Appendix 8

Worked Examples
Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

A8.1 Design Traffic Loading

Input data
n Design period = 20 years.
n Pavement construction is expected to be completed 3 years after the time of traffic survey.
n Traffic growth rate = 3.5% (for all heavy vehicle categories).

Traffic counts (Chapter 4.2.1)

D irection 1 D irection 2
Vehicle category /counts Vehicle category /counts
B u ses MGV H GV VH GV B u ses MGV H GV VH GV
D ay 1 0 13 11 24 13 24 11 9
D ay 2 11 17 5 17 14 26 9 12
D ay 3 15 28 11 20 15 13 16 20
D ay 4 13 19 15 24 10 29 9 26
D ay 5 11 36 9 26 15 30 10 38
D ay 6 14 18 15 33 13 25 12 21
D ay 7 16 9 8 11 13 16 13 28
D ay 8 17 11 4 2 0 5 7 9
TOTAL 92 151 78 157 93 168 87 163
D ai ly 13 19 10 20 13 21 11 20

Summary of axle load survey and equivalency factors. Assessment of axles heavier than
13 tonnes. (Chapters 4.2.2, 4.2.3 and 4.2.4 )
D irection 1 D irection 2
Vehicle
Avg. Avg. Total E80 from all E80 from Avg. Avg. Total E80 from all E80 from axles
category Gross VEF No. of axles axles heavi er Gross VEF No. of axles heavi er than
wt.(ton) (80 kN) veh. than 13 tonnes wt.(ton) (80kN) veh. 13 tonnes

Buses 17.396 3.922 92 360.824 0 17.265 4.033 93 375.069 13.25

MGV 12.217 3.705 151 559.455 280.19 12.615 3.262 168 548.016 220.93
HGV 23.146 8.959 78 698.802 282.40 22.480 8.557 87 744.459 359.15
VHGV-SEMI 39.196 8.087 114 921.918 133.57 45.160 13.81 131 1809.11 128.35
-TR
40.548 10.031 43 431.333 204.72 33.987 7.936 32 253.952 173.58
0.000 0.000 0 0 0 0.000 0.000 0 0 0
Avg. of all 39.566 8.620 42.966 12.657
VHGV’ s
SUM of 157 1353.25 163 2063.06 301.93
VHGV’ s
TOTAL 478 a=2972.33 b=900.88 511 a=3730.60 b=895.26

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Worked Examples
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From the heaviest loaded direction, proportion of E80 made up from axles heavier than 13tonnes (in direction 2):
= (b/a) x 100 = (895.26/3730.60) x 100 = 24%
This value is less than 50%, thus the Traffic Load Class will not be denoted heavy (-H) and no special measures are
required in the pavement design or design of improved subgrade.

Traffic growth and design traffic loading (Chapters 4.2.5 and 4.2.6)

D irection 1 D irection 2

B u ses MGV H GV VH GV B u ses MGV H GV VH GV

D ai ly counts 13 19 10 20 13 21 11 20

VEF 3.922 3.705 8.959 8.620 4.033 3.262 8.557 12.657

E80/day 50.986 70.395 89.590 172.400 52.429 68.502 94.127 253.140

Total E80/day 383 468

Use the heaviest direction in axle loading for calculating the traffic loading, in this case direction 2. The cumulative
number of standard axles, E80 = 365 x t1 x (1 + I)N - 1
i
where: t1 = average daily number of standard axles in the year of traffic survey
i = annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction
N = calculated period in years
Substituting: t1 = 468
i = 0.035 for all heavy vehicle categories
The cumulative number of E80 for the design period and the time from present until completed pavement
construction is calculated using (20 + 3) = 23 years, and let be denoted as E8023.
E8023 = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)23 –1 = 5.9 million E80
0.035

The cumulative E80 for the time from present to completion of pavement construction is calculated using 3 years,
and let be denoted as E803.
E803 = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)3 –1 = 0.5 million E80
0.035

Hence E80design = E8023 - E803 = 5.9 – 0.5 = 5.4 million E80

Construction traffic (Chapter 4.2.7)

On the completed pavement 90,000 m3 of construction materials is expected to be transported using trucks of a
capacity of 15 m3 and having an equivalency factor (VEF) of 12.5 when fully loaded.
Therefore 6000 loads will be required.
E80construction = 6000 x 12.5 = 0.075 million E80
Hence Total E80design = 5.4 + 0.075 = 5.475 i.e. say 5.5 million E80

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 Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Traffic Load Classes (TLC) (Chapter 4.3)

Design traffic loading of 5.5 million E80 puts the project road into TLC 10. /Table 4.3/

