lubricant • Machining
(e. g.: soap, MoS2) • Thread rolling
• New lubricant systems

Cold Forging
Current trends and developments
• Function integration: Integration of additional functions in parts

• New, more solid materials
• Ready-to-fit parts
• Reducing the economic minimum quantity
• Phosphate-free forming / alternative lubricants

Processes prior to forging I
Depending on the hardness of the material, its cross-section and the cut-off rate required, various
cut-off systems are used for making blanks .
Sawing offers the Cold shearing has the Hot shearing is independent of
advantage of the greatest advantages of low material material hardness and is well
precision and the largest wastage and short cycle times. suited for integration into high
cross-sections, but has The disadvantage is that the speed automated forging lines.
higher material wastage, cross-sectional area is limited
longer cycle times and (to max. 150mm)
higher costs.

Processes prior to forging II
Inductive heating equipment
Inductive heating of cut-off blanks to a forging

temperature of approx. 1,250 C

Process stages in manufacture
Production stages of a
drop-forged crankshaft
form left to right:
- Steel blank
- Pre-formed blank
- Rough-forged part
- Finish-forged part
- Forging and trimmed
- flash
- Crankshaft
Lower rough forging die Lower finish forging die Trimming tool Trimming punch

Process steps after forging
Flash and piercing-slugs are Forging with flash Arm after

bending and
removed by trimming and hole- Trimming die Forging sizing
piercing.
Trimming punch
Arm before
Post-forging processes save bending
material and processing costs, Flash
reduce the dimensional variation
Forging Big and little
and make possible undercuts. ends in as forged
condition
Piercing punch
Big and
Forging with
little ends
inner flash
punched
to size Forging
Before
Piercing die
expanding
Forging
After
expanding
Forging
Internal flash
Trimming and piercing Subsequent forming (e.g.

bending, sizing, expanding)

Special process for post forming
The connecting rod big end is fractured in a defined way using a splitting wedge to give an exact fit –
this saves the sawing and milling operations. The individual fracture pattern is used to provide an exact
fit between the two surfaces.
The breaking (cracking) of the big end is carried The pair of cracked surfaces are unique and offer
out by applying pressure to a splitting wedge a high degree of fitting accuracy with relatively little
effort

Process combinations
The use of combinations of processes enables multi-axis forming to be carried out and thus complex
geometrical forms to be manufactured
Shock absorber Gear wheel with Carrying sleeve for a Trailer axle: drop-
lugs: drop-forged internal spline: warm- truck: drop-forged forged and welded;
and upset forged and cold-sized; and hot-extruded; light-weight design with
very high degree of multistage forming a combination of different
accuracy on the flanks materials
of the teeth

Tooling for forging
For open-die forging, saddles with various different working surfaces are used. Dies have the "negative"
form of the workpiece and can therefore only be used for specific forms
Lower dies
Flat saddle
Single-impression die Multiple-impression die Multi-stage die

Pointed saddle
Upper die Forging Movable
Die halves
Die-holder opened
Rounded saddle Movable

die halves Die-holder
closed
Ejector Lower die Ejector

Closed die Die with several closure lines
Open-die forging Drop-forging: typical types of die
Various forms of saddle

Toolroom: manufacture of dies and other tooling
The form of a die is produced either by spark-erosion or by high-speed milling. The surface of the
form is treated is various ways to improve its life (e.g. by grinding, polishing, nitriding and/or hard-
chrome plating ).
Milling of CAD design of

the electrode the form geometry
CNC milling
of the form
Spark-erosion Finishing of
of the die form the die form
Surface treatment
of the die form
Finished die
Diagram showing die manufacture The milling head of the high-speed milling
machine rotates at up to 40,000 rpm.

