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Chap21 370 397 PDF
Chap21 370 397 PDF
and Commissioning
Introduction 21.1
Electrical type tests 21.2
Electromagnetic compatibility tests 21.3
Product safety type tests 21.4
Environmental type tests 21.5
Software type tests 21.6
Dynamic validation type testing 21.7
Production testing 21.8
Commissioning tests 21.9
Secondary injection test equipment 21.10
Secondary injection testing 21.11
Primary injection testing 21.12
Testing of protection scheme logic 21.13
Tripping and alarm annunciation tests 21.14
Periodic maintenance tests 21.15
Protection scheme design for maintenance 21.16
References 21.17
• 21 • Relay Testing
and Commissioning
21.1 INTRODUCTION
The testing of protection equipment schemes presents a
number of problems. This is because the main function
of protection equipment is solely concerned with
operation under system fault conditions, and cannot
readily be tested under normal system operating
conditions. This situation is aggravated by the
increasing complexity of protection schemes and use of
relays containing software.
The testing of protection equipment may be divided into
four stages:
i. type tests
ii. routine factory production tests
iii. commissioning tests
iv. periodic maintenance tests
They are usually carried out under controlled Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy
Test 4 over complete RCA setting range in the forward direction,
environmental conditions. The testing may be extensive, voltage angle sweep
even where only a simple relay function is being tested., Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy
Test 5 over complete RCA setting range in the reverse direction,
as can be realised by considering the simple overcurrent voltage angle sweep
relay element of Table 21.1. Test 6 Three phase polarising voltage threshold test
To determine compliance with the specification, the tests Test 7 Accuracy of DT timer over complete setting range
listed in Table 21.2 are required to be carried out. This is Test 8 Accuracy of IDMT curves over claimed accuracy range
a time consuming task, involving many engineers and Test 9 Accuracy of IDMT TMS/TD
technicians. Hence it is expensive. Test 10 Effect of changing fault current on IDMT operating times
Test 11 Minimum Pick-Up of Starts and Trips for IDMT curves
When a modern numerical relay with many functions is
Test 12 Accuracy of reset timers
considered, each of which has to be type-tested, the
Test 13 Effect of any blocking signals, opto inputs, VTS, Autoreclose
functional type-testing involved is a major issue. In the
Test 14 Voltage polarisation memory
case of a recent relay development project, it was
Table 21.2: Overcurrent relay element functional type tests
calculated that if one person had to do all the work, it
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
for CT’s and 10s for VT’s. Tests are carried out for both a.c. and d.c. auxiliary
supplies and include mains variation both above and
below the nominal rating, supply interruptions derived by
21.2.4 Relay Burden open circuit and short circuit, supply dips as a
The burdens of the auxiliary supply, optically isolated percentage of the nominal supply, repetitive starts. The
inputs, VT’s and CT’s are measured to check that the duration of the interruptions and supply dips range from
product complies with its specification. The burden of 2ms to 60s intervals. A short supply interruption or dip
products with a high number of input/output circuits is up to 20ms, possibly longer, should not cause any
application specific i.e. it increases according to the malfunction of the relay. Malfunctions include the
number of optically isolated input and output contact operation of output relays and watchdog contacts, the
ports which are energised under normal power system reset of microprocessors, alarm or trip indication,
load conditions. It is usually envisaged that not more acceptance of corrupted data over the communication
than 50% of such ports will be energised in any link and the corruption of stored data or settings. For a
application. longer supply interruption, or dip in excess of 20ms, the
relay self recovers without the loss of any function, data,
settings or corruption of data. No operator intervention
21.2.5 Relay Inputs is required to restore operation after an interruption or
dip in the supply. Many relays have a specification that
Relay inputs are tested over the specified ranges. Inputs
include those for auxiliary voltage, VT, CT, frequency,
exceeds this requirement, tolerating dips of up to 50ms • 21 •
without operation being affected.
optically isolated digital inputs and communication
circuits. In addition to the above, the relay is subjected to a number
of repetitive starts or a sequence of supply interruptions.
Again the relay is tested to ensure that no damage or data
21.2.6 Relay Output Contacts corruption has occurred during the repetitive tests.
Protection relay output contacts are type tested to Specific tests carried out on d.c. auxiliary supplies
ensure that they comply with the product specification. include reverse polarity, a.c. waveform superimposed on
Particular withstand and endurance type tests have to be the d.c. supply and the effect of a rising and decaying
carried out using d.c., since the normal supply is via a auxiliary voltage. All tests are carried out at various
station battery. levels of loading of the relay auxiliary supply.
