Www.SeminarSlide.

com

ASeminar

ReportOn

Transducers

i
 Www.SeminarSlide.com
ASeminar

ReportOn

Transducers
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement forthe award ofdegree
OfBachelor of Technologyin Mechanical
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

1. Abstract

Transducers are electricor electronicdevices that transform energyfrom one manifestation into another.
Mostpeople, when theythink oftransducers, think specificallyof devices that perform this transformation
in order togatheror transfer information, butreally, anythingthat converts energycan beconsidered
atransducer.

Transducers that detect or transmit information include common items such as microphones, Geiger
meters,potentiometers, pressuresensors, thermometers, and antennae.A microphone,for example,
converts sound waves that strikeitsdiaphragm into an analogous electrical signal that can betransmitted
overwires. A pressure sensor turns the physicalforcebeingexerted on thesensing apparatus into an analog
readingthat can beeasilyrepresented. Whilemanypeoplethink oftransducers asbeing some sort of technical
device, onceyou start lookingfor them,you will
find transducers everywhereinyoureverydaylife.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

INDEX

1)Introduction

2)What areElectrical transducers?

3)Types of Electrical transducers

4)Examples of Electricaltransducers

5)Howdoes a transducerworks?
5.1) Thermometer
5.1.1)Principle
5.1.2)Working
5.2) Strain Gauge
5.2.1)Principle
5.2.2)Working
5.3) WheatstoneBridge
5.3.1)Principle
5.3.2)Working
5.4)LVDT(LinearVariable Differential Transformer)
5.4.1)Principle
5.4.2)Working

6)Advantages of anElectrical transducer

7)Applications

8)Conclusion
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

1. INTRODUCTION

There aretwo methods of measurement of anyphysical quantity

1)Thedirect method and

2)Theindirect method.

In the direct methodanyphysical quantitylikelength, mass, etcaremeasured directlyby

some instruments like themeasuringtape, weighingscale etc.In the indirect method of
measurements sometransducingdevise, called transducer, is used, which iscoupled to a
chain of the connectingapparatus that forms thepart ofthe measuringsystem.In this system
thequantitywhich is to bemeasured (input) is converted into someother measurable
quantity(output) bythe transducer.

Definition:-

Transducers arethe mechanical, electrical,electronic, or electromechanical devices that

convert oneform of the energyor thepropertythatcannot be measured directlyinto the
other form ofenergyor propertythat can bemeasured easily. Thesignal given to the
transducers iscalled as input, this isthe parameterthat is to be measured but cannot be
measured directly. Thesignal obtained from thetransducer is called as output, which can
bemeasured easily.

Thetransducer selected forthe measuringsystemis such that the output obtained is

proportional to theinput. Sincethe output can bemeasuredeasilybytheavailable
instruments, thescale can be calibrated between thevalues ofthe output and the input.
From this calibration, forallthe values ofthe output theinputvalue i.e. the parameter or
physical quantityto be measuredcan beobtainedeasily.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

2. WhatareElectricalTransducers?

Thetransducers that convert themechanical inputsignals of the physical quantityinto

electrical output signals arecalledas electrical transducers. The inputgivento the
electricaltransducers canbein the form of the displacement, strain, velocity,
temperature, flow etcandthe output obtained fromthem can bein the formof current,
voltageand changein resistance, inductance andcapacitance. Theoutput can be
measuredeasilyand itis calibratedagainstthe input, thus enablingthe measurement of the
value ofthe input.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

3. Types ofElectrical transducers

1)Primarytransducer: changes “real world”parameter into electrical signal.

2)Secondarytransducer:converts electrical signalinto analogor digital values.

4. Examples ofElectrical Transducers

Here aresomeof commonlyusedelectrical transducers:

1)Potentiometers: Theyconvert the changein displacement into changein the

resistance, which can bemeasuredeasily.

2)Bridgecircuits:Theseconvert thephysical quantityto bemeasured into the voltage.

3)Wheatstonebridge:Itconverts the displacement produced bythe physical quantityto the

current in the circuit.

4)Capacitive sensors orVariable CapacitanceTransducers: These compriseof thetwo

parallel plates between which thereis dielectric material like air. The changein distance
between the two plates produced bythe displacement results in changein capacitance,
which can be easilymeasured.

5)Resistivesensors or Variable ResistanceTransducers:Thereis changein the resistance

ofthesesensors when certain physical quantityis applied to it.It is most commonlyused in
resistancethermometers orthermistors formeasurement oftemperature.

