Skeletal System

Bone Homeostasis
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
ASIA PACIFIC COLLEGE
Gross Anatomy of Bones
Compact and Spongy Bone
Microscopic Structure of Bone
Bone (Osseous) Tissue
◦ Dense, supportive connective tissue
◦ Contains specialized cells
◦ Produces solid matrix of calcium salt
deposits
◦ Around collagen fibers
Microscopic Structure of Bone

Characteristics of Bone Tissue

Dense matrix, containing:
◦ Deposits of calcium salts
◦ Osteocytes (bone cells) within lacunae
organized around blood vessels

Canaliculi
◦ Form pathways for blood vessels
◦ Exchange nutrients and wastes

Periosteum
◦ Covers outer surfaces of bones
◦ Consists of outer fibrous and inner cellular
layers
Microscopic Structure of Bone

Bone Matrix Composition

◦ Minerals
◦ Two thirds of bone matrix is calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2
◦ Reacts with calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
◦ To form crystals of hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
◦ Which incorporates other calcium salts and ions

◦ Matrix Proteins
◦ One third of bone matrix is protein fibers (collagen)
A single osteon.
Bone (Osseous) Tissue
Comparison of Different Types of Bone Cells
Bone Cells
◦ Make up only 2% of bone
mass
◦ Bone contains four types
of cells
1. Osteocytes
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteoprogenitor cells
4. Osteoclasts
Bone Tissue:
Comparison of Different Types of Bone Cells

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix

Live in lacunae
Are between layers (lamellae) of matrix
Connect by cytoplasmic extensions through canaliculi in lamellae
Do not divide
Two major functions of osteocytes
1. To maintain protein and mineral content of matrix
2. To help repair damaged bone
Bone Tissue:
Comparison of Different Types of Bone Cells

Osteoblasts
Immature bone cells that secrete matrix compounds (osteogenesis)
Osteoid — matrix produced by osteoblasts, but not yet calcified to form bone
Osteoblasts surrounded by bone become osteocytes
Bone Tissue:
Comparison of Different Types of Bone Cells

Osteoclasts

Secrete acids and protein-digesting enzymes

Giant, multinucleate cells
Dissolve bone matrix and release stored minerals
(osteolysis)
Derived from stem cells that produce macrophages
Bone Tissue:
Comparison of Different Types of Bone Cells

Osteoprogenitor Cells a.k.aOsteogenic Cells

Mesenchymal stem cells that
divide to produce osteoblasts
Located in endosteum, the inner
cellular layer of periosteum
Assist in fracture repair
Bone Development
Human bones grow until about age 25
◦ Osteogenesis —bone formation

◦ Calcification
◦ The process of depositing calcium salts
◦ Occurs during bone ossification and in other tissues

◦ Ossification
◦ Two main forms of ossification
1. Endochondral ossification
2. Intramembranous ossification
Endochondral
Ossification
Begins in the second month
of development
Uses hyaline cartilage
“bones” as models for bone
construction
Requires breakdown of
hyaline cartilage prior to
ossification
Epiphyseal Lines
Epiphyseal Lines
◦ When long bone stops growing,
after puberty:
◦ Epiphyseal cartilage disappears

Mature Bones
◦ As long bone matures:
◦ Osteoclasts enlarge medullary (marrow)
cavity
◦ Osteons form around blood vessels in
compact bone
Intramembranous Ossification
Also called dermal ossification
◦ Because it occurs in the dermis
Produces dermal bones such as mandible
(lower jaw) and clavicle (collarbone)
Formation of most of the flat bones of
the skull.
Bone Homeostasis:
Remodeling and Repair
Bone is a dynamic and active tissue, and small-scale changes in bone
architecture occur continually
◦ Every day — half a gram of calcium may enter or leave the adult skeleton
◦ Every week —5-7% of bone mass is recycled.
◦ 3-4 years —spongy bone is replaced
◦ 10 years or so —compact bone is replaced
When bone remains in place for long periods more of the calcium salts
crystallize and the bone becomes more brittle—ripe conditions for fracture.
Bone Homeostasis:
Remodeling and Repair
Bone building (by osteoblasts) and bone recycling (by osteoclasts) must
balance
◦ More breakdown than building, bones become weak
◦ Exercise, particularly weight-bearing exercise, causes osteoblasts to build bone
Bone Homeostasis:
Remodeling

Bone Deposition
Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed
Requires a diet rich in protein, vitamins C, D, and A, calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, and manganese
Alkaline phosphatase is essential for mineralization of bone
Sites of new matrix deposition are revealed by the:
◦ Osteoid seam – unmineralized band of bone matrix
◦ Calcification front – abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older
mineralized bone
Bone Homeostasis:
Remodeling

Bone Resorption
Accomplished by osteoclasts
Resorption bays – grooves formed by osteoclasts as they break down bone
matrix
Resorption involves osteoclast secretion of:
◦ Lysosomal enzymes that digest organic matrix
◦ Acids that convert calcium salts into soluble forms
Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across the osteoclast’s cell where it is
secreted into the interstitial fluid and then into the blood
Bone Homeostasis:
Remodeling

Controls of Remodeling
2 control loops regulate bone
remodeling
1. Mechanical and gravitational.
2. Hormonal
◦ Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid
to release calcitonin
◦ Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposit in
bone
◦ Falling blood Ca2+ levels signal the
parathyroid glands to release PTH
◦ PTH signals osteoclasts to degrade bone
matrix and release Ca2+ into the blood
Wolff’s law – a bone grows or remodels in
response to the forces or demands placed upon
it
Observations supporting Wolff’s law include
◦ Long bones are thickest midway along the shaft
(where bending stress is greatest)
◦ Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely
to buckle
Bone Damage
COMMON TYPES OF FRACTURES
COMMON TYPES OF FRACTURES
COMMON TYPES OF FRACTURES
BONE REPAIR
Osteomalacia
Bones are inadequately
mineralized causing softened,
weakened bones
◦ Bone formed is poorly mineralized
and soft.
◦ Deforms on weight-bearing
◦ Main symptom is pain when weight is
put on the affected bone
◦ Caused by insufficient calcium in the
diet, or by vitamin D deficiency
Rickets
Bones of children are inadequately
mineralized causing softened, weakened
bones
Bowed legs and deformities of the pelvis,
skull, and rib cage are common
Caused by insufficient calcium in the diet,
or by vitamin D deficiency
Osteoporosis
Group of diseases in which bone reabsorption outpaces bone
deposit
Spongy bone of the spine is most vulnerable
Bones are porous and thin but bone composition is normal
Occurs most often in postmenopausal women
Bones become so fragile that sneezing or stepping off a curb can
cause fractures
Risk Factors for Osteoporosis
“bone problems of the elderly”
Several other factors can contribute to osteoporosis:
◦ Petite body form
◦ Insufficient exercise to stress the bones
◦ A diet poor in calcium and protein
◦ Abnormal vitamin D receptors
◦ Smoking (which reduces estrogen levels)
◦ Hormone-related conditions such as hyperthyroidism, low blood levels of thyroid-
stimulating hormone, and diabetes mellitus
Bone Health
The key is to increase BONE MASS
1. Get enough calcium while your bones are still increasing in density
2. Keep in mind that excessive intake of carbonated beverages and alcohol leaches
minerals from bone and decreases bone density
3. Plenty of weight-bearing exercise (walking, jogging, tennis) throughout life
This will increase bone mass above normal values and provide a healthier,
greater buffer against age-related bone loss.