1219
175
262
349
436
523
697
784
958
1132
88
610
871
1
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
independent circuit and earth (common mode) via an clamp.
external coupling and switching network. The product is
energised in both normal (quiescent) and tripped modes
21.3.6 Surge Immunity Test
for this test, and must not maloperate when the
interference is applied for a 2 second duration. The Surge Immunity Test simulates interference caused
by major power system disturbances such as capacitor
bank switching and lightning strikes on overhead lines
within 5km of the substation. The test waveform has an
open circuit voltage of 4kV for common mode surges and
2kV for differential mode surges. The test waveshape
consists on open circuit of a 1.2/50ms rise/fall time and
a short circuit current of 8/20ms rise/fall time. The
Voltage
stepping out of a car or after walking on a synthetic fibre equipment’s power supply ports and are to ensure that when
carpet. connected to a mains network, the equipment does not inject
interference back into the network which could adversely
In this case the discharge is only ever applied to the front
affect the other equipment connected to the network.
panel of the relay, with the cover both on and off. Two
types of discharges are applied, air discharge and contact Radiated emissions measurements are to ensure that the
discharge. Air discharges are used on surfaces that are interference radiated from the equipment is not at a
normally insulators, and contact discharges are used on level that could cause interference to other equipment.
surfaces that are normally conducting. IEC 60255-22-2 This test is normally carried out on an Open Area Test
is the relevant standard this test, for which the test Site (OATS) where there are no reflecting structures or
parameters are: sources of radiation, and therefore the measurements
a. cover on: Class 4, 8kV contact discharge, 15kV air obtained are a true indication of the emission spectrum
discharge of the relay. An example of a plot obtained during
b. cover off: Class 3, 6kV contact discharge, 8kV air conducted emissions tests is shown in Figure 21.5.
discharge
The test arrangements for the conducted and radiated
In both cases above, all the lower test levels are also emissions tests are shown in Figure 21.6.
tested.
When performing these two tests, the relay is in a
The discharge current waveform is shown in Figure 21.4.
quiescent condition, that is not tripped, with currents
• 21 • 100 and voltages applied at 90% of the setting values. This
Current, % of Peak
90
80 Rise Time = 0.7 to 1.0 ns. is because for the majority of its life, the relay will be in
70 Current specified for 30 ns and 60 ns
60
the quiescent state and the emission of electromagnetic
50 interference when the relay is tripped is considered to be
40 of no significance. Tests are conducted in accordance
30
20 with IEC 60255-25 and EN 50081-2, and are detailed in
10 Table 21.3.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time, ns Frequency Range Specified Limits Test Limits
30dB(µV/m) 40dB(µV/m)
30 - 230MHz
Figure 21.4: ESD Current Waveform at 30m at 10m
Radiated
37dB(µV/m) 47dB(µV/m)
230 - 1000MHz at 30m at 10m
79dB(µV) 79dB(µV)
The test is performed with single discharges repeated on 0.15 - 0.5MHz quasi-peak quasi-peak
66dB(µV) average 66dB(µV) average
each test point 10 times with positive polarity and 10 Conducted
73dB(µV) 73dB(µV)
times with negative polarity at each test level. The time 0.5 - 30MHz quasi-peak quasi-peak
60dB(µV) average 60dB(µV) average
interval between successive discharges is greater than 1
Table 21.3: Test criteria for Conducted and
second. Tests are carried out at each level, with the relay Radiated Emissions tests
in the following modes of operation:
• 376 • Network Protection & Automation Guide
100
90 Quasi-peak limits
80
Average limits
70
Emissions Level, dBuV
Typical trace
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.1 1 Frequency, MHz 10 100
Screened room
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Ante-chamber
10m
• 21 •
Antenna
E.U.T.
Turntable
Earth Plane
field, arise from the fact that for different site conditions
of 80MHz, a conductor length of approximately 1.0m is the level and waveshape is altered.
required. At this frequency, radiated immunity tests can
be performed with the confidence that the relay will 23.3.11.1 Steady state magnetic field tests
conduct this interference, through a combination of the These tests simulate the magnetic field that would be
attached cabling and the PCB tracks. experienced by a device located within close proximity of
Although the test standards state that all 6 faces of the the power system. Testing is carried out by subjecting
equipment should be subjected to the interference, in the relay to a magnetic field generated by two induction
practice this is not carried out. Applying interference to coils. The relay is rotated such that in each axis it is
the sides and top and bottom of the relay would have subjected to the full magnetic field strength. IEC 61000-
little effect as the circuitry inside is effectively screened 4-6 is the relevant standard, using a signal level of:
by the earthed metal case. However, the front and rear Level 5: 300A/m continuous and 1000A/m short duration
of the relay are not completely enclosed by metal and are
The test arrangement is shown in Figure 21.7.
therefore not at all well screened, and can be regarded as
an EMC hole. Electromagnetic interference when
directed at the front and back of the relay can enter
freely onto the PCB’s inside.