6)Magneticsensors:Theinputgiven to thesesensors isin the form of displacementand the

output obtained is in the form of changein inductanceor reluctanceandproduction of the
eddycurrents.

7)Piezoelectric transducers:When forceis applied to thesetransducers, theyproduce

voltagethat can bemeasured easily. Theyareused formeasurement ofpressure,
acceleration andforce.

8)Strain gauges: When strain gauges arestrainedorstretched thereis changein their

resistance. Theyconsistofthe long wireandare able to detect verysmalldisplacements
produced bytheapplied forceor pressure.

9)Photo electric transducers: When the light is applied to thesetransducerstheyproduce

voltage.

10)Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT):LVDT is the transformer consisting

ofthe primaryand thesecondarycoil.Itconvertsthe displacement into thechangein
resistance.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

11)UltrasonicTransducers:Thesetransducers usethe ultrasonicor ultrasound waves to

measureparameters likefluid level,flow rateetc.

5. Howdoes a TransducerWork?

There aretwo operation takingplaceintransducers:-

 Www.SeminarSlide.com

1)Itchanges the “real world” parameter into electrical signal.

2)Itconvertselectrical signal into analogor digital values.

There arenumerous types of transducers and theyhavedifferent types ofapplications.

Let us seethe exampleofuse oftransducer for different applications.

5.1 Thermometer

In our day-to-daylifewehaveto measurethe temperaturemanytimes andthe most common

devise used forthis purposeis thethermometer. Thetemperatureofthe surroundings or
bodycannot be measured directly,so weneedadevicewhich can measurethe temperature
ofthe surrounding. Thermometeris thedevicethat measures the surroundings temperature.

5.1.1 Principle

Weknow that liquids tend toget expand when heated and contractswhencooled. This
propertyof theliquids is used to measurethe temperaturein thermometers,which is type
oftransducer.

5.1.2 Working

In thermometers thereisthin capillarytubingandsmall bulb at the bottom,which is filled

with highlytemperature sensitive liquid called mercury. When the temperatureof the
bulb of thethermometerincreases, the mercurytends to expand and fill the capillarytube to
certain level dependingon the temperature. Thethermal expansion of mercuryis
proportional to thetemperatureof themercury, somoreis thebulb temperaturemoreis
expansion of the fluid. Thus if thebulb temperatureis higher, mercurywillexpand to
higher levelsin thecapillaryand if its temperatureis lesser, the rise in levelwillalso be
lesser.

Now, outside the capillarytubing, the scaleis marked that indicates thetemperatureof
the body. This scale is marked from the standard scale obtained byconsideringthe extent
of expansion of mercuryat various temperatures.Thus the level of themercuryinthe
capillaryindicates thetemperatureof thebody.

5.2 StrainGauge
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

A strain gaugeis a deviceusedto measurethestrainof an object. When externalforces

areapplied toastationaryobject, stress andstrainaretheresult. Stress is defined as the
object's internal resisting forces,and strain is defined as the displacement and
deformation that occur. Forauniform distribution of internal resistingforces, stress can
be calculated bydividingthe force (F) applied bytheunitarea(A)

5.2.1 Principle

hemajorityof straingaugesare foil types,available in awide choice

ofshapes andsizes to suitavarietyofapplications. Theyconsist of a
pattern ofresistive foilwhich is mounted on abackingmaterial. They
operate on theprinciplethat as the foilis subjected to stress, the
resistanceof the foilchanges in adefinedway.

5.2.2 Working

A strain gaugetakes advantageof thephysical propertyofelectricalconductanceand its

dependenceon not merelytheelectrical conductivityofaconductor, whichis aproperty ofits
material, butalso the conductor'sgeometry.When anelectrical conductoris stretched within
the limits of itselasticitysuchthat it does not break or permanently deform, it will become
narrower and longer, changes that increaseits electrical resistance end-to-end.
Conversely,when a conductor is compressed such that itdoesnot buckle, it willbroaden
and shortenchanges that decreaseitselectrical resistance end-to-end. From the
measuredelectrical resistance ofthe straingauge, the amountof appliedstressmaybe
inferred.A typical straingauge arranges a long, thin conductivestrip in azig-zagpattern
ofparallel lines such that a smallamountof stressin thedirection ofthe orientation of the
parallel lines results in amultiplicativelylargerstrainover theeffectivelength of the
conductor—and henceamultiplicativelylargerchangein resistance—thanwould be
observed with a single straight-lineconductivewire.

