I.

OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the relative density of sample fluids using pycnometer method and
hydrometer method.
2. To determine the viscosity of sample fluid (glycerin) using Falling Sphere
Viscometer.

II. THEORY AND PRINCIPLE

In order to classify and identify materials of a wide variety, scientists use

numbers called physical constants (e.g. density, melting point, boiling point, index of
refraction) which are characteristic of the material in question. These constants do
not vary with the amount or shape of the material and are therefore useful in
positively identifying unknown materials. Standard reference works have been
complied containing lists of data for a wide variety of substances. The chemist
makes use of this in determining the identity of an unknown substance, by
measuring the appropriate physical constants in the laboratory, consulting the
scientific literature, and then comparing the measured physical constants with the
values for known materials.

Density is a measure of the “compactness” of matter within a substance and

is defined by the equation:

mass
Density=
volume

Density of a body is mass per unit volume. With SI units, densities are in
kilograms per cubic meter. However, giving densities in grams per cubic centimeter
has been common. With the USCS, densities are given in pounds per mass cubic
foot. Density may be calculated from a separate mass and volume measurement, or,
in the case of liquids, may be determined directly using an instrument called
hydrometer.

1
 Volume measurements for liquids or gases are made using graduated
containers, for example, a graduated cylinder. For solids, the volume can be
obtained either from the measurement of the dimensions of the solid or by
displacement. The first method can be applied to solids with regular geometric
shapes for which the mathematical formulas can be used to calculate the volume of
the solid from the dimensions of the solid. Alternatively, the volume of any solid
object, irregular or regularly shaped, can be measured by displacement. The solid is
submerged in a liquid in which it is not soluble, and the volume of liquid displaced
measured.

The hydrometer measures density directly. An object that is less dense than
a liquid will float in that liquid density to a depth such that the mass of the object
submerged equals the mass of the of the liquid displaced (Archimedes' Principle).
Since mass equals density X volume (see equation 1), an object floated in liquids of
different densities will displace different volumes of liquid. A hydrometer is a tube
of constant mass that has been calibrated to measure density by floating the
hydrometer in liquids of known densities and recording on a scale the fraction of the
hydrometer submerged. Any hydrometer can be used over a limited range of
densities because the hydrometer must float in the liquid being studied and the
hydrometer level must be sufficiently submerged to obtain an on-scale reading.
Hydrometers may be calibrated in g/ml or some other unit of density.

Another instrument used to measure density is the pycnometer. The

pycnometer is a flask with a close-fitting ground glass stopper with a fine hole
through it, so that a given volume can be accurately obtained. This enables the
density of a fluid to be measured accurately, by reference to an appropriate working
fluid such as water or mercury, using an analytical balance.

Relative density is the ratio of the density of one substance to that of a

reference substance, both at some specified temperature. For solids and liquids
water is almost universally used as the reference substance. The relative density of

2
 liquids is usually measured by means of a hydrometer. In addition to scale reading in
relative density as defined, other arbitrary scales of hydrometers are used in various
trades and industries. The most common of these scales are the API and Baumé.

Relative Density:

ρsubstance
SG=
ρwater

API scale:

141.5
Sp. gr. at 60 / 60  F 
131.5 API at 60  F


Baumé scale:
140
Sp. gr. at 60 / 60  F 
130 Be at 60  F


Knowing the density of a liquid serves numerous purposes and can provide
valuable information for making decisions. Understanding what density is, what
affects density, and how density affects other physical properties is important in
using and translating this information into an everyday useful tool The American
Petroleum Institute (API) came up with their own gravity term referred to as API
gravity. API gravity is simply a measure of how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is
compared to water. By definition, if the petroleum’s API gravity is greater than 10
then it is lighter than water and will float on water. If the API gravity is less than 10
then it is heavier than water and will sink. The API gravity scale does not have a unit
of measure per say but is referred to in “degrees” with a scale from 10 to 70. This
API gravity scale allows relative densities of petroleum liquids to be compared. Why
is this important? Why do we want to be able to compare petroleum liquids? Well,
the answer has to do with classifying the petroleum by quality. In the oil industry

3
crude oil is classified as either light, medium or heavy, according to it’s measured API
gravity! The measured API gravity will determine the class of oil and therefore
determine the value of the product.

