PE-4030

Chapter 2/a

Professor Charlton S. Inao

Defence University
College of Engineering
Bishoftu, Ethiopia
 Sensors

Sensor
Sensor isis aa device
device that
that produces
produces anan output
output signal
signal
for
for the
the purpose
purpose of
of sensing
sensing of
of aa physical
physical
phenomenon
phenomenon

Sensor
Sensor isis used
used for
for an
an input
input device
device that
that provides
provides aa
usable
usable output
output in
in response
response toto aa specified
specified physical
physical
input.
input. For
For example,
example, aa thermocouple
thermocouple isis aa sensor
sensor that
that
converts
converts aa temperature
temperature difference
difference into
into an
an electrical
electrical
output.
output.
 Transducer

The
The term
term transducer
transducer isis generally
generally
used
used to to refer
refer toto aa device
device that
that
converts
converts aa signal
signal from
from one
one form
form to
to
aa different
different physical
physical form.
form. Thus
Thus
sensors
sensors are
are often
often transducers,
transducers, but
but
also
also other
other devices
devices can can be be
transducers,
transducers, such
such asas aa motor
motor that
that
converts
converts an an electrical
electrical input
input into
into
rotation
rotation
 Transducers
Transducer
Transducer isis often
often used
used in
in place
place of
of the
the term
term
sensor.
sensor. They
They are
are elements
elements that
that when
when subject
subject to
to
some
some physical
physical change
change experience
experience aa related
related
change.
change.

Sensors
Sensors are
are transducers.
transducers.

AA measurement
measurement may may use
use transducers,
transducers, inin addition
addition
to
to the
the sensor,
sensor, in in other
other parts
parts ofof the
the system
system toto
convert
convert signals
signals in
in one
one form
form to
to another
another form.
form.
 Transducers
AA transducer
transducer isis aa device
device that
that converts
converts one
one type
type of
of
energy
energy to
to another.
another. Energy
Energy types
types include
include (but
(but are
are not
not
limited
limited to)
to) electrical,
electrical, mechanical,
mechanical, electromagnetic
electromagnetic
(including
(including light),
light), chemical,
chemical, acoustic
acoustic or
or thermal
thermal energy.
energy.

While
While the
the term
term transducer
transducer commonly
commonly implies
implies the
the use
use of
of
aa sensor/detector,
sensor/detector, any
any device
device which
which converts
converts energy
energy can
can
be
be considered
considered aa transducer.
transducer. Transducers
Transducers are
are widely
widely used
used
in
in measuring
measuring instruments.
instruments.

Transduce
Transduce means
means converts.
converts.
Transducers
 Quality
Quality Parameters
Parameters of
of an
an
Instrumentation
Instrumentation System
System
Sensitivity
Resolution
Accuracy
Precision
Repeatability/Reproducibility
Linearity
 Terminologies
Signal Conditioning - a front-end
preprocessing, which generally includes
functions such as signal amplification, filtering,
electrical isolation, and multiplexing.
In addition, many transducers require
excitation currents or voltages, bridge
completion, linearization, or high
amplification for proper and accurate
operation.
 Signal Conditioning Devices
Charge amplifiers, lock-in amplifiers, power
amplifiers, switching amplifiers, linear
amplifiers, tracking filters, low-pass filters,
high-pass filters, and notch filters are some of
the signal-conditioning devices used in
mechatronic systems.
• Range- it is the limits between which the
input can vary. eg – load cell for the
measurement of forces might have a range of
0-50 kN.
• Error- the difference between the result of
the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured.
Error= measured value- true value
 Terminology
• Accuracy- is the extent to which the value
indicated by a measurement system might be
wrong. It is the summation of all possible errors
that are likely to occur, as well as the accuracy to
which the transducer has been calibrated.
• Accuracy is often expressed as the full range
output or full scale deflection. Eg. A sensor might
be specified as having an accuracy of +
5% of full range output. Given: Temp Range 0-
200 deg Centigrade. Reading could be within +or
-10 deg centigrade of the true reading.
• Sensitivity- the sensitivity is the relationship
indicating how much output you get per unit
input, ie. Output/input.
Example: A resistance thermometer may have
sensitivity of 0.5 ohms/deg Centigrade.
-A transducer for the measurement of pressure
might be quoted as having a temperature
sensitivity of + 0.1% of the reading per degree
Centigrade change in temperature.
 Sensitivity
Sensitivity isis the the ability
ability of
of the
the measuring
measuring instrument
instrument
toto respond
respond toto changes
changes in in the
the measured
measured quantity.
quantity.
ItIt isis also
also the
the ration
ration of
of the
the change
change ofof output
output to
to change
change
of
of input.
input.

