ET201 Electrical Circuits PDF

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
ET 201
 Define and explain characteristics of

sinusoidal wave, phase relationships
and phase shifting
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SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING
WAVEFORMS
(CHAPTER 1.1 ~ 1.4)

Understand Alternating Current
• DIRECT CURRENT (DC) – IS WHEN THE CURRENT
FLOWS IN ONLY ONE DIRECTION. Constant flow of
electric charge
• EX: BATTERY
• ALTERNATING CURRENT AC) – THE CURRENT
FLOWS IN ONE DIRECTION THEN THE OTHER.
• Electrical current whose magnitude and direction vary
cyclically, as opposed to direct current whose direction
remains constant.
• EX: OUTLETS
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Sources of alternating current
• By rotating a magnetic field within a
stationary coil
• By rotating a coil in a magnetic field

Generation of Alternating
Current
• A voltage supplied by a battery or other
DC source has a certain polarity and
remains constant.
• Alternating Current (AC) varies in polarity
and amplitude.
• AC is an important part of electrical and
electronic systems.

Faraday’s and Lenz’s Law
involved in generating a.c current
• Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic
Induction.
Induced electromotive field
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a
voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil .
e.m.f, e = -N d N = Number of turn
dt  = Magnetic Flux
Lenz’s law
An electromagnetic field interacting with a conductor will generate
electrical current that induces a counter magnetic field that opposes
the magnetic field generating the current.
Sine Wave Characteristics
• The basis of an AC alternator is a loop of
wire rotated in a magnetic field.
• Slip rings and brushes make continuous
electrical connections to the rotating
conductor.
• The magnitude and polarity of the
generated voltage is shown on the
following slide.


• The sine wave at the

right consists of two,
opposite polarity,
alternations.
• Each alternation is
called a half cycle.
• Each half cycle has a
maximum value called
the peak value.

• Sine waves may represent voltage,
current, or some other parameter.
• The period of a sine wave is the time from
any given point on the cycle to the same
point on the following cycle.
• The period is measured in time (t), and in
most cases is measured in seconds or
fractions thereof.

Frequency
• The frequency of a sine wave is the
number of complete cycles that occur in
one second.
• Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). One
hertz corresponds to one cycle per
second.
• Frequency and period have an inverse
relationship. t = 1/f, and f = 1/t.
• Frequency-to-period and period-to-
frequency conversions are common in
electronic calculations.
Peak Value
• The peak value of a sine wave is the
maximum voltage (or current) it reaches.
• Peak voltages occur at two different points
in the cycle.
• One peak is positive, the other is negative.
• The positive peak occurs at 90º and the
negative peak at 270º.
• The positive and negative have equal
amplitudes.
Average Values
• The average value of any measured
quantity is the sum of all of the
intermediate values.
• The average value of a full sine wave is
zero.
• The average value of one-half cycle of a
sine wave is:
Vavg = 0.637Vp or Iavg = 0.637Ip

Chapter 6-
rms Value
• One of the most important characteristics
of a sine wave is its rms or effective value.
• The rms value describes the sine wave in
terms of an equivalent dc voltage.
• The rms value of a sine wave produces
the same heating effect in a resistance as
an equal value of dc.
• The abbreviation rms stands for root-
mean-square, and is determined by: Vrms =
0.707Vp or Irms = 0.707Ip

Chapter 6-
Peak-to-Peak Value
• Another measurement used to describe sine waves are
their peak-to-peak values.
• The peak-to-peak value is the difference between the
two peak values.

Form Factor
• Form Factor is defined as the ratio of r.m.s
value to the average value.
• Form factor = r.m.s value = 0.707  peak value
• average value 0.637  peak valur
• = 1.11

Peak Factor
– Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor
• Peak factor is defined as the ratio of peak

voltage to r.m.s value.

13.1 Introduction
Alternating waveforms
• Alternating signal is a signal that varies with respect to time.
• Alternating signal can be categories into ac voltage and ac
current.
• This voltage and current have positive and negative value.

13.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
• Voltage and current value is represent by vertical axis and time
represent by horizontal axis.
• In the first half, current or voltage will increase into maximum positive
value and come back to zero.
• Then in second half, current or voltage will increase into negative
maximum voltage and come back to zero.
• One complete waveform is called one cycle.
volts or amperes
units of time

Defined Polarities and Direction
• The voltage polarity and current direction will be for an instant
in time in the positive portion of the sinusoidal waveform.
• In the figure, a lowercase letter is employed for polarity and
current direction to indicate that the quantity is time dependent;
that is, its magnitude will change with time.

Defined Polarities and Direction
• For a period of time, a voltage has one polarity, while for the
next equal period it reverses. A positive sign is applied if the
voltage is above the axis.
• For a current source, the direction in the symbol
corresponds with the positive region of the waveform.