A8.2 Subgrade CBRdesign

Input data
n Traffic: TLC 3.
n Climate: Moderate.
n Alignment: Shallow embankment or cuttings throughout the route.
n Subgrade CBR: 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9,10, 6, 8, 9, 9, 9, 11, 12, 12, 14

Identify homogenous sections from site reconnaissance (Chapter 5.2.3)

Section 1: CBR values: 5 - 6 - 3 - 5 - 4
Section 2 (cutting): CBR values: 8 - 10 - 8 - 7 - 8 - 7 - 9
Section 3: CBR values: 12 - 8 - 6 - 9 - 14 - 11 - 9 - 12 - 9

The 90%-ile CBR value (Chapter 5.2.3)

For sections with no cuttings, the CBRdesign is obtained by plotting a graph of CBR (arranged in ascending order )
against test number and obtain the CBR value corresponding to: /Figures A8.1 and A8.2/
d = 0.1 x (n – 1)
where: d = is the value in the horizontal axis starting from sample 1
n = number of tests used in the design

The use of standard deviation in a normal distribution ( MEAN - 1.3 x std.dev ) gives excessively conservative
results. A direct use of the measured CBR values and exclusion of 10% of the number of tests shall be the applied
method.

For cuttings, use the lowest CBR value for the section (Chapter 5.2.3)
Section 2 in a cutting has a CBR of 7% as its lowest.

Subgrade CBRdesign (Chapter 5.2.3)

Section 1: CBRdesign = 3%
Section 2 (cutting): CBRdesign = 7%
Section 3: CBRdesign = 7%

Determine subgrade class (Chapter 5.2.3)

Section 1: S3
Section 2 (cutting) : S7
Section 3: S7

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Worked Examples
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Design of improved subgrade layers (Chapter 5.5.1)

Section
1 2 3
Subgrade class S3 S7 S7

150mm 150mm 150mm

Upper layer G15 G15 G15

150mm
Lower layer G7 not required

Graphs to determine the 90%-ile value

Section 1
CBR values plotted 7
in ascending order 6

4
CBR(%)

CBR data n = 5 tests

3 d = 0.1 x (n-1)
3
= 0.4
4 90%-ile 2
5 3,4
5 CBR DESIGN 1 d=0.4
6 3%
0
1 2 3 4 5
Test

Figure A8.1 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 1

The CBRdesign value is obtained by normal rounding off the 90%-ile value.

Section 2
Cutting, lowest CBR is used as CBRdesign.

Section 3
CBR values plotted
in ascending order
16
CBR data
14
6
8 12
CBR(%)

9 10
9 8
9
6 n = 9 tests
11 90%-ile d = 0.1 x (n-1)
12 7,6 4 = 0.8
d=0.8
12 CBR DESIGN 2
14 8% 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Test

Figure A8.2 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 3

The CBRdesign value is obtained by normal rounding off the 90%-ile value.

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 Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

A8.3 The CUSUM Method to Establish Homogenous Sets

of Data
The CUSUM is a method to establish homogenous sections by analysis of one parameter at the time. The method
utilises plotting of the cumulative sum of difference from the average value. The calculations, plotting and interpre-
tation of data are shown below in an example where rutting measurements on an existing pavement are analysed.

B C
Chainage Rutting Difference CUSUM
Plotting of CUSUM against Chainage
measured from average (Accumulated
[Km] [mm] (A - B ) values of C )
1 14 -1,2 -1,2
2 13 -0,2 -1,4 Homogenous sections
3 15 -2,2 -3,6
4 14 -1,2 -4,8
5 13 -0,2 -5,0 10
6 14 -1,2 -6,2 5
7 7 5,8 -0,4
0

CUSUM
8 9 3,8 3,4
9 8 4,8 8,2 -5
10 13 -0,2 8,0 -10
11 15 -2,2 5,8 -15
12 18 -5,2 0,6 -20
13 14 -1,2 -0,6 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
14 16 -3,2 -3,8
15 14 -1,2 -5,0 Chainage
16 14 -1,2 -6,2
17 15 -2,2 -8,4
18 18 -5,2 -13,6 Interpretation of data:
19 14 -1,2 -14,8
15 A change of slope indicates change of conditions along
20 -2,2 -17,0
the data. Four distinct homogenous sections can be seen
21 9 3,8 -13,2 in the above chart.
22 10 2,8 -10,4
23 9 3,8 -6,6
24 12 0,8 -5,8
25 9 3,8 -2,0
26 11 1,8 -0,2
Average: A = 12,8

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Worked Examples
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A8.4 Pavement Rehabilitation Design – Maximum

Deflection Method

Input data:
Two homogenous sections of a pavement rehabilitation project with granular base course have the following
deflection data after more than 20 measurements had been taken on each section:
Section 1:
n mean: 0.73 mm standard deviation: 0.029 mm
Section 2:
n mean: 0.79 mm standard deviation: 0.086 mm