When performing these two tests, the relay is in a Induction coil
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
the power system during a transient fault condition. IEC independent circuits (but not across normally open
61000-4-10 specifies that the generator for the coil shall contacts). As before, different requirements apply in the
produce an oscillatory waveshape with a frequency of case of circuits using D-type connectors.
0.1MHz and 1MHz, to give a signal level in accordance The test generator characteristics are as specified in IEC
with Level 5 of 100A/m, and the equipment shall be 60255-5 and are shown in Figure 21.8. No disruptive
configured as in Figure 21.7. discharge (i.e. flashover or puncture) is allowed.
If it is necessary to repeat either the Dielectric Voltage or
21.4 PRODUCT SAFETY TYPE TESTS High Voltage Impulse Withstand tests these should be
carried out at 75% of the specified level, in accordance
A number of tests are carried out to demonstrate that
with IEC 60255-5, to avoid overstressing insulation and
the product is safe when used for its intended
components.
application. The essential requirements are that the
relay is safe and will not cause an electric shock or fire
hazard under normal conditions and in the presence of a
single fault. A number of specific tests to prove this may
be carried out, as follows.
Voltage
conditions of:
compliance is claimed against relevant European
+25°C ±3°C and 95% relative humidity/+55°C ±2°C and
Community directives e.g. Low Voltage Directive
95% relative humidity
73/23/EEC and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
Directive 89/336/EEC. are used, over the 24 hour cycle shown in Figure 21.9.
Relative humidity %
100 96%
90 95% 95%
80 90%
21.5 ENVIRONMENTAL TYPE TESTS 70 15min
80%
Various tests have to be conducted to prove that a relay End of temperature temperature
can withstand the effects of the environment in which it rise
Time
is expected to work. They consist of: the following tests: +55°C
1. temperature
Ambient Temperature °C
2. humidity
3. enclosure protection
4. mechanical
±0.5h
These tests are described in the following sections. +28°C
• 21 • +25°C
3h 3h +22°C Time
12h±0.5h 6h
21.5.1 Temperature Test 24h
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
0
-0.2A
0.4D D D
21.5.5 Mechanical Tests
2.5D 2.5D
Mechanical tests simulate a number of different 2.4D = T1
mechanical conditions that the product may have to 6D = T2
endure during its lifetime. These fall into two categories
D - duration of nominal pulse
A - peak acceleration of nominal pulse
a. response to disturbances while energised T1- minimum time for monitoring of pulse when conventional
shock/bump machine is used
b. response to disturbances during transportation T2 - as T1 when a vibration generator is used
(de-energised state)
Tests in the first category are concerned with the Figure 21.11: Shock/Bump Impulse waveform
response to vibration, shock and seismic disturbance.
The test levels for shock and bump tests are:
The tests are designed to simulate normal in-service
conditions for the product, for example earthquakes. Shock response (energised):
These tests are performed in all three axes, with the 3 pulses, each 10g, 11ms duration
product energised in its normal (quiescent) state. During
the test, all output contacts are continually monitored Shock withstand (de-energised):
for change using contact follower circuits. Vibration 3 pulses, 15g, 11ms duration • 21 •
levels of 1gn, over a 10Hz-150Hz frequency sweep are
Bump (de-energised):
used. Seismic tests use excitation in a single axis, using
a test frequency of 35Hz and peak displacements of 1000 pulses, 10g, 16ms duration
7.5mm and 3.5mm in the x and y axes respectively below
the crossover frequency and peak accelerations of 2.0gn
and 1.0gn in these axes above the crossover frequency. 21.6 SOFTWARE TYPE TESTS
The second category consists of vibration endurance, Digital and numerical relays contain software to
shock withstand and bump tests. They are designed to implement the protection and measurement functions of
simulate the longer-term affects of shock and vibration a relay. This software must be thoroughly tested, to
that could occur during transportation. These tests are ensure that the relay complies with all specifications and
performed with the product de-energised. After these that disturbances of various kinds do not result in
tests, the product must still operate within its unexpected results. Software is tested in various stages:
specification and show no signs of permanent a. unit testing
mechanical damage. Equipment undergoing a seismic
b. integration testing
type test is shown in Figure 21.10, while the waveform
for the shock/bump test is shown in Figure 21.11 c. functional qualification testing
test cases.