There are several specification in sinusoidal
waveform:
1. period
2. frequency
3. instantaneous value
4. peak value
5. peak to peak value
6. angular velocity
7. average value
8. effective value
Period (T)
• Period is defines as the amount of time is take to go through
one cycle.
• Period for sinusoidal waveform is equal for each cycle.
Cycle
• The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time.
Frequency (f)
• Frequency is defines as number of cycles in one seconds.
• It can derives as
f 
1
hertz, Hz
f = Hz
T = seconds (s)
T
The cycles within T1, T2, and T3 may appear different in

the figure above, but they are all bounded by one period of time
and therefore satisfy the definition of a cycle.
Signal with lower frequency Signal with higher frequency
Frequency = 1 cycle Frequency = 21/2 cycles Frequency = 2 cycles

per second per second per second
1 hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second Page

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25 of 241 25
Instantaneous value
• Instantaneous value is magnitude value of waveform at
one specific time.
• Symbol for instantaneous value of voltage is v(t) and
current is i(t).
v(0.1)  8 V
v(0.6)  0 V
v(1.1)  8 V

Peak Value
• The maximum instantaneous value of a function as measured
from zero-volt level.
• For one complete cycle, there are two peak value that is
positive peak value and negative peak value.
• Symbol for peak value of voltage is Em or Vm and current is Im .
Peak value, Vm = 8 V

Peak to peak value
• The full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the
waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and
negative peaks.
• Symbol for peak to peak value of voltage is Ep-p or Vp-p and
current is Ip-p
Peak to peak value, Vp-p = 16 V

Angular velocity
• Angular velocity is the velocity with which the radius vector
rotates about the center.
• Symbol of angular speed is  and units is
radians/seconds (rad/s)
• Horizontal axis of waveform can be represent by time and
angular speed.
2 radian  360
3600
1 radian   57.30 ,   3.142
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Angular velocity
Degree Radian Radian Degree
90° (π/180°) x ( 90°) = π/2 rad

π /3 (180° /π) x (π /3) = 60°
60° (π/180°) x ( 60°) = π/3 rad

π (180° /π) x (π ) = 180°
30° (π/180°) x (30°) = π/6 rad 3π /2 (180°/π) x (3π /2) = 270°

Plotting a sine wave versus (a) degrees and (b) radians.

13.2 Sinusoidal AC
Voltage
Characteristics and
Definitions
•The sinusoidal wave form
can be derived from the
length of the vertical
projection of a radius vector
rotating in a uniform circular
motion about a fixed point.
Waveform picture with respect to angular velocity

Angular velocity
• Formula of angular velocity
distance (degrees or radians ) 

angular degree ,   
time (seconds) t
  t
Since (ω) is typically provided in radians/second, the

angle ϴ obtained using ϴ = ωt is usually in radians.

Angular velocity
• The time required to complete one cycle is equal to the

period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform.
• One cycle in radian is equal to 2π (360o).
2   2f
 or (rad/s)
T http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ Page 34 of 241 34
Angular velocity
Demonstrating the effect of  on the frequency f and period T.

Example 13.6
Given  = 200 rad/s, determine how long it will take the
sinusoidal waveform to pass through an angle of 90
Solution

  90 

rad  t
2
  /2
t   7.85 ms
 200

Example 13.7
Find the angle through which a sinusoidal waveform of
60 Hz will pass in a period of 5 ms.
Solution
  t  2ft  2  60  5 103  1.885 rad
 180 
  1.885   108
  

Average value
• Average value is average value for all instantaneous value in
half or one complete waveform cycle.
• It can be calculate in two ways:
1. Calculate the area under the graph:
Average value = area under the function in a period

period
2. Use integral method

T
1
average _ value   v(t )dt
T 0
For a symmetry waveform, area upper section equal to area

under the section, so http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
just take half of the period only. Page 38 of 241 38
Average value
• Example: Calculate the average value of the waveform below.
T
Vm 1
Solution: average _ value   v(t )dt
T 0

1

Vm
 v sin d

m
0
 rad 
 vm
2

  sin d
0
For a sinus waveform , average value can


vm
 cos  o

be calculate by 2vm
  0.637vm volt
Vaverage 
Vm
 0.637Vmhttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ 
Page 39 of 241
 39
Effective value
• The most common method of specifying the amount of sine wave of
voltage or current by relating it into dc voltage and current that will
produce the same heat effect.
• Effective value is the equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or
voltage, which is 1/√2 or 0.707 of its peak value.
• The equivalent dc value is called rms value or effective value.
• The formula of effective value for sine wave waveform is;
1
I rms  I m  0.707 I m
2
I m  2 I rms  1.414 I rms
1
Erms  Em  0.707 Em
2 Em  2 Erms  1.414 Erms
Example 13.21
The 120 V dc source delivers 3.6 W to the load. Find Em and Im of
the ac source, if the same power is to be delivered to the load.

Example 13.21 – solution
P 3.6
Edc I dc  P  3.6 W I dc    30 mA
Edc 120
Em Im
Erms  Edc  and I rms  I dc 
2 2
Em  2 Edc  1.414 120  169.7 V
I m  2I dc  1.414  30  42.43 mA

Em Im
Erms  Edc  I rms  I dc 
2 2
Em  2 Erms I m  2 I rms
 1.414 120  1.414  30
 169.7 V  42.43 mA

13.5 General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
The basic mathematical volts or amperes
format for the sinusoidal
waveform is:
where:
Am : peak value of the
waveform
 : angle from the
horizontal axis Basic sine wave for current or voltage
• The general format of a sine wave can also be as:
α= ωt
• General format for electrical quantities such as current

and voltage is:
it   I m sin t  I m sin 
et   Em sin t  Em sin 
where: I m and Em is the peak value of current

and voltage while i(t) and v(t) is the instantaneous
value of current and voltage.
Example 13.8
Given e(t) = 5 sin, determine e(t) at  = 40 and  = 0.8.
Solution
For  = 40, et   5 sin 40  3.21 V
 180 
For  = 0.8   0.8    144
  
et   5 sin 144  2.94 V

Example 13.9
(a) Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the
sinusoidal function v(t) = 10 sin 377t is 4 V.
(b) Determine the time

at which the magnitude
is attained.