Viscosity is a fluid property that measures the resistance of a fluid to flow

and can simply be thought of as the “thickness” of a fluid. Fluids that have a high
viscosity, such as honey or molasses, have a high resistance to flow while fluids with
a low viscosity, such as a gas, flow easily. The resistance to deformation within a
fluid can be expressed as both absolute (or dynamic) viscosity, µ [Ns/m2], and
kinematic viscosity, υ [m2/s].

Newtonian fluids' type of flow behavior Newton assumed for all fluids is
called, not surprisingly, Newtonian. It is, however, only one of several types of flow
behavior you may encounter. A Newtonian fluid is represented graphically in the
figure below. Graph A shows that the relationship between shear stress (F′) and
shear rate (S) is a straight line. Graph B shows that the fluid's viscosity remains
constant as the shear rate is varied. Typical Newtonian fluids include water and thin
motor oils.

A non-Newtonian fluid is broadly defined as one for which the relationship F

′/S is not a constant. In other words, when the shear rate is varied, the shear stress
doesn't vary in the same proportion (or even necessarily in the same direction). The
viscosity of such fluids will therefore change as the shear rate is varied. Thus, the
experimental parameters of Viscometer model, spindle and speed all have an effect
on the measured viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid. This measured viscosity is called
the apparent viscosity of the fluid and is accurate only when explicit experimental
parameters are furnished and adhered to.

There are several types of non-Newtonian flow behavior, characterized by

the way a fluid's viscosity changes in response to variations in shear rate. The most
common types of non-Newtonian fluids you may encounter include: psuedoplastic,
dilatant, and plastic.

4
 Absolute viscosity is determined by the ratio of the shear stress to the shear
rate of the fluid. The shear stress is dependent on the fluid’s resistance force to flow
over the area of the plate while the shear rate is the equivalent to the fluid’s
gradient.

F
shear stress τ A
µ= = =
shear rate gradient δµ
δy

These relationships shown in the equation above can be seen pictorially in

Figure 1.

Figure 1: Friction between fluid and

boundaries causes shear stress at a specific gradient.

While absolute viscosity is able to quantifiably compare various liquids and

gases on the same scale, it does not account for an important characteristic of fluids
– the density (ρ). Kinematic viscosity (υ) is highly dependent on density and is
measured by the time required for a specific volume of fluid to flow through a
capillary or restriction.

5
 µ
υ=
ρ

Viscosity is an important concept that is taken into consideration in a variety

of fields ranging from cooking to oil rigging. Understanding the applications of
viscosity can help in both flow characterization and quality control.

The drag force on an immersed body is in the direction of the flow; thus it
works to retard the motion of a body through a fluid. The diagram below is a
schematic of a sphere of radius a falling freely in a fluid. The weight of the sphere is

W   b gV , the buoyancy force is FB  gV , and D represents the drag force acting

on the sphere. Here  is the density of the fluid, b is the density of the sphere, and
V is the volume of the sphere. In the schematic, the sphere is assumed to have
reached its terminal velocity Ut. When it is released into the fluid, it accelerates to
the terminal velocity. Once this velocity is reached, it no longer accelerates and all
the forces on the sphere are in equilibrium.

The drag force on immersed bodies with simple shapes can be correlated to
the speed with which the body moves through the fluid. This is achieved by
specifying the drag coefficient CD defined by

drag D
CD   1
inertial force 2  U 2 S ,

where D is the drag,  is the density of the fluid, U is the speed of the fluid
approaching the body, and S is the projected frontal area, i.e., the maximum area
perpendicular to the flow direction. The  subscript indicates “freestream”
quantities, i.e. quantities that are measured in the undisturbed fluid far upstream of
the body. In general, the overall drag force is composed of a component purely
from friction and another component, called profile drag that results from the finite
size and shape of the body. A number of experiments have been performed to

6
determine CD for several geometries. These experiments show that the variation of
CD depends primarily on a parameter called the Reynolds number Re, defined by

inertial force  U  L
Re  
viscous force  ,

where L is some characteristic length (diameter in the case of the sphere)

and the other quantities are as defined earlier. A flow with a relatively large value
for Re is dominated by inertial forces, thus appears nearly inviscid. In the case of a
very low-Re flow, called creeping flow or Stokes’ flow, the inertial forces can be
neglected and Newton’s second law of motion reduces to Stokes’ equation for a
sphere, valid for Re < 1,

D  6 Ua .

If the velocityV in this equation is the terminal velocity Ut of the sphere of

radius a, it provides a means for computing the absolute viscosity  by writing the
equation for the balance of forces on the sphere,

D  FB  W .