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
what risk there might be of unintentional changes to the 21.7.2 Use of Microprocessor Based Simulation
functionality being introduced. Those areas of highest Equipment
risk will need to be regression tested. The ultimate The complexity of numerical relays, reliant on software
regression test is to perform the complete Validation for implementation of the functions included, dictates
Testing programme again, updated to take account of some kind of automated test equipment. The functions
the changes made. of even a simple numerical overcurrent relay (including
Regression Testing is extremely important. If it is not all auxiliary functions) can take several months of
performed, there is a high risk of errors being found in automated, 24 hours/day testing to test completely. If
the field. Performing it will not reduce to zero the such test equipment was able to apply realistic current
chance of an error or defect remaining in the software, and voltage waveforms that closely match those found
but it will reduce it. Determining the Regression Testing on power systems during fault conditions, the equipment
that is required is made much easier if there is can be used either for type testing of individual relay
traceability from properly documented software designs or of a complete protection scheme designed for
requirements through design (again properly a specific application. In recognition of this, a new
documented and up to date), coding and testing. generation of power system simulators has been
developed, which is capable of providing a far more
accurate simulation of power system conditions than has
21.7 DYNAMIC VALIDATION TYPE TESTING been possible in the past. The simulator enables relays
to be tested under a wide range of system conditions, • 21 •
There are two possible methods of dynamically proving
representing the equivalent of many years of site
the satisfactory performance of protection relays or
experience.
schemes; the first method is by actually applying faults
on the power system and the second is to carry out 21.7.2.1 Simulation hardware
comprehensive testing on a power system simulator.
Equipment is now available to provide high-speed, highly
The former method is extremely unlikely to be used – accurate modelling of a section of a power system. The
lead times are lengthy and the risk of damage occurring equipment is based on distributed microprocessor-based
makes the tests very expensive. It is therefore only used hardware containing software models of the various
on a very limited basis and the faults applied are elements of a power system, and is shown in Figure 21.12.
restricted in number and type. Because of this, a proving The modules have outputs linked to current and voltage
period for new protection equipment under service sources that have a similar transient capability and have
conditions has usually been required. As faults may suitable output levels for direct connection to the inputs
occur on the power system at infrequent intervals, it can of relays –i.e. 110V for voltage and 1A/5A for current.
take a number of years before any possible shortcomings Inputs are also provided to monitor the response of relays
are discovered, during which time further installations under test (contact closures for tripping, etc.) and these
may have occurred. inputs can be used as part of the model of the power
system. The software is also capable of modelling the test results being available on completion
dynamic response of CT’s and VT’s accurately. A block schematic of the equipment is shown in Figure
Where it is desired to check the response of a relay or 21.13, is based around a computer which calculates and
protection scheme to an actual power system transient, stores the digital data representing the system voltages
the transient can be simulated using sophisticated power and currents. The computer controls conversion of the
systems analysis software and the results transferred digital data into analogue signals, and it monitors and
digitally to the simulator, or the event recorder recording controls the relays being tested.
of the transient can be used, in either digital or analogue
21.7.2.2 Simulation software
form as inputs to the simulator model. Output signal
conversion involves circuits to eliminate the quantisation Unlike most traditional software used for power systems
steps normally found in conventional D/A conversion. analysis, the software used is suitable for the modelling
Analogue models of the system transducer the fast transients that occur in the first few
characteristics can be interposed between the signal milliseconds after fault inception. Two very accurate
processors and the output amplifiers when required. simulation programs are used, one based on time domain
This equipment shows many advantages over traditional and the other on frequency domain techniques. In both
• 21 • test equipment: programs, single and double circuit transmission lines are
represented by fully distributed parameter models. The
a. the power system model is capable of reproducing line parameters are calculated from the physical
high frequency transients such as travelling waves construction of the line (symmetrical, asymmetrical,
b. tests involving very long time constants can be transposed or non-transposed), taking into account the
carried out effect of conductor geometry, conductor internal
c. it is not affected by the harmonic content, noise impedance and the earth return path. It also includes,
and frequency variations in the a.c. supply where appropriate, the frequency dependence of the line
parameters in the frequency domain program. The
d. it is capable of representing the variation in the frequency dependent variable effects are calculated
current associated with generator faults and power using Fast Fourier Transforms and the results are
swings converted to the time domain. Conventional current
e. saturation effects in CT’s and VT’s can be modelled transformers and capacitor voltage transformers can be
simulated.
f. a set of test routines can be specified in software and
then left to run unattended (or with only occasional The fault can be applied at any one point in the system and
monitoring) to completion, with a detailed record of can be any combination of phase to phase or phase
IB Linear
D/A CT Current
interpolation
conversion model amplifier
circuits
IC
VDU VA
Equipment
under
I/O test
Computer VB Linear
Keyboard Sub- D/A CVT Voltage
interpolation
system conversion model amplifier
circuits
VDU VC
Contact
status
monitor
Keyboard Storage Key :
CT - Current transformer
CVT - Capacitor voltage transformer Signalling
VDU - Visual display unit Channel
Simulation
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Figure 21.13: Block diagram of microprocessor-based automated relay test system
In addition to these two programs, a simulation program k. transducer models can be included
based on lumped resistance and inductance parameters l. automatic testing removes the likelihood of
is used. This simulation is used to represent systems with measurement and setting errors
long time constants and slow system changes due, for
m. two such equipments can be linked together to
example, to power swings.