Example 13.9 - solution
vt   Vm sin t V Vm  10 V;   377 rad/s 

Hence, vt   10 sin 377t V
When v(t) = 4 V,
4  10 sin 377t
4
sin 377t  sin    0.4
10
1  sin 1 0.4  23.58
 2  180  23.58  156.42
Example 13.9 – solution (cont’d)
(a) But α is in radian, so α must be calculate in radian:

1  377t  23.58  0.412 rad
 2  156.42  2.73 rad

(b) Given,   t , so t 

0.412
t1   1.09 ms
377
2.73
t2   7.24 ms
377 http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ Page 49 of 241 49
13.6 Phase Relationship
Phase angle
• Phase angle is a shifted angle waveform from reference
origin.
• Phase angle is been represent by symbol θ or Φ
• Units is degree ° or radian
• Two waveform is called in phase if its have a same
phase degree or different phase is zero
• Two waveform is called out of phase if its have a
different phase.

The unshifted sinusoidal waveform is
represented by the expression:
a  Am sin t
t

Sinusoidal waveform which is shifted to the
right or left of 0° is represented by the
expression:
a  Am sint   
where  is the angle (in degrees or radians) that
the waveform has been shifted.

If the wave form passes through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going (increasing with the time)
slope before 0°:
a  Am sint   
a  Am sint   
t

If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going slope after 0°:
a  Am sint   
t

t
 
sin t  90  sin  t    cos t
 2
 
sin t  cos t  90  cos t  
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2Page 55
• The terms leading and lagging are used to
indicate the relationship between two sinusoidal
waveforms of the same frequency f （or angular
velocity ω) plotted on the same set of axes.
– The cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve

by 90.
– The sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve
by 90.
– 90 is referred to as the phase angle between
the two waveforms.
+ cos
α cos (α-90o) Note:
sin (α+90o) sin (- α) = - sin α
cos(- α) = cos α
- sin α + sin α
Start at + sin α position;
cos   sin   90

- cos α
sin   cos   90
 sin   sin   180
 cos   sin   270  sin   90
If a sinusoidal expression should appear as
e   Em sin t
the negative sign is associated with the sine
portion of the expression, not the peak value Em ,
i.e.
e   Em sin t  e  Em  sin t 
And, since;  sin t  sin t  180 
 Em sin t  Em sin t  180 

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

Page 58 of 241 58
Example 13.2
Determine the phase relationship between the following waveforms

(a) v  10 sin t  30  
(c) i  2 cos t  10 

i  5 sin t  70  v  3 sin t  10 


(b) i  15 sin t  60 
(d) i   sin t  30 
v  10 sin t  20  
v  2 sin t  10 



(a) v  10 sin t  30 
 i leads v by 40

i  5 sin t  70 
 or
v lags i by 40


(b) i  15 sin t  60  
i leads v by 80
v  10 sin t  20 
 or
v lags i by 80


(c) i  2 cos t  10  
i leads v by 110
v  3 sin t  10 
 or
v lags i by 110


(d) i   sin t  30  
OR
v  2 sin t  10 
 v leads i by 160 i leads v by 200
Or Or
i lags v by 160 v lags i by 200

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
ET 201
- Identify common oscilloscope controls

- Use an oscilloscope to measure the
amplitude of a waveform
- Use an oscilloscope to measure the
period and frequency of a waveform

OSCILLOSCOPE TO
MEASURE WAVEFORMS
(CHAPTER 1.7)

Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are
commonly used to
observe the
exact wave
shape of an
electrical signal.
Type of electronic
test instrument that
allows observation
of constantly
varying
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signal voltages
Page 66 of 241
• Focus control
• This control adjusts CRT focus to obtain
the sharpest, most-detailed trace. I
• Intensity control
• This adjusts trace brightness. Slow traces
on CRT 'scopes need less, and fast ones,
especially if they don't repeat very often.

ET 201 ~ ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS
COMPLEX NUMBER SYSTEM
 Define and explain complex number
Rectangular form
Polar form
Mathematical operations
(CHAPTER 2)

COMPLEX
NUMBERS

2. Complex Numbers
• A complex number
represents a point in
a two-dimensional
plane located with
reference to two
distinct axes.
• This point can also

determine a radius
vector drawn from the • The horizontal axis is
origin to the point. called the real axis,
while the vertical axis
is called the
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ ) axis.
imaginary ( j Page 71 of 241 3
2.1 Rectangular Form
• The format for the
rectangular form is
• The letter C was

chosen from the
word complex
• The bold face (C)
notation is for any • The italic notation is
number with for magnitude only.
magnitude and
direction.
Example 14.13(a)
Sketch the complex number C = 3 + j4 in the
complex plane
Solution

Example 14.13(b)
Sketch the complex number C = 0 – j6 in the
complex plane
Solution

Example 14.13(c)
Sketch the complex number C = -10 – j20 in
the complex plane
Solution

2.2 Polar Form
• The format for the

polar form is
• Where:
Z : magnitude only • Angles measured in
q : angle measured the clockwise direction
counterclockwise from the positive real
(CCW) from the axis must have a
positive real axis. negative sign
associated with
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ them.
Page 76 of 241 8
2.2 Polar Form
 C  Zq  Zq  180 