5.3 Wheatstone bridge

A Wheatstonebridgeis used to measurean unknownelectrical resistancebybalancing two

legs ofabridgecircuit, onelegofwhich includes the unknown component.Its operation is
similar to theoriginal potentiometer.TheWheatstonebridgeis a circuitthat consistsof
apower source connected across four components that areresistive. The
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

Wheatstonebridgeis commonlyshown is ashapeof adiamond.TypicalWheatstone

bridgeis shown in thefig.

5.3.1 Principle

Thebridgenetwork has two terminals from whichan outputis taken. When thereis no
voltagedifferencebetween the output terminals, thebridgeis balanced. Hence
Wheatstonebridgeworkson the principle that when the resistanceratio between the series
resistors at theleft&right branches of thebridgeisequal then the bridgeis said to
bebalanced.

5.3.2 Working
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

Rxis theunknown resistanceto be measured;R1, R2and R3areresistors ofknown

resistanceand the resistanceof R2is adjustable.Ifthe ratio of thetwo resistances in the
known leg(R2/ R1)is equal to the ratio of thetwoin theunknown leg(Rx/R3), then
the voltagebetween the two midpoints (B and D)willbezero and nocurrentwillflow
through thegalvanometer Vg. R2is varied untilthis condition is reached. Thedirection of
the current indicates whether R2is too high or too low.

Detectingzero current can bedoneto extremelyhigh accuracy(seegalvanometer).

Therefore, if R1, R2and R3areknown to high precision, then Rxcan bemeasured to high
precision. Verysmallchanges inRxdisrupt thebalanceand are readilydetected.At the
pointof balance, theratio of R2/ R1=Rx/ R3

Therefore,

Alternatively, if R1, R2, and R3areknown, but R2is notadjustable, thevoltagedifference

across orcurrent flow through the meter can beused to calculate thevalueofRx, using
Kirchhoff'scircuitlaws (also known as Kirchhoff's rules).

5.4 LVDT(LinearVariable Differential Transformer)

Thelinear variable differential transformer(LVDT)is a typeof

electricaltransformer used formeasuringlinear displacement. Thetransformerhas
threesolenoidal coils placed end-to-end aroundatube. Thecentercoilis theprimary, and the
two outer coils arethe secondaries. A cylindrical ferromagneticcore,attached to the object
whoseposition is to be measured, slides alongtheaxis of the tube.

5.4.1 Principle

TheLVDT is composedofthreecoils whose cross section is shownin Fig.The central

emitter coil, driven with a sinusoidal signal at afrequencybetween 10and20kHz,
mounted between two larger receiver coils; thetwo receiver coils areidentical,counter-
wound and connected either in series or in parallel. The emitteris mounted on theIP
tablewhile thetwo receivers are attached on areferencestructure; when theemitter is
exactlyin themid pointbetween the twin receiver coils, no net signal isinduced. When
the table movements movethe emitter coilin a direction, asinusoidal signal appears on
the receivercoils. This signal has amplitude roughlyproportional tothe displacement
from the center position. Ifthe coilis moved in theoppositedirection, thesign of the
induced sinusoid is changed
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

5.4.2 Working

An alternatingcurrentisdriven through the primary,causingavoltage to be induced in each

secondaryproportional to its mutualinductance with theprimary. Thefrequencyis usuallyin
therange1 to10kHz. As the coremoves, thesemutual inductances change,
causingthevoltages induced in thesecondaries tochange. The coils are connected in
reverseseries, so that theoutputvoltageis thedifference (hence"differential") between the
two secondaryvoltages. When the coreis in its central position, equidistantbetween the
two secondaries, equal butopposite voltagesareinduced in thesetwo coils, so the
outputvoltageis zero. When the coreis displacedin one direction, the voltagein one coil
increases as theotherdecreases,causingthe output voltageto increase fromzero to a
maximum. This voltageis inphasewiththeprimaryvoltage. When the coremoves in the
otherdirection, the output voltagealso increases from zero to amaximum,but its phaseis
opposite to that ofthe primary.Themagnitudeof theoutputvoltageis proportional to the
distancemoved bythe core(up to its limitof travel), which is whythedeviceis described as
"linear". Thephaseofthe voltageindicates thedirection ofthe displacement.Because the
slidingcoredoes nottouch theinsideof thetube, itcan move without friction,
makingtheLVDT ahighlyreliabledevice.