simulate a system model with two relaying points
21.7.2.3 Simulator applications
The simulator is also used for the production testing of
The simulator is used for checking the accuracy of relays, in which most of the advantages listed above • 21 •
calibration and performing type tests on a wide range of apply. As the tests and measurements are made
protection relays during their development. It has the automatically, the quality of testing is also greatly
following advantages over existing test methods: enhanced. Further, in cases of suspected malfunction of
a. 'state of the art' power system modelling data can a relay in the field under known fault conditions, the
be used to test relays simulator can be used to replicate the power system and
fault conditions, and conduct a detailed investigation
b. freedom from frequency variations and noise or into the performance of the relay. Finally, complex
harmonic content of the a.c. supply protection schemes can be modelled, using both the
c. the relay under test does not burden the power relays intended for use and software models of them as
system simulation appropriate, to check the suitability of the proposed
scheme under a wide variety of conditions. To illustrate
d. all tests are accurately repeatable this, Figure 21.14(a) shows a section of a particular power
e. wide bandwidth signals can be produced system modelled. The waveforms of Figure 21.14(b) show
the three phase voltages and currents at the primaries of
f. a wide range of frequencies can be reproduced
VT1 and CT1 for the fault condition indicated in Figure
g. selected harmonics may be superimposed on the 21.14(a).
3G L
Infinite bus
4G CB3 CT3 F3 F4 CT4 CB4
Line 2
8G
9G
LR3 LR4
11G
CB1 CT1 F1 F2 CT2 CB2
load 1 Line 1
load 3
LR1 LR2
Relay 1 Relay 2
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Va
Vb
Vc
Ia
Ib
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
of such errors may range from simply being a nuisance stability for external faults and to determine the
(tripping occurs repeatedly on energisation, requiring effective current setting for internal faults (essential
investigation to locate and correct the error(s)) through for some types of electromechanical relays)
to failure to trip under fault conditions, leading to major
equipment damage, disruption to supplies and potential k. testing of protection scheme logic
hazards to personnel. The strategies available to remove This section details the tests required to cover items
these risks are many, but all involve some kind of testing (a)–(g) above. Secondary injection test equipment is
at site. covered in Section 21.10 and Section 21.11 details the
Commissioning tests at site are therefore invariably secondary injection that may be carried out. Section
performed before protection equipment is set to work. 21.12 covers primary injection testing, and Section 21.13
The aims of commissioning tests are: details the checks required on any logic involved in the
protection scheme. Finally, Section 21.14 details the tests
1. to ensure that the equipment has not been required on alarm/tripping circuits tripping/alarm
damaged during transit or installation circuits.
2. to ensure that the installation work has been
carried out correctly
21.9.1 Insulation Tests
3. to prove the correct functioning of the protection
scheme as a whole All the deliberate earth connections on the wiring to be
tested should first be removed, for example earthing • 21 •
The tests carried out will normally vary according to the links on current transformers, voltage transformers and
protection scheme involved, the relay technology used, d.c. supplies. Some insulation testers generate impulses
and the policy of the client. In many cases, the tests with peak voltages exceeding 5kV. In these instances
actually conducted are determined at the time of any electronic equipment should be disconnected while
commissioning by mutual agreement between the the external wiring insulation is checked.
client’s representative and the commissioning team.
The insulation resistance should be measured to earth
Hence, it is not possible to provide a definitive list of
and between electrically separate circuits. The readings
tests that are required during commissioning. This
are recorded and compared with subsequent routine
section therefore describes the tests commonly carried
tests to check for any deterioration of the insulation.
out during commissioning.
The insulation resistance measured depends on the
The following tests are invariably carried out, since the
amount of wiring involved, its grade, and the site
protection scheme will not function correctly if faults exist.
humidity. Generally, if the test is restricted to one
a. wiring diagram check, using circuit diagrams cubicle, a reading of several hundred megohms should be
showing all the reference numbers of the obtained. If long lengths of site wiring are involved, the
interconnecting wiring reading could be only a few megohms.