2.2 Polar Form
Example 14.14(a)
C  530 
Counterclockwise (CCW)

2.2 Polar Form
Example 14.14(b)
C  7  120 
Clockwise (CW)

2.2 Polar Form  C  Zq  Zq  180
Example 14.14(c)
C   4.260 
 4.260  180
 
 4.2240 

14.9 Conversion Between Forms
1. Rectangular to Polar

2. Polar to Rectangular

Example 14.15
Convert C = 4 + j4 to polar form
Solution
Z  3 4 5
3 2
4
q  tan    53.13
1 
3
C  553.13 
Example 14.16
Convert C = 1045 to rectangular form
Solution
X  10 cos 45  7.07
Y  10 sin 45  7.07

C  7.07  j 7.07
Example 14.17
Convert C = - 6 + j3 to polar form
Solution
Z  6  3  6.71
2 2
3
q  180  tan  
 1
6
C  6.71153.43 
 153.43 

Example 14.18
Convert C = 10  230 to rectangular form
Solution
X  10 cos 230   6.43
Y  10 sin 230   7.66


C  6.43  j 7.66
2.4 Mathematical Operations with
Complex Numbers
• Complex numbers lend themselves readily to
the basic mathematical operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• A few basic rules and definitions must be
understood before considering these
operations:

Complex Numbers
Complex Conjugate
• The conjugate or complex conjugate of
a complex number can be found by simply
changing the sign of the imaginary part in
the rectangular form or by using the
negative of the angle of the polar form

Complex Numbers
Complex Conjugate
In rectangular form, the
conjugate of:
C = 2 + j3
is 2 – j3

Complex Numbers
Complex Conjugate
In polar form, the
conjugate of:
C = 2  30o
is 2 30o

Complex Numbers
Reciprocal
• The reciprocal of a complex number is 1
divided by the complex number.
• In rectangular form, the reciprocal of:
1
C  X  jY is
X  jY
• In polar form, the reciprocal of:

1
C  Zq is
Zq
Complex Numbers
Addition
• To add two or more complex numbers, simply
add the real and imaginary parts separately.

Complex Numbers
Example 14.19(a)
C1  2  j 4; C2  3  j1
Find C1 + C2.
Solution
C1  C2  2  3  j 4  1
 5  j5

Complex Numbers
Example 14.19(b)
C1  3  j 6; C2  6  j3
Find C1 + C2
Solution
C1  C2  3  6  j 6  3
 3  j9

Complex Numbers
Subtraction
• In subtraction, the real and imaginary parts are
again considered separately .
NOTE
Addition or subtraction cannot be performed in polar form
unless the complex numbers have the same angle ө or
unless they differ only by multiples of 180°
Complex Numbers
Example 14.20(a)
C1  4  j 6; C2  1  j 4
Find C1 - C2
Solution
C1  C2  4 1  j 6  4
 3  j2

Complex Numbers
Example 14.20(b)
C1  3  j3; C2  2  j5
Find C1 - C2
Solution
C1  C2  3  2  j 3  5
 5  j2

Complex Numbers
Example 14.21(a)
245  345  545
NOTE
Complex Numbers
Example 14.21(b)
20  4180  60
NOTE
Complex Numbers
Multiplication
• To multiply two complex numbers in rectangular
form, multiply the real and imaginary parts of one
in turn by the real and imaginary parts of the
other.
• In rectangular form:
• In polar form:

Complex Numbers
Example 14.22(a)
C1  2  j3; C2  5  j10
Find C1C2.
Solution
C1 C2  2  j35  j10
 20  j35

Complex Numbers
Example 14.22(b)
C1  2  j3; C2  4  j 6
Find C1C2.
Solution
C1 C2   2  j34  j 6
 26  26180

Complex Numbers
Example 14.23(a)
C1  520 ; C2  1030
Find C1C2.
Solution
C1 C2  5 1020  30 
 5050

Complex Numbers
Example 14.23(b)
C1  2  40 ; C2  7120
Find C1C2.
Solution
C1 C2  2  7 40  120 
 1480

Complex Numbers
Division
• To divide two complex numbers in rectangular
form, multiply the numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the denominator and the
resulting real and imaginary parts collected.
• In rectangular form:
• In polar form:

Complex Numbers
Example 14.24(a)
C1
C1  1  j 4; C2  4  j5 Find
C2
Solution
C1 1  j 4 4  j5 1  j 44  j5
  
C2 4  j5 4  j5 4  j54  j5
24  j11
  0.59  j 0.27
16  25
Complex Numbers
Example 14.24(b)
C1
C1  4  j8; C2  6  j1 Find
C2
Solution
C1  4  j8 6  j1  4  j86  j1
  
C2 6  j1 6  j1 6  j16  j1
 16  j52
  0.43  j1.41
36  1
Complex Numbers
Example 14.25(a)
C1
C1  1510 ; C2  27
 
Find
C2
Solution
C1 1510 15
C2

27

2
 10 
 7 
 
 7.33

Complex Numbers
Example 14.25(b)
C1
C1  8120 ; C2  16  50
 
Find
C2
Solution
8120
C1
 
8
C2 16  50 16
 120 
 50 
 
 0.5170

Complex Numbers
• Addition z1  z 2  ( x1  x2 )  j( y1  y2 )
• Subtraction z1  z2  ( x1  x2 )  j( y1  y2 )
• Multiplication z1 z 2  r1r2  1  2
z1 r1
 1   2
• Division z2 r2
• Reciprocal 1

1
 
z r
• Complex conjugate z  x  jy  r     re
  j
• Euler’s identityhttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
e  j  cos   j sin 
Page 110 of 241 42
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
ET 201
 Define series impedances and analyze

series AC circuits using circuit
techniques.