Heat treatment of forgings I
*Austenite formation and quenching Quenching

Normalising (N) and tempering (QT)
Heat-treatment from the forging heat Soft-annealing (A)

Ac3: temperature at which the transformation of ferrite into austenite on heating is completed
Ac1: temperature at which the formation of austenite on heating commences
RT: room temperature
Schematic representation of heat-treatment processes used for steel drop-forgings

Heat treatment of forgings II
Controlled cooling from the forging heat,

continuous cooling process
Controlled cooling from the forging heat (P),

isothermal transformation
left: diagram showing heat-treatment processes right: diagram showing the most important heat
for steel drop-forgings Treatment processes for aluminium drop-forgings

Surface treatment I
After forging the workpiece is descaled by shot-blasting. The shot size is between 0.8 and 2.8mm
Steel wire pellets (1,400 - 2,000 N/mm2)

or steel grit (45 - 50 HRC) are used as blasting media

Quality assurance for forged parts
The finished workpiece is checked dimensionally using a coordinate measurement machine. The
measurements are made either on a sample basis or 100% for safety critical parts (e.g. for aircraft
components).
The machine is calibrated using the yellow Diagram showing a quality control chart to
workpiece (the so-called setting gauge or demonstrate process stability
reference part).

Non-destructive materials testing I
Magnetic-resonance testing: the raw material is Magna-Flux process: ferromagnetic particles

excited by a magnetic field. Faults (resonances) align themselves preferentially along surface
show up on the VDU. faults.
The lower green zigzag line on the VDU When examined under UV light, the surface
indicates the fault faults become visible

Non-destructive materials testing II
In non-destructive testing of materials the component remains intact and can be used further. This
enables 100% testing to be carried out (e.g. for aircraft components)
Brinell hardness testing using Vickers hardness testing using a Rockwell hardness testing using
a sphere and measuring the pyramid and calculating the area a cone and measurement of the
diameter of indentation (10; 5; of indentation depth of indentation
2.5 and 1 mm)

Non-destructive materials testing III
Ultrasonic testing
This method is used for both magnetic and non-magnetic materials.
This material fault (chevron crack)

was caused by the material flow
being too rapid

Non-destructive materials testing IV
Ultrasonic testing VDU image

Non-destructive materials testing V
Dye-penetration testing (capillary process)
A special dye, which penetrates cracks, is applied to the workpiece. After rinsing and the subsequent
application of a developer, the cracks become visible. This process is used for testing non-magnetic
metals.

Destructive materials testing I
Destructive material testing for tensile strength and notch bar impact value is carried out on samples
taken from batches of parts. The test specimens are made from finished components.
Tensile testing Load-displacement diagram of a tensile

test

Destructive materials testing II
The notched bar impact test is a destructive test. The test specimen is machined out of the finished
component.
The notched test specimen has

dimensions of 10 x 10 x 50 mm
and is fractured by the pendulum
In the notched bar impact test a pendulum is swung

against the test specimen. The energy required (in
Joules) is proportional to the difference between the
heights of the pendulum H and h. This gives a
measure of the toughness of the material.

Machining of forged parts
High-speed steel (HSS), tungsten carbide (TC) and ceramics are all used to make cutting tools.
Cutting speed vc (m/min)

Turning Drilling
Cutting tool material f = 0,2 mm f = 0,4 mm Cutting tool material f = 0,02 x d
Hardness HB TC, uncoated 225 190 HSS, coated 25
TC, coated 290 230 TC, coated 90

190-220
ceramic 650 500
TC, uncoated 180 160 HSS, coated 18
220-250 TC, coated 250 190 TC, coated 70
ceramic 550 450
Milling cutter inserts Threads
Cutting tool material fz = 0,12 mm fz = 0,25 mm cutting tool material f = m (pitch)
190-220 TC, uncoated 300 250 HSS, coated 10
220-250 TC, coated 200 180 HSS, coated 8
Recommended cutting speeds for the machining of forgings

Forged components in competition
In comparison with its cast equivalent the forged full-floating axle shown here has superior material
properties and high process stability.
The costs were reduced markedly by The forged full-floating axle is cheaper,
incorporating a forged part does not need subsequent hardening
and tempering and has a reduced scrap
rate.