6. Advantages ofanelectrical transducer

1)Thesignal can be converted into digital form and can bestored forfurther reference.
2)Displayof thedata ispossible on aCRO.
3)Readingof analogdatawith thehelp of electrical transducershas less lossinvolved as
compared to themechanical transducers.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

4) Thebiggest advantageof theLVDT is that theoutputobtained from it is proportional to

thedisplacement ofthemechanical memberwhosedisplacement is beingmeasured.

5)LVDT cannot be overloaded mechanicallysincethe coreis completelyseparated from

the other parts ofthedevice.

6) Anotherimportant advantageofLVDT is that the output obtained from it is fairlyhigh

and itcan bemeasuredeasilywithoutrequiringtheneed of theintermediate
amplification.

7)LVDT is insensitiveto thetemperature and thechanges in thetemperature.

 Www.SeminarSlide.com

7. Application:-

There arenumerous types of transducers and theyhavedifferent types ofapplications.

Thetransducers areusedforvarious applicationsforthe measurement ofthephysical
quantities liketemperature, pressure, flow etc.

1) Experimental stress analysis.

2) Diagnosis on machines and failure analysis.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

3) Multiaxial stress fatiguetesting, proof testing

4) Residual stress
5) Vibration measurement
6) Torquemeasurement
7) Bendingand deflection measurement
8) Compression and tension measurement
9) Strainmeasurement
10)Used to generate diagnostics of passive filters
11)LVDTs are commonlyused forposition feedbackinservomechanisms
12)Automated measurement in machinetools

8. Conclusion:-

Measuringanyphysical quantitywith a electrical transducer is veryeasyand convenient.

TheElectricaltransducerillustratesthe concept ofameasurementof anyphysical quantity,
whichcan be extremelyaccurate. Bymeans of atransducer, a complex
electrical quantity, such as watts, can bemeasuredat a convenient location Forremote
indication ofwatts or vars, a transducer can reducethe number ofsignal wires to belaid
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

between sourceand indicatorfrom as manyas nineto two. Henceitcan reducethe cost

ofaproject to alargeextent.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com
Reference

www.google.com

www.SeminarSlide.com
www.wikipedia.org
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

1. Abstract

Transducers are electricor electronicdevices that transform energyfrom one manifestation into another.
Mostpeople, when theythink oftransducers, think specificallyof devices that perform this transformation
in order togatheror transfer information, butreally, anythingthat converts energycan beconsidered
atransducer.

Transducers that detect or transmit information include common items such as microphones, Geiger
meters,potentiometers, pressuresensors, thermometers, and antennae.A microphone,for example,
converts sound waves that strikeitsdiaphragm into an analogous electrical signal that can betransmitted
overwires. A pressure sensor turns the physicalforcebeingexerted on thesensing apparatus into an analog
readingthat can beeasilyrepresented. Whilemanypeoplethink oftransducers asbeing some sort of technical
device, onceyou start lookingfor them,you will
find transducers everywhereinyoureverydaylife.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

INDEX

1)Introduction

2)What areElectrical transducers?

3)Types of Electrical transducers

4)Examples of Electricaltransducers

5)Howdoes a transducerworks?
5.1) Thermometer
5.1.1)Principle
5.1.2)Working
5.2) Strain Gauge
5.2.1)Principle
5.2.2)Working
5.3) WheatstoneBridge
5.3.1)Principle
5.3.2)Working
5.4)LVDT(LinearVariable Differential Transformer)
5.4.1)Principle
5.4.2)Working

6)Advantages of anElectrical transducer

7)Applications

8)Conclusion
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

1. INTRODUCTION

There aretwo methods of measurement of anyphysical quantity

1)Thedirect method and

2)Theindirect method.

In the direct methodanyphysical quantitylikelength, mass, etcaremeasured directlyby

some instruments like themeasuringtape, weighingscale etc.In the indirect method of
measurements sometransducingdevise, called transducer, is used, which iscoupled to a
chain of the connectingapparatus that forms thepart ofthe measuringsystem.In this system
thequantitywhich is to bemeasured (input) is converted into someother measurable
quantity(output) bythe transducer.