• The sensitivity is defined as the ratio between

output signal and measured property. For
example, if a sensor measures temperature
and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a
constant with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is
linear because the ratio is constant at all
points of measurement.
• Hysteresis error- Transducers can give
different outputs from the same value of
quantity being measured according to
whether that value has been reached by a
continuously increasing change or a
continuously decreasing change. The
hysteresis error is the maximum difference in
output for increasing and decreasing values.
 Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is an error
caused by when the
measured property reverses
direction, but there is some
finite lag in time for the
sensor to respond, creating
a different offset error in
one direction than in the
other.

Hysteresis Error
Nonlinearity and hysteresis
• The error of a measurement is the difference between the result of
the measurement and the true value of the quantity being
measured.
• Nonlinearity error is used to describe the error that occurs as a
result of assuming a linear relationship between the input and
output over the working range, that is, a graph of output plotted
against input is assumed to give a straight line.

• Non linearity error- The error associated in the deviation from

linearity between the input and the output. The error is quoted as
the percentage of the full range output.
• Three methods: 1) Draw the straight line joining the output values
at the end points of the range 2) Find the straight line by using the
method of least squares to determine the best fit line. 3) Find the
straight line by using the method of least squares to determine the
best fit line which passes through zero point.
Non Linearity Error
• Repeatability- The repeatabiity of the transducer is its
ability to give the same output for repeated
applications of the same input value. Example:
Angular velocity => repeatability + 0.01% of the full
range at a particular angular velocity.
• Reproducibility- the ability to give the same output
when used to measure a constant and is measured on
a number of occasions.
• Between the measurements the transducer is
disconnected and reinstalled. The error is usually
expressed as a percentage of the full range output.
• Stability- The stability of a transducer is its
ability to give the same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period of
time. The term drift is often used to describe
the change in output that occurs over time.
• The drift may be expressed a s a percentage of
the full range output.
• The term zero drift is used for the changes
that occur in output when there is zero input.
• Deadband- the deadband or dead space of a
transducer is the range of input values for
which there is no output. For example bearing
friction in a flowmeter using a rotor might
mean that there is no output until the input
has reached a particular velocity threshold.
• Resolution- The resolution of a sensor is the
smallest change it can detect in the quantity that
it is measuring.
• Often in a digital display, the least significant digit
will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that
magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution
is related to the precision with which the
measurement is made.
• For example, a scanning tunneling probe (a fine
tip near a surface collects an electron tunnelling
current) can resolve atoms and molecules.
Example: Strain Gauge Transducer

•Thermal Sensitivity :0.03 % full range output /deg Centigrade

 Interpretation for Strain Gauge
Transducer Specs
• The range indicates that the transducer can be
used to measure pressures between 70 and
1000 kPa or 2000 and 70000kPa.
• It requires a supply of 10 Vdc or ac rms for its
operation
• It will give an output of 40mV when the
pressure on the lower range is 1000 kPa and
on the upper range of 70 000kPa
 Interpretation for Strain Gauge
Transducer Specs
• Nonlinearity and hysteresis will lead to errors of +
.5% of 1000, i.e + 5kPa on the lower range and +
.5% of 70 000 , that is i.e + 350kPa on the upper
range.
• The transducer can be used between the
temperature range -54 deg C and +120 deg C.
• When the temperature changes by 1 deg C the
output of the transducer for zero input will
change by 0.03% of 1000=0.3kPa on the lower
range and 0.03% of 70 000=21 kPa on the upper
range.
 Interpretation for Strain Gauge
Transducer Specs
• When the temperature changes by 1deg C,
the sensitivity of the transducer will change by
0.3 kPa on the lower range and 21kPa on the
upper range.
• This means that readings will change by these
amounts when such temperature change
occurs.
 Example : MX100AP Pressure Sensor
Specs
• Supply voltage: 3 V (6 V max)
• Supply current: 6 mA
• Full-scale span: 60 mV
• Range: 0 to 100 kPa
• Sensitivity: 0.6 mV/kPa
• Nonlinearity error: 0.05% of full
range
• Temperature hysteresis: 0.5% of full
scale
• Input resistance: 400 to 550 O
• Response time: 1 ms (10% to 90%)
Displacement,
Displacement, Position
Position and
and Proximity
Proximity Sensors
Sensors
 Displacement/Position Sensors
The term position sensor is used for a sensor
that gives a measure of the distance
between a reference point and the current
location of the target, while a displacement
sensor gives a measure of the distance
between the present position of the target
and the previously recorded position.
 POSITION SENSORS
Types of Position Sensors

Every commonly applied position sensing technology has its own

characteristic benefits and limitations. some of these technologies provide a
better fit than others in different applications. The goal is to find the most
cost-effective solution for the performance parameters that are important in
your specific application and environment.