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing I
In car manufacture special properties are required, which can be achieved using hot-, warm- and cold-
forging or a combination of several manufacturing steps.
Steel and aluminium chassis Engine parts are mostly made of Gear-box parts made of steel -
components for car manufacture. hot-forged steel hot-forged and cold-sized

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing II
Improved accuracy and finer detail can be achieved using combinations of hot-, warm- and cold
forming processes.
Drive-train and axle parts: hot-, Gear-box shafts are often cold
warm- and cold-forged extruded

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing III
The high torques in the

2 1 2 gearboxes of today's diesel
engines can only be transmitted
by heavy duty forgings. The
components are cold- or hot-
forged or made using a
combination of processes.
1 Gear-wheels
3 2 Shafts
3 Parking lot
4
4 Planet-carrier
Section through a Mercedes-Benz 7G-Tronic automatic gearbox

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing IV
Forged parts meet high demands

for fatigue strength, lightweight
5 construction and cost-effective
manufacture
1 Axle pivot
2 Axle drive shaft
3 Control arm
4 Wheel carrier
1 2 3 4
5 Differential
Mercedes-Benz Car, powered rear axle
Back to directory >> 72

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing V
Suspensions have to meet the

1 2 3 criteria of driving dynamics, ride
comfort, component size, weight
and modularization (platform
systems).
1 Upper transverse control arm

2 Lower transverse control arm
3 Universal joint
4 Achszapfen
5 6 5 Left-hand wheel trunk
6 Right-hand wheel trunk
Mercedes-Benz Car, non-driven front axle

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VI
In vehicle
construction,
engineers are
looking for the
lightest
possible
designs. This
saves fuel and
CO2 emissions
and improves
comfort and
driving
dynamics.
This component, optimised using FEM methods, The low unsprung weight
Is made of aluminium increases sprung comfort

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VII
Kurbelwelle Pleuel
Four cylinder motor-cycle crank drive with

integrated forged gear-wheels to drive and
Suspension support, forged in aluminium Control the camshaft

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VIII
The valve drive has to withstand

extremely high accelerations and
1
temperatures. Forged components fulfil these
requirements.
1 Rocker arm
2 Push-rods - cold-formed parts
5
4
3 Valve bridge
4 Camshaft
5 Inlet and outlet valves
Four cylinder valve drive of a diesel engine

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VIII(a)
In very highly stressed areas

1 2 3 forged components improve
operating safety.
1 Mount of support
2 Differential
3 Leaf spring holder
4 Gear wheels in differential
5 Propeller shaft
4 5 6 7 6 Axle drive shaft
7 Planetary gears
Double floating axle with dual tyres on a truck.

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VIII(b)
In very highly stressed

1 areas forged
components improve
operating safety.
2
1 Differential
2 Leaf spring holder
3 Cardan shaft
4 3
4 Flange for
cardan shaft
Double floating axle with dual tyres on a truck.

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing IX
The individual components of

a cardan shaft have to transmit
high torques and be
maintenance-free at the
same time.
1 Flange
2 Cross pin
3 Joint fork
4 Hollow shaft
1 2 3 4 5
5 Butt-welded joint fork
Cardan shaft with universal joints

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing X
1 2 Forged components are ideal

for handling the extreme
mechanical and dynamic
loading on heavy construction
machinery.
1 Blade hinge
2 Cylinder eye
3 Scarifier tooth
4 Drive sprocket
7 6 5 4 3 5 Track guide
6 Track idlers
Bulldozer with scarifier Bulldozer 7 Track links
with scarifier
Drive-sprocket segment

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing XI
Forged components have a long life and

1 4
meet the high safety requirements of
rail vehicles.
2 5 On the left a wagon bogie.
3 6
8 1 Lower pivot bearing
9 2 Brake lever joint
7 3 Axle
10 4 Side bearer
3
5 Slack adjuster
1
6 Brake block slack adjuster
2
7 Brake lever
8 Bow girder
8
9 Brake block shoe
10 10 Wheel tyre

Use in pipe fittings
Valves are corrosion- and acid-

1 proof. They are used for liquid
and gaseous media.
2
3
4
9 Handwheel
1
5 2 Collar
3 Neck
6 4 Gland follower
5 Bonnet
7 6 Casing
8
7 Flanges
8 Seating ring
9 Eyebolt
Left: Valve for direct welding into a pipeline