Or substituting with Stokes’ equation,

W  FB W  FB
 
6 U t a 3 U t d ,

where d is the sphere diameter.

The ball drop experiment uses one of the oldest and easiest ways to measure
viscosity: we will simply see how fast a sphere falls through a fluid. The
measurement involves determining the velocity of the falling sphere. This is
accomplished by dropping each sphere through a measured distance of fluid and

7
 measuring how long it takes to traverse the distance. Thus, distance and time are
known, which makes velocity known, which is distance divided by time. Additionally,
mass and diameters of the spheres are needed to be measured.

The formula for determining absolute viscosity () is :

1  d 2   S  F   g 
VT   
  18 

Where

d = diameter of sphere

S = density of sphere = m/V = (mass of sphere/volume of sphere)

F = density of fluid = 1367g/m3

g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s2

VT = Terminal Velocity = D/t = (distance sphere falls)/(time of it takes)

III. LIST OF APPARATUS

1. Pycnometer bottle

8
2. Hydrometer

3. Graduated Cylinder

4. Digital Balance

5. Sample Fluids

9
 6. Viscometer Apparatus

7. Stopwatch

8. Meter Stick
9. Rubber band
10. Steel Balls

IV. PROCEDURE

A. Pycnometer Method

1. Clean the pycnometer bottle with soap and water.

2. Measure the weight of the pycnometer on the digital balance and record the
weight as Wp.

3. Fill the bottle with distilled water, and label as Wpw.

10
 4. Clean the pycnometer and fill it with the sample liquid that is entitled to the
group (SAE10 & SAE30 for group 3) and record the weight of the sample as
Wpo.

5. Compute the specific gravity using the pycnometer method equation for
specific gravity.

W PO−W P
R . D .=
W PW −W P

B. Hydrometer Method

1. Clean the hydrometer and the graduated cylinder.

2. Pour the liquid (SAE10 or SAE30) to be tested inside the graduated cylinder.

3. Drop slowly the hydrometer inside the graduated cylinder.

4. Read the value in the hydrometer.

The depth of immersion is then read as follows:

If the sample is sufficiently transparent, this point shall be determined by

placing the eye slightly below the level of the liquid and slowly raising it until the
surface of the sample first seen as a distorted ellipse seems to become a straight line
cutting the hydrometer scale. For nontransparent liquids, it will be necessary to read
from above the surface and to estimate as accurately as possible the point to which
the liquid rises on the hydrometer stem.

C. Falling Sphere Viscometer

1. Determine the temperature and relative density of the liquid whose viscosity
is desired.

11
 2. Drop cautiously one of the spheres into the viscometer, noting whether the
sphere is guided correctly or is off-centered. Simultaneously, determine the
time required for the sphere to travel the certain distance.

3. Repeat the procedure for each sphere given.

V. SET-UP

Pycnometer Method

12
 Weigh the pycnometer before and after filling with the substance whose
relative density is to be determined. Do the same for water.

Hydrometer Method

Fill the graduated cylinder with the desired substance whose relative density
is to be determined. Then, drop the hydrometer onto the fluid to obtain the relative
density.

13
Falling Sphere Viscometer

The viscometer is filled with glycerin, with markers spaced exactly 1 meter
apart. Drop a steel ball (mass and diameter known) onto the viscometer and
measure the time elapsed for the ball to traverse the reference lines.

14
 VI. FINAL DATA SHEET

A. Determination of Specific Gravity

Pycnometer Hydrometer
GROUP Trial LIQUID
Wp Wpw Wpo S.G. S.G.
1 Alcohol 23.15 73.4 64.0 0.8129 0.81
1
2 Kerosene 23.15 73.4 62.98 0.7926 0.785
1 Gasoline 23.15 73.4 61.73 0.7678 0.760
2
2 Diesel 23.15 73.4 63.4 0.841 0.836
1 SAE10 23.15 73.4 66.57 0.8641 0.855
3
2 SAE30 23.15 73.4 66.04 0.8535 0.85