A
P2 P1
250V
_ S2 S1 + To relay a.c. supply
V
• 21 • P1 S
1
coils
P2 S2 Step-up transformer
if required
Main circuit
breaker open
_ +
A
Figure 21.17: Testing current transformer
magnetising curve
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
between, say, both ‘A’ phase secondary outputs. There entered and/or checked. Where the complete scheme is
should be nominally little or no voltage if the phasing is engineered and supplied by a single contractor, the
correct. However, this test does not detect if the phase settings may already have been entered prior to despatch
sequence is correct, but the phases are displaced by 120° from the factory, and hence this need not be repeated.
from their correct position, i.e. phase A occupies the The method of entering settings varies according to the
position of phase C or phase B in Figure 21.18. This can relay technology used. For electromechanical and static
be checked by removing the fuses from phases B and C relays, manual entry of the settings for each relay
(say) and measuring the phase-earth voltages on the element is required. This method can also be used for
secondary of the VT. If the phasing is correct, only phase digital/numerical relays. However, the amount of data to
A should be healthy, phases B and C should have only a be entered is much greater, and therefore it is usual to
small residual voltage. use appropriate software, normally supplied by the
manufacturer, for this purpose. The software also makes
A the essential task of making a record of the data entered
B much easier.
C
Once the data has been entered, it should be checked for
A
compliance with the recommended settings as
calculated from the protection setting study. Where
V1
appropriate software is used for data entry, the checks
C B
can be considered complete if the data is checked prior • 21 •
V2 to download of the settings to the relay. Otherwise, a
check may required subsequent to data entry by
inspection and recording of the relay settings, or it may
VN
be considered adequate to do this at the time of data
V entry. The recorded settings form an essential part of the
VL commissioning documentation provided to the client.
V2
can be completely isolated from the switchgear wiring be distorted if the injection supply voltage is fed directly
when the test plug is inserted. To avoid open-circuiting to the coil. The presence of harmonics in the current
CT secondary terminals, it is therefore essential that CT waveform may affect the torque of electromechanical
shorting jumper links are fitted across all appropriate relays and give unreliable test results, so some injection
‘live side’ terminals of the test plug BEFORE it is inserted. test sets use an adjustable series reactance to control the
With the test plug inserted in position, all the test current. This keeps the power dissipation small and the
circuitry can now be connected to the isolated ‘relay equipment light and compact.
side’ test plug terminals. Some modern test blocks Many test sets are portable and include precision
incorporate the live-side jumper links within the block ammeters and voltmeters and timing equipment. Test
and these can be set to the ‘closed’ or ‘open’ position as sets may have both voltage and current outputs. The
appropriate, either manually prior to removing the cover former are high-voltage, low current outputs for use
and inserting the test plug, or automatically upon with relay elements that require signal inputs from a VT
removal of the cover. Removal of the cover also exposes as well as a CT. The current outputs are high-current,
the colour-coded face-plate of the block, clearly low voltage to connect to relay CT inputs. It is
indicating that the protection scheme is not in service, important, however, to ensure that the test set current
and may also disconnect any d.c. auxiliary supplies used outputs are true current sources, and hence are not
for powering relay tripping outputs. affected by the load impedance of a relay element
current coil. Use of a test set with a current output that
Withdrawing the test plug immediately restores the
• 21 • connections to the main current transformers and
is essentially a voltage source can give rise to serious
problems when testing electromechanical relays. Any
voltage transformers and removes the test connections.
significant impedance mismatch between the output of
Replacement of the test block cover then removes the
the test set and the relay current coil during relay
short circuits that had been applied to the main CT
operation will give rise to a variation in current from that
secondary circuits. Where several relays are used in a
desired and possible error in the test results. The relay
protection scheme, one or more test blocks may be fitted
operation time may be greater than expected (never less
on the relay panel enabling the whole scheme to be than expected) or relay ‘chatter’ may occur. It is quite
tested, rather than just one relay at a time. common for such errors to only be found much later,
Test blocks usually offer facilities for the monitoring and after a fault has caused major damage to equipment
secondary injection testing of any power system through failure of the primary protection to operate.
protection scheme. The test block may be used either Failure investigation then shows that the reason for the
with a multi-fingered test plug to allow isolation and primary protection to operate is an incorrectly set relay,
monitoring of all the selected conductor paths, or with a due in turn to use of a test set with a current output
single finger test plug that allows the currents on consisting of a voltage-source when the relay was last
individual conductors to be monitored. A modern test tested. Figure 21.20 shows typical waveforms resulting
block and test plugs are illustrated in Figure 21.19. from use of test set current output that is a voltage
Saturation level of
magnetic circuit (current)
limited only by D.C.