The types of position sensors include:

■ Contact devices
• Limit switches
• Resistive position transducers

■ Non-contact devices
• Magnetic sensors, including Hall effect and magneto-resistive sensors
• Ultrasonic sensors
• Proximity sensors
• Photoelectric sensors
CONTACT
CONTACT TYPE
TYPE
Limit Switches
Limit switches are electromechanical contact
devices. Easy to understand and apply,
they are the cost-effective switches of choice for
detecting objects that can be touched. These
rugged, dependable switches are offered in a
variety of sizes with different seals,
enclosures, actuators, circuitries and electrical
ratings.
 Various limit switches provide years of reliable
operation even in the most demanding
environmental conditions. They are appropriate for:
■ Material handling
■ Breweries
■ Packaging machinery
■ Wood products
■ Special machinery
■ Garbage compactors/trucks
■ Valves
■ Foundry equipment
Resistive Position Sensors
Resistive position sensors, also called potentiometers or simply position
transducers, were originally developed for military applications.
They were widely used as pane lmounted adjustment knobs on radios and
televisions in the years before pushbuttons and remote controls.
 Today, potentiometers are most commonly found in industrial applications
that range from forklift throttles to machine slide sensing.
Potentiometers are passive devices, meaning they require no power supply
or additional circuitry to perform their basic linear or rotary position sensing
function.
They are typically operated in one of two basic modes: rheostat and voltage
divider (true potentiometric operation).
As resistance varies with motion, rheostat applications make use of the
varying resistance between a fixed terminal and the sliding contact wiper.
 In voltage divider applications, a reference voltage signal is applied across
the resistive element track so that the voltage “picked up” by the movable
contact wiper can be used to determine the wiper’s position.
NON-CONTACT TYPE
Applications
Ultrasonic Position Sensors
Application
Proximity Sensors
Capacitive Sensors
Inductive Sensors
 Position Sensors
• Two Groups
– Linear
– Angular
 Linear displacement sensors might be used to
monitor the thickness or other dimensions of
sheet materials, separation of rollers, the position
or presence of a part, the size of a part.
 Angular displacement methods might be used to
monitor the angular displacement of shafts.
Application: Location and position of
object on a conveyor
• Displacement Sensors
– Potentiometer
– Strain Gauge element
– Capacitive Element
– Differential Transformer
– Optical Encoders
• Absolute
• Incremental
 Potentiometer
• A potentiometer
consists of a resistance
element with a sliding
contact which can be
moved over the length
of the element. Such
element can be used for
linear or rotary
displacements.
Potentiometer
 Strain Gauge
• The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire,
metal foil strip, or a strip of semiconductor material
which is waferlike and can be stuck into surfaces like a
postage stamp.
• When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the
fractional change in resistance delta R/R being
proportional to the strain E, that is delta R/R=G E
Where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed a s
the gauged factor. The resistance change of a strain
gauge is a measurement of the change in length of the
element to which the strain gauge is attached
Example:
Example: An An electrical
electrical resistance
resistance ofof
100
100 ohms
ohms and
and aa gauge
gauge factorfactor of
of 2.0.
2.0.
What
What isis the
the change
change of of resistance
resistance ΔR ΔR of
of
the
the gauge
gauge when
when itit isis subject
subject to
to aa strain
strain
of
of 0.001.
0.001.

Answer=Fractional
Answer=Fractional Change
Change in
in R=
R= GG xx
strain
strain xx R=2.0X0.001x100=0.2
R=2.0X0.001x100=0.2 ohms
ohms
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer.
Linear variable differential transformer is a mechanical displacement
transducer.
It gives an a.c. voltage output proportional to the distance of the transformer
core to the windings. The LVDT is a mutual-inductance device with three
coils and a core An external a.c. power source energizes the central coil
and the two- identical secondary coils connected in seriesin such a way
that their outputs oppose each other.
The net result is zero output.
A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of
displacement being monitored. However when the core is displaced from
the central position there is a greater amount of magnetic core in one coil
than the other. A greater displacement means even more core in one coil
than the other, the output, the difference between the emf increases, the
greater the displacement being monitored.
 LVDT

A greater displacement means even more core in one coil than the
other, the output, the difference between the emf increases, the
greater the displacement being monitored.
LVDT
 Optical Encoder
• An encoder is a device that provides digital
output as a result of linear and angular
displacement. Position encoders are of two
types: Incremental and absolute. Incremental
encoders detect changes in rotation from
some datum while the absolute encoders give
the actual angular position.
Incremental Absolute
encoder encoder
Optical Encoder
Optical Encoder
 1.2 Proximity Sensors
Proximity switches are used to detect the presence of an item without making
contact with it.