Definition:-

Transducers arethe mechanical, electrical,electronic, or electromechanical devices that

convert oneform of the energyor thepropertythatcannot be measured directlyinto the
other form ofenergyor propertythat can bemeasured easily. Thesignal given to the
transducers iscalled as input, this isthe parameterthat is to be measured but cannot be
measured directly. Thesignal obtained from thetransducer is called as output, which can
bemeasured easily.

Thetransducer selected forthe measuringsystemis such that the output obtained is

proportional to theinput. Sincethe output can bemeasuredeasilybytheavailable
instruments, thescale can be calibrated between thevalues ofthe output and the input.
From this calibration, forallthe values ofthe output theinputvalue i.e. the parameter or
physical quantityto be measuredcan beobtainedeasily.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

2. WhatareElectricalTransducers?

Thetransducers that convert themechanical inputsignals of the physical quantityinto

electrical output signals arecalledas electrical transducers. The inputgivento the
electricaltransducers canbein the form of the displacement, strain, velocity,
temperature, flow etcandthe output obtained fromthem can bein the formof current,
voltageand changein resistance, inductance andcapacitance. Theoutput can be
measuredeasilyand itis calibratedagainstthe input, thus enablingthe measurement of the
value ofthe input.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

3. Types ofElectrical transducers

1)Primarytransducer: changes “real world”parameter into electrical signal.

2)Secondarytransducer:converts electrical signalinto analogor digital values.

4. Examples ofElectrical Transducers

Here aresomeof commonlyusedelectrical transducers:

1)Potentiometers: Theyconvert the changein displacement into changein the

resistance, which can bemeasuredeasily.

2)Bridgecircuits:Theseconvert thephysical quantityto bemeasured into the voltage.

3)Wheatstonebridge:Itconverts the displacement produced bythe physical quantityto the

current in the circuit.

4)Capacitive sensors orVariable CapacitanceTransducers: These compriseof thetwo

parallel plates between which thereis dielectric material like air. The changein distance
between the two plates produced bythe displacement results in changein capacitance,
which can be easilymeasured.

5)Resistivesensors or Variable ResistanceTransducers:Thereis changein the resistance

ofthesesensors when certain physical quantityis applied to it.It is most commonlyused in
resistancethermometers orthermistors formeasurement oftemperature.

6)Magneticsensors:Theinputgiven to thesesensors isin the form of displacementand the

output obtained is in the form of changein inductanceor reluctanceandproduction of the
eddycurrents.

7)Piezoelectric transducers:When forceis applied to thesetransducers, theyproduce

voltagethat can bemeasured easily. Theyareused formeasurement ofpressure,
acceleration andforce.

8)Strain gauges: When strain gauges arestrainedorstretched thereis changein their

resistance. Theyconsistofthe long wireandare able to detect verysmalldisplacements
produced bytheapplied forceor pressure.

9)Photo electric transducers: When the light is applied to thesetransducerstheyproduce

voltage.

10)Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT):LVDT is the transformer consisting

ofthe primaryand thesecondarycoil.Itconvertsthe displacement into thechangein
resistance.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

11)UltrasonicTransducers:Thesetransducers usethe ultrasonicor ultrasound waves to

measureparameters likefluid level,flow rateetc.

5. Howdoes a TransducerWork?

There aretwo operation takingplaceintransducers:-

 Www.SeminarSlide.com

1)Itchanges the “real world” parameter into electrical signal.

2)Itconvertselectrical signal into analogor digital values.

There arenumerous types of transducers and theyhavedifferent types ofapplications.

Let us seethe exampleofuse oftransducer for different applications.

5.1 Thermometer

In our day-to-daylifewehaveto measurethe temperaturemanytimes andthe most common

devise used forthis purposeis thethermometer. Thetemperatureofthe surroundings or
bodycannot be measured directly,so weneedadevicewhich can measurethe temperature
ofthe surrounding. Thermometeris thedevicethat measures the surroundings temperature.

5.1.1 Principle

Weknow that liquids tend toget expand when heated and contractswhencooled. This
propertyof theliquids is used to measurethe temperaturein thermometers,which is type
oftransducer.

5.1.2 Working

In thermometers thereisthin capillarytubingandsmall bulb at the bottom,which is filled

with highlytemperature sensitive liquid called mercury. When the temperatureof the
bulb of thethermometerincreases, the mercurytends to expand and fill the capillarytube to
certain level dependingon the temperature. Thethermal expansion of mercuryis
proportional to thetemperatureof themercury, somoreis thebulb temperaturemoreis
expansion of the fluid. Thus if thebulb temperatureis higher, mercurywillexpand to
higher levelsin thecapillaryand if its temperatureis lesser, the rise in levelwillalso be
lesser.