resistance of
Time relay coil
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Sinusoidal CURRENT when
changing impedance of relay
is swamped out by high
source impedance
Time
• 21 •
b) Undistorted relay current coil current distorted due to use of current source
source – the distorted relay coil current waveform gives 3-phase output set. Much greater precision in the
rise to an extended operation time compared to the setting of the magnitudes and phase angles is possible,
expected value. compared to traditional test sets. Digital signals to
exercise the internal logic elements of the relays may
Modern test sets are computer based. They comprise a also be provided. The alarm and trip outputs of the relay
PC (usually a standard laptop PC with suitable software) are connected to digital inputs on the PC so that correct
and a power amplifier that takes the low-level outputs operation of the relay, including accuracy of the relay
from the PC and amplifies them into voltage and current tripping characteristic can be monitored and displayed
signals suitable for application to the VT and CT inputs of on-screen, saved for inclusion in reports generated later,
the relay. The phase angle between voltage and current or printed for an immediate record to present to the
outputs will be adjustable, as also will the phase angles client. Optional features may include GPS time
between the individual voltages or currents making up a synchronising equipment and remote-located amplifiers
• 21 •
A
Coarse Range
control adjusting CT
reactor
K2 K1 I
Figure 21.22: Circuit diagram of traditional test set for overcurrent relays
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
appropriate digital inputs may need to be applied and
outputs monitored (see Section 21.13). It is clear that a Zn
modern test set can facilitate such tests, leading to a
reduced time required for testing.
*
21.11.1 Schemes using Digital or Numerical R
Relay Technology
PSB-Zone
The policy for secondary injection testing varies widely.
In some cases, manufacturers recommend, and clients
accept, that if a digital or numerical relay passes its’ self-
Figure 21.25: Testing of power swing
test, it can be relied upon to operate at the settings used blocking element – discrete points
and that testing can therefore be confined to those parts
of the scheme external to the relay. In such cases,
secondary injection testing is not required at all. More
often, it is required that one element of each relay
(usually the simplest) is exercised, using a secondary
injection test set, to check that relay operation occurs at
the conditions expected, based on the setting of the • 21 •
relay element concerned. Another alternative is for the
complete functionality of each relay to be exercised. This
is rarely required with a digital or numerical relay,
probably only being carried out in the event of a
suspected relay malfunction.
To illustrate the results that can be obtained, Figure Figure 21.26: Simulated power swing waveform
21.24 shows the results obtained by a modern test set
when determining the reach settings of a distance relay 21.11.2 Schemes using
using a search technique. Another example is the testing Electromechanical/Static Relay Technology
of the Power Swing blocking element of a distance relay. Schemes using single function electromechanical or
Figure 21.25 illustrates such a test, based on using static relays will usually require each relay to be
discrete impedance points. This kind of test may not be exercised. Thus a scheme with distance and back-up
adequate in all cases, and test equipment may have the overcurrent elements will require a test on each of these
ability to generate the waveforms simulating a power functions, thereby taking up more time than if a digital
swing and apply them to the relay (Figure 21.26). or numerical relay is used. Similarly, it may be important
simple and obvious, the relay commissioning manual will 21.12.1 Test Facilities
give details of the circuits to be used. Commonly used
An alternator is the most useful source of power for
test circuits can also be found in Chapter 23 of reference
providing the heavy current necessary for primary
[21.1]. When using the circuits in this reference, suitable
injection. Unfortunately, it is rarely available, since it
simplifications can easily be made if digital or numerical
requires not only a spare alternator, but also spare
relays are being tested, to allow for their built-in
busbars capable of being connected to the alternator and
measurement capabilities – external ammeters and
circuit under test. Therefore, primary injection is usually
voltmeters may not be required.
carried out by means of a portable injection transformer
All results should be carefully noted and filed for record (Figure 21.27), arranged to operate from the local mains
purposes. Departures from the expected results must be supply and having several low voltage, heavy current
thoroughly investigated and the cause determined. After windings. These can be connected in series or parallel
rectification of errors, all tests whose results may have according to the current required and the resistance of
been affected (even those that may have given correct the primary circuit. Outputs of 10V and 1000A can be
results) should be repeated to ensure that the protection obtained. Alternatively, modern PC-controlled test sets
scheme has been implemented according to have power amplifiers capable of injecting currents up to
specification. about 200A for a single unit, with higher current ratings
being possible by using multiple units in parallel.
• 21 • 21.12 PRIMARY INJECTION TESTS
This type of test involves the entire circuit; current
transformer primary and secondary windings, relay coils,
trip and alarm circuits, and all intervening wiring are
checked. There is no need to disturb wiring, which
A
obviates the hazard of open-circuiting current
transformers, and there is generally no need for any 250V a.c.
switching in the current transformer or relay circuits. supply
The drawback of such tests is that they are time
consuming and expensive to organise. Increasingly,
reliance is placed on all wiring and installation diagrams
being correct and the installation being carried out as Variable transformer Injection transformer
per drawings, and secondary injection testing being 40A 250/10 + 10 + 10 + 10V
10kVA
completed satisfactorily. Under these circumstances, the
primary injection tests may be omitted. However, wiring Figure 21.27: Traditional primary
injection test set
errors between VT’s/CT’s and relays, or incorrect polarity
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Temporary A
short circuit
Figure 21.29: Polarity check on main current
transformers
P1 Relay
S1 21.12.4 Primary Injection Testing of Relay Elements
As with secondary injection testing, the tests to be
carried out will be those specified by the client, and/or
S2 those detailed in the relay commissioning manual.