14.3 Response of Basic R, L and C Elements
to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current (review)
FIG. 15.46 Reviewing the frequency response of the basic

http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ Pageelements.
112 of 241 2
SERIES
AC CIRCUITS
(CHAPTER 15)

15.3 Series Impedances
• The overall properties of series AC circuits are
the same as those for DC circuits.
• For instance, the total impedance of a system is
the sum of the individual impedances:
[Ω]

Example 15.7
Draw the impedance diagram
and find the total impedance.
Solution
ZT  Z1  Z 2
  R  0     X L  90  
 R  jX L
 4  j8

Z T  8 . 94  63 . 34 

Example 15.8
Draw the impedance diagram
and find the total impedance.
Solution
ZT  Z1  Z 2  Z 3
  R  0     X L  90     X C   90  
 R  jX L
 jX C
 6  j 10  j 12
 6  j2

Z T  6 . 32   18 . 43 
15.3 Series AC Circuit
• In a series AC configuration having two
impedances, the current I is the same through
each element (as it was for the series DC circuit)
• The current is determined by Ohm’s Law:
ZT  Z1  Z 2
V 1  ??, V 2  ??
15.3 Series Configuration
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law can be applied in the
same manner as it is employed for a DC circuit.
• The power to the circuit can be determined by:
Where
E, I : effective values (Erms, Irms)
θT : phase angle between E and I
14.5 Power Factor
Power factor  F p  cos  T
P  E rms I rms cos  T
• For a purely resistive load;

T  0 F P  cos  T  1
Hence; P  E rms I rms cos  T  E rms I rms
• For purely inductive or purely capacitive load;

 T  90  F P  cos  T  0
Hence; P  E rms I rms cos  T  0

14.5 Power Factor
• Power factor can be lagging or leading.
– Defined by the current through the load.
• Lagging power factor:

– Current lags voltage
– Inductive circuit
• Leading power factor:

– Current leads voltage
– Capacitive circuit

R-L
1. Phasor Notation
Series R-L circuit Apply phasor notation
e  141 . 4 sin  t E  100 V  0



R-L
2. ZT
ZT  Z1  Z 2
 ( 3  0  )  ( 4  90  )
 3  j4

Z T  5   53 . 13
Impedance diagram:

R-L
3. I

E 100 V  0
I   
ZT 5   53 . 13

I  20 A   53 . 13

R-L
4. VR and VL
Ohm’s Law:
VR  IZ R

 ( 20 A   53 . 13 )( 3   0 )

V R  60   53 . 13 V
VL  IZ L
 
 ( 20 A   53 . 13 )( 4   90 )

V L  80  36 . 87 V
R-L
Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
 V  E  VR  VL  0
E  VR  VL
Or;
In rectangular form,

V R  60 V   53 . 13  36  j 48 V;

V L  80 V  36 . 87  64  j 48 V
E  VR  VL
 ( 36  j 48 )  ( 64  j 48 )  100  j 0

 100 V  0http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ Page 125 of 241 15
R-L
Phasor diagram:

E  100 V  0

I  20 A   53 . 13

V R  60   53 . 13 V

V L  80  36 . 87 V
I is in phase with the VR and lags the VL by 90o.

lags E by 53.13o.
Ihttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ Page 126 of 241 16
R-L
Power: The total power delivered to the circuit is
PT  EI cos  T

 (100 )( 20 ) cos 53 . 13
 1200 W
Where
E, I : effective values;
θT : phase angle between E and I
Or; PT  I R  20  3  1200 W
2 2

R-L
Power factor:
F p  cos  T

 cos 53 . 13
F p  0 .6 lagging
P  EI cos 
2 R
P I R IR R R
cos       F P  cos  T 
EI EI E E I ZT ZT

R-C
1. Phasor Notation
Series R-C circuit Apply phasor notation

i  7 . 07 sin  t  53 . 13

A I  5  53 . 13

A
R-C
2. ZT
Impedance diagram:
ZT  Z1  Z 2
 ( 6  0  )  ( 8   90  )
 6  j8

Z T  10   53 . 13 
R-C
3. E
E  IZ T
 
 ( 5  53 . 13 )( 10   53 . 13 )

E  50  0 V

R-C
4. VR and VC
Ohm’s Law:
VR  IZ R
 
 ( 5  53 . 13 )( 6  0 )

V R  30  53 . 13 V
VC  IZ C
 
 ( 5  53 . 13 )( 8   90 )

V C  40   36 . 87 V
R-C
 V  E  VR  VC  0
Or; E  V R  VC

R-C
Phasor diagram:

I  5  53 . 13 A

E  50  0 V

V R  30  53 . 13 V

V C  40   36 . 87 V
I is in phase with the VR and leads the VC by 90o.