Now, outside the capillarytubing, the scaleis marked that indicates thetemperatureof
the body. This scale is marked from the standard scale obtained byconsideringthe extent
of expansion of mercuryat various temperatures.Thus the level of themercuryinthe
capillaryindicates thetemperatureof thebody.

5.2 StrainGauge
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

A strain gaugeis a deviceusedto measurethestrainof an object. When externalforces

areapplied toastationaryobject, stress andstrainaretheresult. Stress is defined as the
object's internal resisting forces,and strain is defined as the displacement and
deformation that occur. Forauniform distribution of internal resistingforces, stress can
be calculated bydividingthe force (F) applied bytheunitarea(A)

5.2.1 Principle

hemajorityof straingaugesare foil types,available in awide choice

ofshapes andsizes to suitavarietyofapplications. Theyconsist of a
pattern ofresistive foilwhich is mounted on abackingmaterial. They
operate on theprinciplethat as the foilis subjected to stress, the
resistanceof the foilchanges in adefinedway.

5.2.2 Working

A strain gaugetakes advantageof thephysical propertyofelectricalconductanceand its

dependenceon not merelytheelectrical conductivityofaconductor, whichis aproperty ofits
material, butalso the conductor'sgeometry.When anelectrical conductoris stretched within
the limits of itselasticitysuchthat it does not break or permanently deform, it will become
narrower and longer, changes that increaseits electrical resistance end-to-end.
Conversely,when a conductor is compressed such that itdoesnot buckle, it willbroaden
and shortenchanges that decreaseitselectrical resistance end-to-end. From the
measuredelectrical resistance ofthe straingauge, the amountof appliedstressmaybe
inferred.A typical straingauge arranges a long, thin conductivestrip in azig-zagpattern
ofparallel lines such that a smallamountof stressin thedirection ofthe orientation of the
parallel lines results in amultiplicativelylargerstrainover theeffectivelength of the
conductor—and henceamultiplicativelylargerchangein resistance—thanwould be
observed with a single straight-lineconductivewire.

5.3 Wheatstone bridge

A Wheatstonebridgeis used to measurean unknownelectrical resistancebybalancing two

legs ofabridgecircuit, onelegofwhich includes the unknown component.Its operation is
similar to theoriginal potentiometer.TheWheatstonebridgeis a circuitthat consistsof
apower source connected across four components that areresistive. The
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

Wheatstonebridgeis commonlyshown is ashapeof adiamond.TypicalWheatstone

bridgeis shown in thefig.

5.3.1 Principle

Thebridgenetwork has two terminals from whichan outputis taken. When thereis no
voltagedifferencebetween the output terminals, thebridgeis balanced. Hence
Wheatstonebridgeworkson the principle that when the resistanceratio between the series
resistors at theleft&right branches of thebridgeisequal then the bridgeis said to
bebalanced.

5.3.2 Working
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

Rxis theunknown resistanceto be measured;R1, R2and R3areresistors ofknown

resistanceand the resistanceof R2is adjustable.Ifthe ratio of thetwo resistances in the
known leg(R2/ R1)is equal to the ratio of thetwoin theunknown leg(Rx/R3), then
the voltagebetween the two midpoints (B and D)willbezero and nocurrentwillflow
through thegalvanometer Vg. R2is varied untilthis condition is reached. Thedirection of
the current indicates whether R2is too high or too low.

Detectingzero current can bedoneto extremelyhigh accuracy(seegalvanometer).

Therefore, if R1, R2and R3areknown to high precision, then Rxcan bemeasured to high
precision. Verysmallchanges inRxdisrupt thebalanceand are readilydetected.At the
pointof balance, theratio of R2/ R1=Rx/ R3

Therefore,

Alternatively, if R1, R2, and R3areknown, but R2is notadjustable, thevoltagedifference

across orcurrent flow through the meter can beused to calculate thevalueofRx, using
Kirchhoff'scircuitlaws (also known as Kirchhoff's rules).

5.4 LVDT(LinearVariable Differential Transformer)

Thelinear variable differential transformer(LVDT)is a typeof

electricaltransformer used formeasuringlinear displacement. Thetransformerhas
threesolenoidal coils placed end-to-end aroundatube. Thecentercoilis theprimary, and the
two outer coils arethe secondaries. A cylindrical ferromagneticcore,attached to the object
whoseposition is to be measured, slides alongtheaxis of the tube.