Proximity Sensors
-eddy
-reed
-capacitive
-inductive

There are a number of forms of such switches, some being suitable only for metallic
objects.
The eddy current type of proximity switch has a coil that is energized by a constant
alternating current and produces a constant alternating magnetic field. When a
metallic object
is close to it, eddy currents are induced in it .
Proximity Sensors
Photoelectric Sensors
 Capacitive
A proximity switch that can be used with metallic
and nonmetallic objects is the capacitive
proximity switch. The capacitance of a pair of
plates separated by some distance depends
onthe separation; the smaller the separation, the
higher the capacitance. The sensor of ecapacitive
proximity switch is just one of the plates of the
capacitor, the other plate being themetal object
for which the proximity is to be detected Thus
the proximity of the object is detected by a
change in capacitance.
 Inductive
• The inductive proximity switch, consists of a coil wound a
round a ferrous metallic core. When one end of this core is
placed near a ferrous metal object, there is effectively a
change in the amount of metallic core associated with the
coil and so a change in its inductance.
• This change can be monitored using a resonant circuit, the
presence of the ferrous metal object thus changing the
current in that circuit.
• The current can be used to activate an electronic switch
circuit and so create an on/off device. The range over
which such objects can be detected is typically about 2 mm
to 15 mm. An example of the use of such a sensor is to
detect whether bottles passing along a conveyor belt have
metal caps on.
 Velocity and
Motion Sensors
Example Velocity Sensor Specs
 Velocity Sensor
• Incremental Encoder-This can be used for measuring
angular velocity, number of pulses produced per
second being determined.
• Tachogenerator -Used to measure angular velocity. It
is essentially a small electric generator, consisting of
coil mounted in magnetic field .when the coil rotates
an alternating emf is induced in the coil, the size of the
maximum emf being a measure of the angular velocity.
when used with a commutator a dc output can be
aobtained which is a measure of the angular velocity.
 Motion Sensor
By motion, we mean the four kinematic variables:
• Displacement (including position, distance, proximity,
and size or gage)
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Jerk
Note that each variable is the time derivative
of the preceding one. Motion measurements are
extremely useful in controlling mechanical
responses and interactions in mechatronic
systems.
The rotating speed of a work piece and the feed rate of
a tool are measured in controlling machining
operations.
Displacements and speeds (both angular and
translatory) at joints (revolute and prismatic) of
robotic manipulators or kinematic linkages are used
in controlling manipulator trajectory In high-speed
ground transit vehicles, acceleration and jerk
measurements can be used for active suspension
control to obtain improved ride
quality.
• Angular speed is a crucial measurement that is used in the control
of rotating machinery, such as turbines, pumps, compressors,
motors, and generators in power-generating plants. Proximity
sensors (to measure displacement) and accelerometers (to
measure acceleration) are the two most common types of
measuring devices used in machine protection systems for
condition monitoring, fault detection, diagnostic, and on-line (often
real-time) control of large and complex machinery .
• The accelerometer is often the only measuring device used in
controlling dynamic test rigs.
• Displacement measurements are used for valve control in process
applications. Plate thickness (or gage) is continuously monitored by
the automatic gage control (AGC) system in steel rolling mills.
 Force and
Fluid Pressure
Sensors
 Force, Load and Weight Sensors
• While other technologies exist, the most
commonly used sensors are generally based
on either piezoelectric quartz crystal or
strain gage sensing elements
• Force: The measurement of the interaction
between bodies.
• Load: The measurement of the force exerted
on a body.
• Weight: The measurement of gravitational
forces acting on a body.
 Quartz Sensors
• Technology Fundamentals