leads E by 53.13o.
Ihttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ Page 134 of 241 24
R-C
Time domain: E  50  0 V

e  70 . 7 sin  t V

V R  30  53 . 13 V 
v R  42 . 42 sin  t  53 . 13 V

 56 . 56 sin  t  36 . 87  V
 
V C  40   36 . 87 V vC

R-C
Power:
The total power delivered to the circuit is
P  EI cos  T

 ( 50 )( 5 ) cos 53 . 13
 150 W
Or; P  I R  5  6  150 W
2 2

R-C
Power factor:
F p  cos  T

 cos 53 . 13
F p  0 .6 leading
Or; R
F P  cos  T 
ZT
6
FP   0 . 6 leading
10 http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ Page 137 of 241 27
R-L-C
1. Phasor Notation
TIME DOMAIN
PHASOR DOMAIN

R-L-C Impedance diagram:
2. ZT
ZT  Z1  Z 2  Z3
  R  0     X L  90     X C   90  
 3  j7  j3
 3  j4

Z T  5  53 . 13 http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ Page 139 of 241 29
R-L-C
3. I

E 50  0
I   
ZT 5  53 . 13

I  10   53 . 13 A

R-L-C
4. VR , VL and VC
Ohm’s Law:
 
V R  IZ R
 (10   53 . 13 )( 3  0 )

V R  30   53 . 13 V
 
V L  IZ L
 (10   53 . 13 )( 7  90 )

V L  70  36 . 87 V

V C  IZ

 (10   53 . 13 )( 3   90 )

V C  30   143 . 13 V
C
R-L-C
 V  E  VR  VL  VC  0
E  V R  V L  VC
Or;

R-L-C
Phasor diagram:
E  50  0  V

I  10   53 . 13 A

V R  30   53 . 13 V

V L  70  36 . 87 V

V C  30   143 . 13 V
I is in phase with the VR , lags the VL by 90o, leads the VC by 90o

lags E by 53.13o.
I http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/ Page 143 of 241 33
R-L-C
Time domain:

R-L-C
Power:
The total power delivered to the circuit is

PT  EI cos  T  ( 50 )( 10 ) cos 53 . 13  300 W
Or; PT  I R  10  3  300 W
2 2
Power factor:

F p  cos  T  cos 53 . 13
F p  0 .6 lagging
15.4 Voltage Divider Rule
• The basic format for the VDR in AC circuits is
exactly the same as that for the DC circuits.
Z
Vx 
x
E
ZT
Where
Vx : voltage across one or more elements in a series that
have total impedance Zx
E : total voltage appearing across the series circuit.
ZT : total impedance of the series circuit.

Example 15.11(a)
Calculate I, VR, VL and VC in phasor form.

Example 15.11(a) - Solution
Combined the R’s, L’s and C’s.

RT LT CT
R T  R1  R 2
10  0.1 H 100 mF
 6  4  10  ve
202sin377t i
L T  L1  L 2
 0 . 05  0 . 05  0 . 1 H
1 1 1 C 1C 2 200  200
  CT    100 m F
CT C1 C2 C1  C 2 200  200

Example 15.11(a) – Solution (cont’d)
RT XL XC
Find the reactances.
10  37.7  26.53 
X   L T  377 ( 0 . 1 )
VE
L
200 V I
 37 . 7 
1 1
X C
  6
 26 . 53 
CT 377 (100  10 )
1. Transform the circuit into phasor domain.


e  20 2 sin 377 t V E  20  0 V
i I
2. Determine the total impedance.

Z T  R T  jX  jX XL XC
L C RT
 10  j 37 . 7  j 26 . 53
10  37.7  26.53 
 10  j 11 . 17 V
E
200 V I

Z T  15  48 . 16 
3. Calculate I.
E 20  0 
I   
I  1.33   48 . 16

A
ZT 15  48 . 16
RT XL XC
4. Calculate VR, VL and VC
10  37.7  26.53 
VE
V R  IZ R 200 V I
 
 (1 . 33   48 . 16 )( 10  0 )

V R  13 . 3   48 . 16 V
V L  IZ 
V L  50 . 14  41 . 84
L
V
 
 (1 . 33   48 . 16 )( 37 . 7  90 )
V C  IZ 
V C  35 . 28   138 . 16
C
V
 
 (1 . 33   48 . 16 http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
)( 26 . 53   90 ) Page 151 of 241 41
Example 15.11(b)
Calculate the total power factor.
Solution


E  20  0 V I  1.33   48 . 16 A
Angle between E and I is 48 . 16



F p  cos  T  cos 48 . 16
F p  0 . 667 lagging
Example 15.11(c)
Calculate the average power delivered to the circuit.
Solution


E  20  0 V I  1.33   48 . 16 A

PT  EI cos  T  ( 20 )( 1 . 33 ) cos 48 . 16
PT  17 . 74 W

Example 15.11(d)
Draw the phasor diagram.
Solution

E  20  0 V

I  1.33   48 . 16 A

V R  13 . 3   48 . 16 V

V L  50 . 14  41 . 84 V

V C  35 . 28   138 . 16 V
Example 15.11(e)
Obtain the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC and show
that it equals the input voltage E.
Solution

V R  13 . 3   48 . 16 V  8 . 894  j 9 . 933 V

V L  50 . 14  41 . 84 V  37 . 355  j 33 . 446 V

V C  35 . 28   138 . 16 V   26 . 284  j 23 . 534 V
E  V R  V L  VC
 8 . 894  37 . 355  26 . 284  j 9 . 933  j 33 . 446  j 23 . 534


E  19 . 965  j 0 . 021  20  j 0  20  0 V
Example 15.11(f)
Find VR and VC using voltage divider rule.
RT XL XC
Solution 10  37.7  26.53 
VE
 200 V I
Z T  15  48 . 16 