Right: Valve with flanges for bolting

Use in aircraft manufacture
Alongside their use in jet 1

engines, forged components are
also used in highly-loaded areas
such as wings, rudders, control
surfaces and landing gear. 2 3
4 5
The four-engined Airbus A380 1 Low pressure compressor 2 High pressure turbine blades
puts its trust in forging technology 3 Bladed disks 4 Turbine shaft 5 Turbine

Use in wind turbines
1 8
1 Drive shaft
2 2 Generator
3 3 Planetary gearing
5 4 Blade adjustment. Rotor pitch
4 5 Disc brake
6 Connecting rings to steel tubular tower
7 Large roller bearing with azimuth

adjustment
8 Blanks for gear-wheels, rolling and

6 plain bearings
View into the nacelle of a modern wind energy plant

Diversity in forging technology
With the assistance

of various forging and
forming processes such
as hot-, warm- and cold
forging and their
combinations, a large
range and diversity of
specialized components
can be manufactured –
with piece weights
ranging from a few
grams up to several
tonnes in the case of
open-die forging.
97 percent of forged and formed parts are made of steel, but also aluminium and
titanium as well as such non-ferrous metals as copper, brass and nickel alloys.

Optimization of components
FEM programs
(finite element methods)
offer the possibility of
optimizing weight and
geometry right at the
design stage.
The illustration shows a steering arm with a generated FEM lattice grid

Development chain I
Design, toolmaking and production

are closely associated with each other
to fulfil the customer's requirements.
production/ machining
specifications/ loadcases
process development
part development
part optimisation
A rear wheel carrier passes computer-aided through the stations

above on its way from the specification through to production.
Development chain II
Design, toolmaking and production are closely associated with each other to fulfil the customer's
requirements.
Example: the customer gives the installation space and the required properties for an aluminium front wheel
swing bearing for a car. From this a first model is made and from this the forging design is developed.

Development chain III
With the aid of design software (e.g. Catia, UG), the forging design is discretised according to the
limiting stresses.

Development chain IV
Linear-elastic FEM-simulation showing the stresses in the component.

Simulation I
Simulation requires high-performance hardware

for the very rapid calculation of the finite element
simulation with the aid of a cluster.
Cluster of nine
processor computers
and one control
computer

Simulation II
Using the material flow simulation, designers can already see in advance whether the material
distributes itself optimally during the forging process.
Visible fault caused by lack of material or an Visible lap caused by a fault in the form in the
unsuitable die-form previous operation(s)

Simulation III
The material flow simulation enables designers to view the forging process and possible faults in
the developed tooling.
Yoke during the forging operation
Gear shaft

Simulation IV
In addition, the tooling stress can be simulated in advance.

The coloured gradation shows the relative or equivalent stress.

Sources of illustrations and information
We would like to thank the following companies for their great help in providing illustrations
and technical information:
Acument Global Technologies, Inc. Lasco Umformtechnik GmbH
BMW AG Mahle Brockhaus GmbH
Bombardier AG Müller-Weingarten AG
BPW AG Pratt & Whitney
Buderus Edelstahlwerke- Presswerk Krefeld GmbH & Co. KG
Schmiedetechnik GmbH Prinz Verbindungselemente GmbH
Caterpillar AG Räuchle GmbH + Co. KG
CDP Bharat Forge GmbH Schubert Maschinen und Anlagen GmbH
Dango & Dienenthal GmbH Schuler Group
Daimler AG Siepmann Persta GmbH
FEMUTEC / simufact engineering GmbH SITEMA GmbH & Co. KG
GKN GmbH SMS Group
Hatebur AG ThyssenKrupp Gerlach GmbH
Hammerwerk Fridingen GmbH ThyssenKrupp Presta AG
Hirschvogel Automotive Group Volkswagen AG
Kamax-Werke Zeller + Gmelin GmbH & Co. KG
Karl Diederichs KG
Copyright 2011. All shown images, photos and texts are copyrighted. Partial reproduction of any contents
only permitted by referencing the source.
Infostelle Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V., Goldene Pforte 1, 58093 Hagen, Deutschland.
Our website: www.metalform.de
Imprint
Editor VAT-no.: DE 125 127 673