Quartz
Quartz force
force sensors
sensors areare ideally
ideally designed
designed and
and
suited
suited forfor the
the measurement
measurement of of dynamic
dynamic
oscillating
oscillating forces,
forces, impact,
impact, or or high
high speed
speed
compression/tension
compression/tension forces.forces. The
The basic
basic design
design
utilizes
utilizes the
the piezoelectric
piezoelectric principle,
principle, where
where
applied
applied mechanical
mechanical stresses
stresses are
are converted
converted
into
into an
an electrostatic
electrostatic charge
charge that
that accumulates
accumulates
on
on the
the surface
surface ofof the
the crystal.
crystal.
The
The quartz
quartz crystals
crystals of of aa
piezoelectric
piezoelectric force
force sensor
sensor
generate
generatean anelectrostatic
electrostatic
charge
charge only
only when
when force
force isis
applied
applied to to or or removed
removed
from
fromthem.
them.In Inother
otherwords,
words,
ifif you
you apply
apply aa static
static force
force
totoaapiezoelectric
piezoelectricforce
force
sensor,
sensor, thethe electrostatic
electrostatic
charge
charge output
output initially
initially
generated
generated will will eventually
eventually
leak
leak away
away and
and thethe sensor
sensor
output
output ultimately
ultimately will will
return
returnto tozero.
zero.
 Discharge Time Constant (DTC).
the
thecharge
chargesignal
signaldecays
decaysaccording
accordingto
tothe
the
equation:
equation:

qq==Qe
Qe–t/RC
–t/RC

where:
where:
qq==instantaneous
instantaneouscharge
charge(Coulomb)
(Coulomb)
QQ==initial
initialquantity
quantityof
ofcharge
charge(Coulomb)
(Coulomb)
RR==resistance
resistanceprior
priorto
toamplifier
amplifier(ohm)
(ohm)
CC==total
totalcapacitance
capacitanceprior
priorto
toamplifier
amplifier(Farad)
(Farad)
ee==base
baseof ofnatural
naturallog
log(2.718)
(2.718)
tt==time
timeelapsed
elapsedafter
aftertime
timezero
zero(Second)
(Second)
 Piezoelectric Force Sensor
Construction
The basic mechanical construction of general purpose quartz forces sensors consist
of thin quartz discs that are “sandwiched” between upper and lower base plates. A
relatively elastic, beryllium-copper stud (or sometimes a sleeve) holds the upper and
lower plates together and preloads the crystals. Preloading of the crystals is required
to assure that the upper and lower plates are in intimate contact with the quartz
crystals, ensuring good linearity and the capability for tension as well as compression
measurements. This “sensing element” configuration is then packaged into a rigid,
stainless steel housing and welded to provide hermetic sealing of the internal
components against contamination. The Figure depicts the
typical construction of a general-purpose quartz force sensor.
Type of Piezoelectric Force Sensor
 Applicable Standards

The basic design of quartz-based force sensors is

not governed by a specific standard.
However, applicable standards do exist for
calibration and certification. Most
manufacturers comply or conform to
standards such as ISO 10012-1 (former MIL–
STD-45662A), ISO 9001 and ISO/IEC 17025.
 Major Manufacturers

 PCB Piezotronics, Inc. – 3425 Walden

Avenue, Depew, NY 14043
 Kistler Instrument Corporation – 75 John
Glenn Drive, Amherst, NY 14228
 Dytran Instruments, Inc. – 21592 Marilla St.,
Chatsworth, CA 91311
 Endevco Corporation – 30700 Rancho Viejo
Rd., San Juan Capistrano, CA 926
 Strain Gauge Force Sensor
Technology Fundamentals