ZR 10  0  
VR  E  ( 20  0 ) V R  13 . 3   48 . 16 V

ZT 15  48 . 16

ZC 26 . 53   90  
VC  E  
( 20  0 ) V C  35 . 37   138 . 16 V
ZT 15  48 . 16
15.6 Summaries of Series AC Circuits
For a series AC circuits with reactive elements:

• The total impedance will be frequency dependent.
• The impedance of any one element can be
greater than the total impedance of the network.
• The inductive and capacitive reactances are
always in direct opposition on an impedance
diagram.
• Depending on the frequency applied, the same
circuit can be either predominantly inductive or
predominantly capacitive.
(continued…)
• At lower frequencies, the capacitive elements
will usually have the most impact on the total
impedance.
• At high frequencies, the inductive elements will
usually have the most impact on the total
impedance.
• The magnitude of the voltage across any one
element can be greater than the applied voltage.

(continued…)
• The magnitude of the voltage across an element
as compared to the other elements of the circuit
is directly related to the magnitude of its
impedance; that is, the larger the impedance of
an element , the larger the magnitude of the
voltage across the element.
• The voltages across an inductor or capacitor are

always in direct opposition on a phasor diagram.

(continued…)
• The current is always in phase with the voltage
across the resistive elements, lags the voltage
across all the inductive elements by 90°, and
leads the voltage across the capacitive elements
by 90°.
• The larger the resistive element of a circuit

compared to the net reactive impedance, the
closer the power factor is to unity.

BAKISS HIYANA BT ABU BAKAR
JKE,POLISAS
1
1. Explain AC circuit concept and their
analysis using AC circuit law.
2. Apply the knowledge of AC circuit in solving
problem related to AC electrical circuit.
2
Resonance
phenomenon & its
functions
Effect of changing
the frequency
Understand
Graph of
resonance in series
RESONANCE impedance vs
and parallel
frequency
circuits
Resonance
frequency equation
Determine Q, BW,
D
3
4
Resonance is a condition in RLC circuit in which the capacitive and
inductive reactance are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a
purely resistive impedance.
Z = R + j( ) ; note: =0
XL = XC
5
Current
will be maximum & offering minimum
impedance.
6
Current
will be minimum & offering maximum
impedance.
7
Resonance circuit serves as stable frequency
source. The frequency set by the tank
circuit is solely dependent upon
the value of L & C
Resonance circuit serves as filter.

Acting as a short
of frequency
“filter” to strain
certain
frequencies out
of a mix of
others
8
A series RLC circuit’s reactance changes as
you change the voltage source’s frequency.
Its total impedance also changes.
9
At low frequencies, Xc > XL and the circuit is
primarily capacitive.
At high frequencies, XL > Xc and the circuit is
primarily inductive.
10
Reactance change as you change the voltage
source’s frequency.
At low frequencies, XL < Xc and the circuit is
primarily inductive.
At high frequencies, Xc< XL and the circuit is
primarily capacitive.
11
A series RLC circuit contains both inductive reactance (XL)
and capacitive reactance (Xc).
Since XL and Xc have opposite phase angles, they tend to
cancel each other out and the circuit’s total reactance is
smaller that either individual reactance:
XT < XL & XT < Xc
12
Thesmaller reactance dominates, since a smaller
reactance results in a larger branch current.
13
14
15
SERIES CIRCUIT:
(a) Q factor:
- Q is the ratio of power stored to power dissipated in the circuit
reactance and resistance.
- Q is the ratio of its resonant frequency to its bandwidth.
IF;
16
PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
(a) Quality factor: the ratio of the circulating branch currents to the supply
current .
17
(b) Frequency bandwidth, B = f2 – f1:
The difference between the two half-power frequencies.
Bandwidth, Δf is measured between the 70.7% amplitude points

of series resonant circuit.
18
Lower cut-off frequency, (ƒL):
Upper cut-off frequency, (ƒH):
19
BW = fc/Q
Where:
fc = resonant frquency
Q = quality factor
20
Parallel resonant response varies with Q.
21
In Figure above, the 100% current point is 50 mA. The 70.7% level is 0707(50
mA)=35.4 mA.
The upper and lower band edges read from the curve are 291 Hz for fl and 355 Hz
for fh. The bandwidth is 64 Hz, and the half power points are ± 32 Hz of the center
resonant frequency
BW = ∆f = fh-fl = 355-291 = 64
fl = fc - ∆f/2 = 323-32 = 291
fh = fc + ∆f/2 = 323+32 = 355
Since BW = fc/Q:
Q = fc/BW = (323 Hz)/(64 Hz) = 5
22
(c) The dissipation factor, D:
- The ratio of the power loss in a dielectric material to the total
power transmitted through the dielectric.
23
CHARACTERISTIC SERIES CIRCUIT PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Resonant frequency,
fr
Quality factor,Q
Bandwidth, BW
Half power
frequency, &
fL & f H
24
A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of 30Ω, a capacitor
of 2uF and an inductor of 20mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply
voltage which has a constant output of 9 volts at all frequencies.
Calculate, the resonant frequency, the current at resonance, the
voltage across the inductor and capacitor at resonance, the quality
factor and the bandwidth of the circuit. Also sketch the corresponding
current waveform for all frequencies.
25
Resonant Frequency, ƒr Bandwidth, BW
The upper and lower -3dB frequency

points, ƒH and ƒL
Circuit Current at Resonance, Im
Inductive Reactance at Resonance, XL
Voltages across the inductor and the Current Waveform