Infostelle Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V. Print-no. BW-411
Printed in Germany
Editorial office and responsible for production:
Infostelle Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V. ISBN: 978-3-923726-26-9
Manuscript The presentation is copyrighted. Partial reproduction of

Ing. Horst Apholt any contents only permitted by referencing the source.
The publications of the Infostelle Industrieverband
Layout Massivumformung e. V. are based on the group research
Peter Kanthak of the companies affiliated under the Industrieverband
Freelance designer, Wickede Massivumformung e. V. organisation.
Publisher Image sources:

Infostelle Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V. The following companies have supported this
Goldene Pforte 1 presentation by providing source material:
58093 Hagen
Germany
Phone: +49 23 31 9588-30
Fax: +49 23 31 9587-30
E-mail: orders@metalform.de
Website: http://www.metalform.de

Bibliography
Historical development Layout of forgings
Pischel, H.: DIN 7523:

Geschichte des Massiv- und Blechumformens. Schmiedestücke aus Stahl;
• Teil 2_09.86: Bearbeitungszugaben, Seitenschrägen,
Krefeld: K. Dannat 1987
Kantenrundungen, Hohlkehlen, Bodendicken, Wanddicken,
Rippenbreiten und Rippenkopfradien
Sonnenschein, F.H.:
Die Technikgeschichte des Schmiedens. DIN 7527:
Technische Kulturdenkmale 14 (1985) S. 12/17 Schmiedestücke aus Stahl;
• Teil 1_10.71: Bearbeitungszugaben und zulässige Abweichungen
v. Wedel, E.: für freiformgeschmiedete Scheiben
Die Geschichtliche Entwicklung des Umformens in Gesenken. • Teil 2_10.71: Bearbeitungszugaben und zulässige Abweichungen
Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag 1960 für freiformgeschmiedete Lochscheiben
für nahtlos freiformgeschmiedete Ringe
Branch overview
für nahtlos freiformgeschmiedete Buchsen
Vieregge, K.: für freiformgeschmiedete, gerollte und geschweißte Ringe
Gesenkschmieden in Deutschland – im Zeichen des Wandels. • Teil 6_02.75: Bearbeitungszugaben und zulässige Abweichungen
Umformtechnik 27 (1993) 3 für freiformgeschmiedete Stäbe
Voigtländer, O.:
Perspektiven der Massivumformung in den 90er Jahren.
Werkstatt und Betrieb 121 (1988) 7. S. 561/567

Bibliography
DIN EN 10 243: Production of forgings

Gesenkschmiedeteile aus Stahl
• Teil 1_12.95: Warm hergestellt in Hämmern und Pressen Dahme, M. und Hirschvogel, M:
Maßtoleranzen Deutsche Fassung EN10 243-2: 1995 Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Kalt-, Halbwarm- und
Warmumformung. Werkstatt u. Betrieb 124 (1991), S. 865/868
DIN 17 864:
02.93: Schmiedestücke aus Titan und Titan-Knetlegierung Düser, R.:
(Freiform- und Gesenkschmiedestücke) Gesenkwalzen – Ein Maximum an Präzision bei einem Minimum an
Material- und Energieeinsatz. Umformtechnik 26 (1992) 1, S. 33/40
DIN Normenheft 7:
Anwendung der Normen über Form- und Lagetoleranzen in der
Praxis.
4. Auflage Berlin und Köln; Beuth-Verlag 1987
Breuer, H.-W.:
Gestaltung beanspruchungs- und fertigungsgerechter
Schmiedeteile.
Konstruktion 43 (1991) S.285/291
Dahme, M. u.a.:
Gemeinschaftliche CAD/CAM- Entwicklungen: Basis für
Simultaneous Engineering.
Schmiede-Journal (1995) September S. 17/18

Bibliography
Elsinghorst, <<D.: Lange, K. und Meyer-Nolkemper, H.:

Neues Maschinenkonzept: Präzisions-Schmiedehammer. Gesenkschmieden 2. Auflage Berlin, Heidelberg New York:
Schmiede-Journal (1997) September, S.26/28 Springer-Verlag 1977
Groene, S.: Lange, K. (Hrsg.):