B. Determination of Viscosity of Falling Viscometer

Grou Tria γsb Vt Dsb Vo μ

2
t (s) Dsb/Dt k √ ❑ (m2/s)
p l (kN/m ) (m/s) (mm) (m/s) (Pa•s)
0.099
1 77.93 2.5 0.4 6.3 1.27 0.5092 0.2848 2.3 x 10−4
2
1
2.7 0.093
2 77.15 0.3676 5.91 1.25 0.4607 0.2737 2.2 x 10−4
2 1
0.098
1 74.74 2.5 0.4 6.22 1.269 0.5076 0.265 2.12 x 10−4
0
2
3.5 0.074
2 76.13 0.2809 4.73 1.196 0.3360 0.236 1.88 x 10−4
6 5
2.3 0.099
1 77.55 0.4310 6.29 1.273 0.5487 0.262 2.112 x 10−4
2 1
3
3.5 0.074
2 78.40 0.2786 4.72 1.195 0.3329 0.246 1.986 x 10−4
9 3

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VII. SAMPLE COMPUTATION

A. Determination of Specific Gravity

SAE10:

WPO=66.57g WPW=73.4 g

WP=23.15g SG SAE10 (Hydrometer reading) =0.855

Specific Gravity by Pycnometer:

Trial 1:

W PO −W P
SG gasoline)=
W PW −W P

66.57−23.15
=
73.4−23.15

SG gasoline=0.8641

Difference = |Experimental value – Actual Value| = 0.8641-0.855 = 0.009

B. Determination of viscosity by falling viscometer

Trial 1:

DSB=6.29 mm Dtube=63.49 mm SGgly=1.24

t=2.32 s Length =1 m Mass = 1.03 g

1 kg 9.81m 1 kN
m
γ SB = ∙ g=
m∙ g
=
( 1.03 g×
1000 g ( s ) 1000 N )
) 2(
3
V 4 3 4 6.29
3
π R SB π
(
3 2 ( 1000 )
m
)
16
γ SB =77.55 kN /m 3

L 1m
v t= = =0.431 m/s
t 2.32 s

DSB 6.29mm
= =0.0991
Dt 63.49 mm

2 2
v 9 DSB 9 D SB
k = o =1+
vt 4 Dt
+( ) [ ( )]
4 Dt
=1+
9 6.29 mm
( )[ (
4 63.49 mm
+
9 6.29mm
4 63.49mm )]
k =1.273

m
v o=vt ∙ k =0.431 ( 1.273 ) =0.5487 m/s
s

D SB2 ( γ SB −γ gl )
μ= ; γ gl =S . G .gl × g
18 v o

2
6.29

μ=
( 1000
m ) (77.55 kNm −1.24 ( 9.81) kNm )
3 3

m
18 ( 0.5487 )
s

μ=0.262 Pa ∙ s

N ∙s
0.262
μ m2 m2
ν= = =2.112 × 10−4
ρgl kg s
1.24 1000 3
m ( )

17
VIII. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Three groups took turn in performing the first part of the experiment. The
main goal was to identify the relative density of Alcohol, kerosene, gasoline, diesel,
SAE10 and SAE30 in comparison to that of the density of water. Focusing on group 3,
the group that I belong to, the difference between the pycnometer and hydrometer
relative densities were substantially greater when compared to the results of other
groups. The error may be due to some misconducted procedure. Another possible
source of error for this part of the experiment are the liquid samples itself. The
samples may have already been contaminated due to the containers used or the
impurities may have come from the supplier itself. In addition, the apparatus used
may not have been cleaned properly leaving behind residues from previous groups
that have conducted the experiment as well. Another insight worth noting is that in
terms of practicality, the hydrometer method is preferred because of its simplicity;
there are less things that can go wrong. The only drawback to this method is that the
readings will vary from person to person and this is also due to the gradations
present in the hydrometer itself (this may cause the error as well). This is pointed
out because a hydrometer was also used to determine the density of glycerin for the
other part of the experiment.

The falling sphere viscometer was performed on the second part of the
experiment. This experiment involves gravity in determining the viscosity of a liquid.
Using a digital caliper, the diameter of three (3) different size steel balls were
measured and its individual masses as well to be able to get the weight density of
the steel ball. Each ball was allowed to fall freely on the tube filled with glycerin
while measuring the time it takes for the sphere to travel a distance of one meter.

18
The result of this method, however, is only considerable if the ball diameter and
tube diameter ratio does not exceed 0.3. This is due to the fact that when the ratio
exceeds 0.3, the flow of liquid becomes inviscid. In addition, the velocity of the ball
increase as the ratio increases as well. The true kinematic viscosity of glycerin (as
said by the instructor) is 2.0 x 10-4 m2/s. Observable in the data, the kinematic
viscosity for steel balls of small diameters is far from the true value. The error may
have come from recording the time it takes for the sphere to fall because of the
coordination needed between the members.