capacitor, VL, VC
Quality factor, Q
26
A series circuit consists of a resistance of 4Ω, an inductance of 500mH and
a variable capacitance connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate
the capacitance require to give series resonance and the voltages
generated across both the inductor and the capacitor.
Solution:
Resonant Frequency, ƒr
Voltages across the inductor and the capacitor, VL, VC
27
A parallel resonance network consisting of a resistor of 60Ω, a capacitor of
120uF and an inductor of 200mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply
voltage which has a constant output of 100 volts at all frequencies.
Calculate, the resonant frequency, the quality factor and the bandwidth of
the circuit, the circuit current at resonance and current magnification.
28
The upper and lower -3dB frequency
points, ƒH and ƒL
Resonant Frequency, ƒr
Inductive Reactance at Resonance, Circuit Current at Resonance, IT

XL At resonance the dynamic
impedance of the circuit is equal to
R
Quality factor, Q
Current Magnification, Imag

Bandwidth, BW
We can check this value by
calculating the current flowing
through the inductor (or capacitor)
at resonance.
29
For resonance to occur in any circuit it must have at least
one inductor and one capacitor.
Resonance is the result of oscillations in a circuit as stored

energy is passed from the inductor to the capacitor.
Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary part of the

transfer function is zero.
At resonance the impedance of the circuit is equal to the

resistance value as Z = R.
30
LOGO
CHAPTER 5 : THREE PHASE
SYSTEM
Objectives:
Know basic principles of 3Φ system
List advantages and application of 3Φ
system compared to 1Φ system
Know 3Φ e.m.f generation
Identify star & delta connection
Determine VPH, IPH, VL,IL & power in
3Φ system

INTRODUCTION
3Φ system is a combination of three 1Φ

system
In 3Φ system balanced system, power
comes from 3Φ AC generator
3Φ generators have 3 coils fixed at 120° to
each other rotating in magnetic field.
3Φ system are use for transmission and
distribution of electricity and also in industry

ADVANTAGES OF 3Φ SYSTEM
vs 1Φ SYSTEM
Weight less than 1Φ circuit of same power
rating
Have wide range of voltages
Smaller in size &higher power factor thus
more efficient
Steady torque output and ability to self start
Inherent benefits for high power transmission
Produce constant amount of power in the
load

GENERATION OF 3Φ
SUPPLY
There are two ways to generate 3Φ supply.
Moving magnetic field while coil is permanent.
Moving coil while magnetic field is permanent.

GENERATION OF 3Φ SUPPLY
Generation for R phase (same as single phase generation)

Generation for Y phase (coil rotate 120° so that it will equal with R
phase, thus Y lags R by 120°)

Generation for B phase (coil rotate 240° so that it will equal with R
phase, thus B lags R by 240°)

Phasor diagram for 3 phase system

CONNECTION IN 3Φ system
Physically 3Φ system
consist of
three different coils.
Each phase coils have 2
terminal and required 2
conductor as connection
So 6 conductors will be used
as
in 3Φ connection
This kind of connection is
difficult and will cost more.
To overcome this problem,
3Φ
supply usually connected in
DELTA or STAR connection

a) STAR/ WYE Connection
Physical connection Conventional representation

diagram
b) DELTA Connection
Conventional representation
Physical connection
diagram
REVIEW
Two ways to generate AC rotating coil,

permanent magnet field or vice versa.
Each voltage separed by 120°
IN equal to zero when load is balanced.

CALCULATION
STAR CONNECTION DELTA CONNECTION
Relationship between VL and Vph Relationship between IL and Iph

FORMULA USE IN THREE PHASE
CALCULATION

EXERCISE

ET201 Electrical Circuits
ƌTRANSFORMERƍ
c
TOPICS COVERED:
Transformer Basics
Transformer Construction
Transformer Operating Principles
Transformer Symbols And
Testing
Step
Step--up And Step
Step--down
Transformer

TOPICS COVERED:
Transformer
Transformer-- Isolation Device
Transformer Current Calculation and
Efficiency
Transformer Rating
Power Losses
Impedance Matching
Transformer Application

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ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

 Define and explain characteristics of

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• The sine wave at the

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• Peak factor is defined as the ratio of peak

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The cycles within T1, T2, and T3 may appear different in

Frequency = 1 cycle Frequency = 21/2 cycles Frequency = 2 cycles

1 hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second Page

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Degree Radian Radian Degree

90° (π/180°) x ( 90°) = π/2 rad

60° (π/180°) x ( 60°) = π/3 rad

30° (π/180°) x (30°) = π/6 rad 3π /2 (180°/π) x (3π /2) = 270°

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Waveform picture with respect to angular velocity

• Formula of angular velocity

distance (degrees or radians ) 

Since (ω) is typically provided in radians/second, the

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• The time required to complete one cycle is equal to the

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Average value = area under the function in a period

2. Use integral method

For a symmetry waveform, area upper section equal to area

For a sinus waveform , average value can

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Em  2 Edc  1.414 120  169.7 V

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• General format for electrical quantities such as current

et   Em sin t  Em sin 

where: I m and Em is the peak value of current

Given e(t) = 5 sin, determine e(t) at  = 40 and  = 0.8.

et   5 sin 144  2.94 V

(b) Determine the time

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vt   Vm sin t V Vm  10 V;   377 rad/s 

(a) But α is in radian, so α must be calculate in radian:

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