Traffic loading /Chapter A8.1/

n past traffic loading: 2.0 million E80
n future traffic loading (design traffic loading ): 8.0 million E80

Design deflection:
Calculate design deflection for each homogenous section:
Section 1: (mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)
= 0.73 + 1.3 x 0.029 = 0.77 mm
Section 2: (mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)
= 0.79 + 1.3 x 0.086 = 0.90 mm

Expected total pavement life

Section 1: a design deflection of 0.77 mm gives expected pavement life of 4.0 million E80. /Figure 9.5/
Section 2: a design deflection of 0.90 mm gives expected pavement life of 3.0 million E80. /Figure 9.5/

Residual life
Section 1: Residual life = expected life – past traffic loading
= (4 – 2) million E80 = 2 million E80.
Section 2: Residual life = expected life – past traffic loading
= (3 – 2) million E80 = 1 million E80.
Strengthening of the pavement is required since the residual life is less than the future design traffic loading.

Target deflection
Sections 1 and 2: Future traffic loading of 8.0 million E80 plus 2.0 million E80 past traffic loading gives a target
deflection = 0.53 mm /Figure 9.5/

Required strengthening, SNdiff

Using target deflection and measured design deflection /Figure 9.7/
Section 1: SNdiff = 1.00 Section 2: SNdiff = 1.30

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Worked Examples
Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Select overlay alternatives

Using SNdiff as input the follow asphalt overlays are required: /Table 9.7/
Section 1: AC = 60 mm Section 2: AC = 80 mm

A8.5 Pavement Rehabilitation Design – Structural Number

Method

Input data:

Existing pavement: Material coefficients:

/Table 9.4/

t 1 = 60 mm Asphalt concrete, severely cracked a1 = 0.18

t 2 = 180 mm Natural gravel, PI = 10, CBR = 40% a = 0.10

t 2 = 150 mm Natural gravel, PI = 15, CBR = 15% a = 0.08

CBR = 8%

Design traffic loading: 8 million E80 (TLC 10)

Wet climatic zone
Rural main road with high traffic speed

Strength deficiency - SNdiff

Calculations: /Chapter 9.2.2/

SNexist = (a1 x t 1) / 25.4 = (0.18 x 60) / 25.4 = 0.43

Old AC a1 = 0.18 t1 = 60mm SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 2.35 - 043 =1.92 (highest, i.e. critical)
SNrequired = 2.35 /Table 9.5/ for TLC 10 and CBR=40

CBR = 40% a2 = 0.10 t2 = 180mm

SNexist = [(a1 x t1)+(a2 x t2) ] / 25.4 = [(0.18 x 60)+(0.10 x 180)] / 25.4 = 1.33

SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 2.75 - 1.33 = 1.42

SNrequired = 2.75 /Table 9.5/ for TLC 10 and CBR=15
CBR = 15% a3 = 0.08 t3 = 150mm
SNexist = [(a1 x t1)+(a2 x t2)+(a3 x t3)] / 25.4 = [(0.18 x 60)+(0.10 x 180)+(0.08 x 150)] / 25.4 = 1.61
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 3.30 - 1.61 = 1.69
SNrequired = 3.30 /Table 9.5/ for TLC 10 and CBR=8
CBR = 8%

Among the values of SNdiff (1.92 - 1.42 - 1.69) calculated at different levels in the existing pavement, 1.92 is the
highest and becomes the value for which rehabilitation design is carried out.

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Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Rehabilitation options
Using SNdiff = 1.92 as input to /Table 9.7/ the nearest value of SNdiff in the table is 2.00 The following overlay
alternatives are given in the table:
1) The appropriate type of bituminous base course shall be selected depending on traffic load class according to
/Table 8.7/ in /Chapter 8 – Pavement Design - New Roads/.
2) Best suited for roads with low traffic speed such as urban roads. For roads with high traffic speed a levelling course made
of a bituminous mix may be necessary to provide satisfactory riding quality.
3) Limited to the conditions given in /Tables 8.4/ and /8.5/ in / Chapter 8 – Pavement Design - New Roads/ with regards to
traffic loading and climate. Consideration shall be given to reprocessing of the existing pavement.