Axiales Gesenkwalzen – ein Verfahren der Warmformgebung zur Umformtechnik Bd. 2, Massivumformung. Berlin, Heidelberg,
Herstellung von rotationssymetrischen Schmiedeteilen für die New York: Springer-Verlag 1988
Kraftfahrzeugindustrie, Thyssen Techn. Ber. 18 (1986) 2, S.
353/360 Metals Handbook:
Vol. 14, Forming and Forging 9. Ed. Metals Park
Jung, H.: (Ohio): American Soc. for Metals 1988
Erhöhung der Fertigungsgenauigkeit nach dem Schmiedeprozess
durch Warm- und Kaltprägen, VDI-Z 133 (1991) 11, S. 49/56 Schiller, w.:
Wirtschaftliches Fertigen durch gratloses Schmieden – Kostenvorteile,
König, W. und Klocke, F.: Industrie-Anzeiger 110 (1988) 5, S. 34/36
Fertigungsverfahren Bd. 4 Massivumformung Düsseldorf
VDI-Verlag 1995 Schuler GmbH (Hrsg.):
Handbuch der Umformtechnik. Berlin, Heidelberg:
König, W. und Klocke, F.: Springer-Verlag 1996
Fertigungsverfahren 4 - Umformen
Springer-Verlag 2006 Vogt, H.–J.:
Gesenkschmieden und Schweißen. Der Konstrukteur 10 (1979) 11,
Körner. E. u.a.: S. 41/51
Möglichkeiten des HW-Fließpressens in Kombination mit dem
Kaltfließpressen. Symposium „ Neuere Entwicklungen in der Material properties
Massivumformung“ 28./29.05.91 Fellbach.
DIN-Taschenbuch 218:
Wärmebehandlung metallischer Werkstoffe, Normen. 2. Auflage
Berlin und Köln: Beuth-Verlag 1989

Bibliography
DIN-Taschenbuch 401: Herbertz, R.:

Stahl und Eisen; Gütenormen 1, Allgemeine Normen, Berlin, Wien, Qualitätssicherung für den Schmiedeprozess. In: Ber. Aus Forsch.
Zürich: Beuth-Verlag 1993 und Entwicklung,
Hagen: Industrieverband Deutscher Schmieden e.V. (Hrsg.) 1992
Stahleisen-Liste (Hrsg. VDEh):
9. Auflage Düsseldorf: Verlag Stahleisen 1994 Mäscher, G. und Schmidt, J.:
Schmiedeteile aus AFP-Stählen. Erfahrungen bei der Anwendung
Stahlschlüssel: in Kraftfahrzeugen. VDI-Z 133 (1991) 4, S. 124/131
18. Auflage Düsseldorf: Verlag Stahleisen 1998
Masing, W. (Hrsg.):
Bräuer, G.: Handbuch Qualitätsmanagement. 3. Auflage
Die Qualität von Schmiedeteilen sichern. VDI-Z 132 (1990) München: Carl Hanser Verlag 1994
4, S. 125/128
Schüle, W. und Huchtemann, B:
Broszeit, E. und Steindorf, H.: Entwicklungsstand der ausscheidungshärtenden
Mechanische Oberflächenbehandlung, Festwalzen, Kugelstrahlen, ferritischperlitischen (AFP-)Stähle mit Vandium-Zusatz für eine
Sonderverfahren. geregelte Abkühlung von der Warmformgebungs-Temperatur.
Oberursel: DGM Informationsgesellschaft 1989 VDI-Ber. Nr. 774, Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag 1989
Grubisic, V. und Sonsino C.M.: Spitzer, H.:

Einflußgrößen der Betriebsfestigkeit geschmiedeter Bauteile. Maschinenbaustähle-Entwicklungstendenzen und Normung.
VDI-Z 134 (1992) 11, S. 105/112 Umformtechnik 27 (1993) 1, S. 39/45
Harms, w.: Sonsino, C.M. und Kaufmann:

Qualitätssicherung für den Schmiedebetrieb umfasst die ganze Einflüsse auf die Schwingfestigkeit von Gesenkschmiedeteilen.
Fertigung vom Entwurf bis zum Versand. Maschinenmarkt 97 VDI-Z 133 (1991) 4, S. 131/143
(1991) 25 S. 32/35

Bibliography
Winkler, H.: Breuer, H.-W.:

Wirtschaftliches Spanen von Schmiedeteilen in der Praxis. Weiterentwicklung von Achsschenkel für Nutzfahrzeuge.
Hagen: Informationsstelle Schmiedestück Verwendung Schmiede-Journal (1995) März, S. 18/19
1988
Jung, H.:
N.N.: Gesenkschmiedestücke für Bergbaumaschinen.
Moderne Methoden der Qualitätssicherung in der Bergbau 32 (1981) 6, S. 312/318
Umformtechnik.
Umformtechnik 24 (1991) 4, S.69/76 Jung, H.:
Gesenkschmiedestücke für Getriebe und Kupplungen.
N.N.:
VDI-Z 123 (1981) 11, S. 584/588
Praktische Wärmebehandlung. 2. Auflage Hagen: Industrieverband
Deutscher Schmieden e.V. (Hrsg.) 1997
Schmieder, F. und Kettner, P.:
Fertigung von Getriebe-Hohlwellen durch Massivumformung.
Examples of application of forgings Konstruktion 48 (1996) S. 402/406
Adolf, W.W.: Westerkamper, Ch. und Weißmann, G:

Entwicklungen bei Getriebewellen für Fahrzeuge. Präzisionsumformung – eine Schlüsseltechnologie für die
Schmiede-Journal (1995) März, S. 15/17 Antriebstechnik. VDI-Z 9 (1997) S. 72/74
Adolf, W.W.: N.N.:

Kurbelwellen für Straßenfahrzeug-Motoren. Schmiedestücke im Maschinen- und Anlagebau.
Schmiede-Journal (1994) März, S. 13/16 Hagen: Informationsstelle Schmiedestück Verwendung 1981

Annex
Manufactures of hot and cold forgings

The actual delivery facilities of the member companies within the Industrieverband
Massivumformung e. V. you can find in our six different manufacturer lists (Drop-forged
parts, upset forged parts, hot extruded parts, cold extruded parts, open-die forged parts,
rolled rings).
The manufacturer lists can be downloaded free of charge (pdf data) on the internet:
www.metalform.de


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Introduction

Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application 1

Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application 2

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Forging is one of mankind's

In 4000 BC metals were already

The first copper-alloys appeared

Sketch from the pictures in the grave of Rechmiré, vizir in the

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Between 700 and 500 BC iron

The smelting of the iron ore and

Mediaeval smelting furnace with accompanying smithy. The furnace

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The development of drop forging

- increasing batch sizes for the

- further development of and

- new technologies for tool

- development of new machine

View of a production facility with a linked automated forging line

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Production of forgings in 2010

Manufacturing group Production in '000 tonnes Proportion in %

Drop forging industry 1280 65

Flange manufacturers 68 3,5

Pipe-fittings producers 95 4,8

Cold-forging manufacturers 175 8,9

Open-die forgers 350 17,8

Total forging production 1968 100

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Percentages of steel forged parts delivered in 2009, in tonnes.

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Steel group Standard Application

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Medical components Front-wheel swing Heat-resistant turbine Connecting rods for

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Four cylinder crankshaft with counterweights

Optimal grain-flow increases the dynamic strength of the component

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The required quantities

Dependence of the costs of forgings and of finished parts on the quantity

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= Achievable with conventional production equipment Precision forged pair of bevel

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The tolerances that are technically possible for

• the position of the dimension; thickness

• the complexity of the forging; here a

• the weight and size of the forging

• ease-of-forging, depending on the type of

The calculation of tolerances is laid down in

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Five main methods are used Gripper jaws

in forging: Upper die Upsetting punch

Extrusion Ejector Open-die forging Ring rolling

All hot-forming processes take place at around 1,200C

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Three main types

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energy-dependant press-force-dependant machine-stroke-dependant