Sensors based on foil strain gage technology

are ideally designed for the precise
measurement of a static weight or a quasi-
dynamic load or force. The design of strain
gage-based sensors consists of specially
designed structures that perform in a
predictable and repeatable manner when a
force, load or weight is applied. The applied
input is translated into a voltage by the
resistance change in the strain gages, which
are intimately bonded to the transducer
structure. The amount of change in resistance
indicates the magnitude of deformation in the
transducer structure and hence the load that is
applied.
The strain gages are connected in a four-arm Wheatstone bridge
configuration, which acts as an adding and subtracting electrical network
and allows for compensation of temperature effects as well as cancellation
of signals caused by extraneous forces.
A regulated 5 to 20 volt DC or AC rms excitation is required and is
applied between A and D of the bridge. When a force is applied to the
transducer structure, the Wheatstone Bridge is unbalanced, causing an
output voltage between B and C proportional to the applied load. Most
load cells follow a wiring code established by the Western Regional Strain
Gage
Committee as revised in May 1960. The code is as follows:
 Sensor Types
Sensor Types
The most critical mechanical component in
any strain gage-based sensor is the “spring
element.” In general terms, the spring
element serves as the reaction mechanism to
the applied force, load or weight. It also
focuses it into a uniform, calculated strain
path for precise measurement by the bonded
strain gage.
 3 Common Designs of Strain
Gauge
• Three common structure designs
used in the industry are
1) bending beam,
2) column and
3) shear.
 Classification
General Purpose
General-purpose load cells are designed for a multitude of applications in the
automotive, aerospace, and industrial markets. The general-purpose load cell,
as the name implies, is designed to be utilitarian in nature. Within the general-
purpose load cell market there are several distinct categories: precision,
universal, weigh scale, and special application. Universal load cells are the
most common in industry.
Fatigue Rated
Fatigue rated load cells are specially designed and manufactured to withstand
millions of cycles. Many manufacturers utilize premium fatigue resistant steel
and special processing to insure mechanical and electrical integrity as well as
accuracy. Fatigue rated load cells typically are guaranteed to last 100 million
fully reversed cycles (full tension through zero to full compression). An added
benefit of fatigue rated load cells is that they are extremely resistant to
extraneous bending and side loading forces
Special Application
Special application load cells are load cells that have
been designed for a specific unique force
measurement task. Special application load cells
can be single axis or multiple axes. They include but
are not limited to:

• Pedal Effort • Seat Belt • Steering Column

• Crash Barrier • Hand Brake • Road Simulator
• Tow Ball • Femur • Skid Trailer
• Bumper Impact • Tire Test • Gear Shift
• Strain Gauge Load Cell –use of electrical
resistance to monitor the strain produced in
some member when stretched, compressed
or bent.
 Strain Gauge

Strain Gauges a)metal wire b)Metal foil c)semiconductor

Strain Gauge
Sample Calculations –Strain Gauge
Wheatstone bridge. Calculate the value of the output
voltage(Vo) of the Wheatstone bridge below if
the value of R1 varies from 10 kΩ to 15 kΩ and the
Value of Supply Voltage, Vs= 1 V
 Vo=R1/(R1 + R2) – R3/(R3 + R4)

R1 R1/(R1 + R2) R3/(R3 + R4) Output

Voltage(Vo)
10kΩ 10/(10 + 10) 10/(10 + 10) 0V

11kΩ
12kΩ
13kΩ
14kΩ
15kΩ
 Pressure Sensors
Common methods of pressure sensing are the following:

1.Balance the pressure with an opposing force (or head) and measure
this force. Examples are liquid manometers and pistons.

2. Subject the pressure to a flexible front-end (auxiliary) member and

measure the resulting deflection.
Examples are Bourdon tube, bellows, and helical tube.

3. Subject the pressure to a front-end auxiliary member and measure

the resulting strain (or stress). Examples are diaphragms and capsules.

The liquid column of height h and density r provides a counterbalancing

pressure head to support the measured pressure p with respect to the
reference (ambient) pressure pref
The pressure is determined by measuring F
using a force sensor. The Bourdon tube shown
in Figure 6.77(c) deflects with a straightening
motion as a result of internal pressure. This
deflection can be measured using a
displacement sensor (typically, arotatory sensor)
or indicated by a moving pointer.
 The bellows deflect with internal pressure,
causing a linear motion, as shown in Figure
6.77(d). The deflection can be measured using
a sensor such as LVDT or a capacitive sensor,
and can be calibrated to indicate pressure.
 The helical tube shown in Figure 6.77(e)
undergoes a twisting (rotational) motion when
deflected by internal pressure. This deflection
can be measured by an angular displacement
sensor (RVDT, resolver, potentiometer, etc.), to
provide pressure reading through proper
calibration.
 Figure 6.77(f) illustrates the use of a
diaphragm to measure pressure. The
membrane (typically metal) will be strained
due to pressure. The pressure can be
measured by means of strain gauges
(piezoresistive sensors) mounted on the
diaphragm. MEMS pressure sensors that use
this principle are available. In one such device,
the diaphragm has a silicon wafer substrate
integral with it.
 Through proper doping (using boron,
phosphorous, etc.) a microminiature
semiconductor strain gauge can be formed. In
fact more than one piezoresistive sensor can
be etched on the diaphragm, and used in a
bridge circuit to provide the pressure reading,
through proper calibration. The most sensitive
locations for the piezoresitive sensors are
closer to the edge of the diaphragm, where
the strains reach the maximum.
Fluid Pressure Sensors
Bellows and Orifice
The End