5.4.1 Principle

TheLVDT is composedofthreecoils whose cross section is shownin Fig.The central

emitter coil, driven with a sinusoidal signal at afrequencybetween 10and20kHz,
mounted between two larger receiver coils; thetwo receiver coils areidentical,counter-
wound and connected either in series or in parallel. The emitteris mounted on theIP
tablewhile thetwo receivers are attached on areferencestructure; when theemitter is
exactlyin themid pointbetween the twin receiver coils, no net signal isinduced. When
the table movements movethe emitter coilin a direction, asinusoidal signal appears on
the receivercoils. This signal has amplitude roughlyproportional tothe displacement
from the center position. Ifthe coilis moved in theoppositedirection, thesign of the
induced sinusoid is changed
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

5.4.2 Working

An alternatingcurrentisdriven through the primary,causingavoltage to be induced in each

secondaryproportional to its mutualinductance with theprimary. Thefrequencyis usuallyin
therange1 to10kHz. As the coremoves, thesemutual inductances change,
causingthevoltages induced in thesecondariestochange. The coils are connected in
reverseseries, so that theoutputvoltageis thedifference (hence"differential") between the
two secondaryvoltages. When the coreis in its central position, equidistantbetween the
two secondaries, equal butopposite voltagesareinduced in thesetwo coils, so the
outputvoltageis zero. When the coreis displacedin one direction, the voltagein one coil
increases as theotherdecreases,causingthe output voltageto increase fromzero to a
maximum. This voltageis inphasewiththeprimaryvoltage. When the coremoves in the
otherdirection, the output voltagealso increases from zero to amaximum,but its phaseis
opposite to that ofthe primary.Themagnitudeof theoutputvoltageis proportional to the
distancemoved bythe core(up to its limitof travel), which is whythedeviceis described as
"linear". Thephaseofthe voltageindicates thedirection ofthe displacement.Because the
slidingcoredoes nottouch theinsideof thetube, itcan move without friction,
makingtheLVDT ahighlyreliabledevice.

6. Advantages ofanelectrical transducer

1)Thesignal can be converted into digital form and can bestored forfurther reference.
2)Displayof thedata ispossible on aCRO.
3)Readingof analogdatawith thehelp of electrical transducershas less lossinvolved as
compared to themechanical transducers.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

4) Thebiggest advantageof theLVDT is that theoutputobtained from it is proportional to

thedisplacement ofthemechanical memberwhosedisplacement is beingmeasured.

5)LVDT cannot be overloaded mechanicallysincethe coreis completelyseparated from

the other parts ofthedevice.

6) Anotherimportant advantageofLVDT is that the output obtained from it is fairlyhigh

and itcan bemeasuredeasilywithoutrequiringtheneed of theintermediate
amplification.

7)LVDT is insensitiveto thetemperature and thechanges in thetemperature.

 Www.SeminarSlide.com

7. Application:-

There arenumerous types of transducers and theyhavedifferent types ofapplications.

Thetransducers areusedforvarious applicationsforthe measurement ofthephysical
quantities liketemperature, pressure, flow etc.

1) Experimental stress analysis.

2) Diagnosis on machines and failure analysis.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

3) Multiaxial stress fatiguetesting, proof testing

4) Residual stress
5) Vibration measurement
6) Torquemeasurement
7) Bendingand deflection measurement
8) Compression and tension measurement
9) Strainmeasurement
10)Used to generate diagnostics of passive filters
11)LVDTs are commonlyused forposition feedbackinservomechanisms
12)Automated measurement in machinetools

8. Conclusion:-

Measuringanyphysical quantitywith a electrical transducer is veryeasyand convenient.

TheElectricaltransducerillustratesthe concept ofameasurementof anyphysical quantity,
whichcan be extremelyaccurate. Bymeans of atransducer, a complex
electrical quantity, such as watts, can bemeasuredat a convenient location Forremote
indication ofwatts or vars, a transducer can reducethe number ofsignal wires to belaid
 Www.SeminarSlide.com

between sourceand indicatorfrom as manyas nineto two. Henceitcan reducethe cost

ofaproject to alargeextent.
 Www.SeminarSlide.com
Reference

www.google.com

www.SeminarSlide.com
www.wikipedia.org
 Www.SeminarSlide.com