19
IX. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Beaker contain 262.5cm3 of a certain liquid weighs 410g,if the mass of an empty
dry beaker is 200g,find the density of the liquid.

Solution

Mass of liquid=410 g−200 g=210 g

Volume of liquid=262.5 cm3 .

mass
Density=
volume

210 g
Density= =0.8 g /cm 3
262.5 cm3

2. A 30ml density bottle was filled with kerosene and found to weigh 86g.if the
mass empty dry bottle was 62g, find the density of kerosene.

Solution

Mass of empty bottle=62 g

Mass of bottle∧kerosene=86 g

Mass of kerosene only=86 g−62 g=24 g

Density=mass /volume

Density=24 g/30 ml=0.8 g/cm 3

20
 3. Calculate the density of fluid having an absolute viscosity of 0.89 Ns/m 2 and
kinematic viscosity of 2 m2/s.

Solution

μ
kinematic vicosity (υ)=
ρ

μ
Desnity (ρ)=
υ

Ns
0.89
m2
ρ=
m2
2
s

kg
ρ=0.445
m3

4. The absolute viscosity of a flowing fluid is 0.67 Ns/m 2, if the density is 10 kg/m3.
Calculate its kinematic viscosity.

Solution

μ
kinematic vicosity (υ)=
ρ

Ns
0.67
m2
υ=
kg
10 3
m

m2
υ=0.067
s

21
 5. You decide you want to carry a boulder home from the beach. It is 30
centimeters on each side, and so has a volume of 27,000 cm3. It is made of
granite, which has a typical density of 2.8 g/cm3. How much will this boulder
weigh?

Solution

mass
Density=
volume

Mass=Density x Volume

g
Mass=27000 cm 3 x 2.8
cm3

Mass=75600 grams ≈ 165lbs

6. What is dynamic viscosity?

Dynamic viscosity is the force needed by a fluid to overcome its own internal
molecular friction so that the fluid will flow. In other words, dynamic viscosity is defined
as the tangential force per unit area needed to move the fluid in one horizontal plane
with respect to other plane with a unit velocity while the fluid's molecules maintain a
unit distance apart.

7. What is the difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity?

Dynamic viscosity is independent of the density of the fluid, but kinematic viscosity
depends on the density of the liquid. Kinematic viscosity is equal to the dynamic
viscosity divided by the density of the liquid.

22
X. CONCLUSION

The density and viscosity of sample fluids were successfully obtained for this
experiment. The relative densities of kerosene, gasoline and diesel were obtained by
two different methods namely the hydrometer method and pycnometer method.
While the falling sphere viscometer method was used to obtain the dynamic and
kinematic viscosities of glycerin.

The data obtained from the different samples were mostly close to the true
value of the desired property to be measured. It is concluded that the relative
densities of alcohol, kerosene, gasoline, diesel, SAE10, and SAE30 were less than one
(1). for the falling sphere viscometer, it was concluded that the velocity of the
sphere is directly proportional to the ratio of the diameters of the steel ball and
tube. In addition, the slower the flow speed of an object in a sample liquid, the more
viscous the fluid is.

The recorded data are not perfect. This may be due to the impurities present
in the liquid samples and at the same time, errors may have occurred from
conducting the experiment itself. It is recommended that the apparatus should be
thoroughly cleaned every trial to avoid unwanted contamination. at the same time,
there should be an availability of choices for the hydrometers used for the students
to gain needed experience in reading densities of liquids using the said apparatus.

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XI. REFERENCE/S
 https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-relationship-between-viscosity-and-
density-Explain
 http://www.pipeflow.co.uk/public/articles/Viscosity_And_Density_Units_And_F
ormula.pdf
 http://www.arca53.dsl.pipex.com/index_files/fluidprp.htm
 https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/density-specific-weight-gravity-
d_290.html
 https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/General_Chemistry_Textbook_Map
s/Map
%3A_Chem1_(Lower)/02._Essential_Background_for_General_Chemistry/2.2%3
A_Density_and_its_Applications
 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pycnometer
 http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/29319/measuring-relative-density
 https://www.brookfieldengineering.com/learning-center/learn-about-
viscosity/what-is-viscosity
 https://byjus.com/kinematic-viscosity-formula
 https://www.americanlaboratory.com/913-Technical-Articles/778-
Measurement-of-Viscosity-in-a-Vertical-Falling-Ball-Viscometer/
 https://serc.carleton.edu/mathyouneed/density/densitysp.html

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