P2 Digital and numerical relays usually require far fewer
Relay or test block tests to prove correct operation, and these may be
contact fingers
restricted to observations of current and voltage on the
A1
relay display under normal load conditions.
Primary injection
test set 21.13 TESTING OF PROTECTION SCHEME LOGIC
• 21 •
250V Protection schemes often involve the use of logic to
a.c. supply
determine the conditions under which designated circuit
Figure 21.28: Current transformer ratio check breakers should be tripped. Simple examples of such
logic can be found in Chapters 9-14. Traditionally, this
logic was implemented by means of discrete relays,
21.12.3 CT Polarity Check separate from the relays used for protection. Such
implementations would occur where electromechanical
If the equipment includes directional, differential or or static relay technology is used. However, digital and
earth fault relays, the polarity of the main current numerical relays normally include programmable logic as
transformers must be checked. It is not necessary to part of the software within the relay, together with
conduct the test if only overcurrent relays are used. associated digital I/O. This facility (commonly referred to
The circuit for checking the polarity with a single-phase as Programmable Scheme Logic, or PSL) offers important
test set is shown in Figure 21.29. A short circuit is placed advantages to the user, by saving space and permitting
across the phases of the primary circuit on one side of modifications to the protection scheme logic through
the current transformers while single-phase injection is software if the protection scheme requirements change
carried out on the other side. The ammeter connected in with time. Changes to the logic are carried out using
a. checking of the scheme logic specification and The clearance of a fault on the system is correct only if
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
diagrams to ensure that the objectives of the logic the number of circuit breakers opened is the minimum
are achieved necessary to remove the fault. A small proportion of
faults are incorrectly cleared, the main reasons being:
b. testing of the logic to ensure that the functionality
of the scheme is proven a. limitations in protection scheme design
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
fuses. Withdrawal of these should completely
protection provided for the duration of the tests. Such
isolate the circuit concerned
back-up protection may not be fully discriminative, but
should be sufficient to clear any fault on the apparatus v. power supplies to protection schemes should be
whose main protection is temporarily out of service. segregated from those supplying other equipment and
provided with fully discriminative circuit protection
Maintenance is assisted by the displays of measured
quantities provided on digital and numerical relays. Incorrect vi. a single auxiliary switch should not be used for
display of a quantity is a clear indication that something is interrupting or closing more than one circuit
wrong, either in the relay itself or the input circuits. vii. terminations in relay panels require good access,
as these may have to be altered if extensions are
made. Modern panels are provided with special
21.15.2 Maintenance Tests
test facilities, so that no connections need be
Primary injection tests are normally only conducted out disturbed during routine testing
during initial commissioning. If scheme maloperation
viii. junction boxes should be of adequate size and, if
has occurred and the protection relays involved are
outdoors, must be made waterproof
suspect, or alterations have been made involving the
wiring to the relays from the VT’s/CT’s, the primary ix. all wiring should be ferruled for identification and
injection tests may have to be repeated. phase-coloured
Secondary injection tests may be carried out at suitable x. electromechanical relays should have high • 21 •
intervals to check relay performance, and, if possible, the operating and restraint torques and high contact
relay should be allowed to trip the circuit breakers pressures; jewel bearings should be shrouded to
involved. The interval between tests will depend upon exclude dust and the use of very thin wire for coils
the criticality of the circuit involved, the availability of and connections should be avoided. Dust-tight
the circuit for testing and the technology of the relays cases with an efficient breather are essential on
used. Secondary injection testing is only necessary on these types of electromechanical element
the selected relay setting and the results should be
xi. static, digital and numerical relays should have test
checked against those obtained during the initial
facilities accessible from the front to assist in fault
commissioning of the equipment.
finding. The relay manual should clearly detail the
It is better not to interfere with relay contacts at all expected results at each test point when healthy
unless they are obviously corroded. The performance of
the contacts is fully checked when the relay is actuated.
21.17 REFERENCES
Insulation tests should also be carried out on the relay
wiring to earth and between circuits, using a 1000V 21.1 Protective Relays Application Guide, 3rd edition.
tester. These tests are necessary to detect any AREVA Transmission and Distribution, Protection
deterioration in the insulation resistance. and Control, 1987.