Overlay alternatives
The nearest value for SNdiff has been selected.
SNdiff
Asphalt concrete Bituminous mix Penetration Granular base
overlay for base course macadam course
1) 2) AC 50 mm 3)
PM 80 125 mm

Alternatively:
ST
2,00 AC 50 mm
PM 60 100 mm
AC 50 mm
CRR 00 mm
Bit. 100 mm PM 60 100 mm

Discussion
Overlays
n Overlays with a bituminous mix is not considered viable due to the high risk of reflective cracking from the
severely cracked AC surfacing of the existing pavement, unless specialised interlayer systems are employed.
n Overlay with granular base course and AC surfacing could be employed, but reprocessing of the existing
pavement is advisable if there is deformation in the existing pavement.
n Penetration macadam will arrest reflective cracking, but on a high speed road surface dressing alone on a
penetration macadam is not well suited.
n The following overlay alternative is appropriate, provided site conditions such as severe deformation in the
existing pavement, does not prohibit this construction method.

AC 50 mm

PM 80 125 mm

Partial reconstruction
If deformation of the existing surface is severe it is likely that partial reconstruction is the most viable rehabilitation
option. i.e. to reprocess the existing surface and base course to subbase in the new pavement /Chapter 9.3.2/.

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Worked Examples
Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

New surfacing
New base course and surfacing to be selected in compliance with
New base course /Chapter 8.3.2/ depending on achieved quality of the new subbase.
Exitsing AC reprocessed, or removed, depending on chosen method.
Reprocessed AC
Existing base course (and subbase) reprocessed to subbase
Existing base course (and subbase) in the new pavement.

A8.6 Surface Dressing Design Including Determination of

ALD
Determination of the average least dimension (ALD) of aggregates
The average least dimension (ALD) of an aggregate is the average minimum size of each particle. The ALD may be
determined by using the following procedures:
Method A
The least dimension of a sample of approximately 200 representative aggregate particles is measured manually. The
aggregates are obtained by careful sample sub-division in accordance with CML test 2.4. The mean value of the
measurements is then calculated.
Method B
A more practical method, however of sufficient accuracy, is by using the test results from the grading analysis and
the flakiness index to determine ALD is determined as follows:
1. Draw the grading curve as a smooth curve /Figure A8.3/ through the plotted points except that the nearest
point above 50% is joined to the nearest point below 50% passing by a straight line unless a curved shape is
obviously required.
2. The median size, which is the particle size where 50% of the aggregate would be passing, is read off in mm as
the ordinate corresponding to the crossing point between the grading curve and the line for 50% passing.
3. The flakiness index is determined in accordance with CML test 2.4.
4. The ALD is read off from the nomograph shown in /Figure A8.4/ using median size and flakiness index as
input data.
In this example the median size obtained after grading is 17.2 mm /Figure A8.3/. Assuming the flakiness index is
23, locate these data on line A and C respectively /Figure A8.4/. Finally join A to C and then read the ALD on B,
which is 11.8 mm in this example.

Figure A8.3 Determination of median size

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Method: Join A to C
Read average least dimension on B

Figure A8.4 Determination of average least dimension

Design a double surface dressing /Chapter 10.2.6/

/Table 10.4/ A coarse surfacing type has been chosen, using 20mm and 10mm chipping in 1st and 2nd layer
respectively.
Input data:
n double surface dressing, new road, dry, primed base course
n AADT = 700, two lane road with surfaced width of 6.5 m
n 20% heavy vehicles
n 20 mm chipping: ALD = 11.5 mm
n 10 mm chipping: ALD = 6.5 mm
n 0.1% passing 0.075 mm (not dusty), water absorption 0.8%
n flat terrain

Aggregate spread rates /Chapter 10.2.1/

/Table 10.1/ To be determined on site. For planning purposes the following apply:
n 1st layer for 20 mm aggregate: 0.016 m3/m2
n 2nd layer for 10 mm aggregate: 0.009 m3/m2

Bitumen spray rate – 1st layer:

/Chapter 10.2.4/ The road has a surfaced width of 6.5 m, i.e. the AADT can be used directly.
/Table 10.5/ Basic hot bitumen spray rate: = 0.11 x ALD
= 0.11 x 11.5
= 1.27 l/m2

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/Table 10.5/ There is no correction of spray rate for the 1st layer.

Bitumen spray rate – 2nd layer

/Chapter 10.2.4/. The road has a surfaced width of 6.5 m then the AADT is used directly.

/Table 10.6/ Basic hot bitumen spray rate: = 0.90 l/m2

/Table 10.6/ There is no correction of spray rate for the 2nd layer.

Design of a combined seal using single surface dressing and a sand cover seal
/Chapter 10.4.2/
Input data:
n double surface dressing, new road, dry, primed base course
n AADT = 200, two lane road with surfaced width of 6.5 m
n 20% heavy vehicles
n 14 mm chipping: ALD = 8.0 mm
n river sand in combination as 2nd layer
n 0.15% passing 0.075 mm (not dusty), water absorption: 0.7%
n flat terrain

Aggregate spread rates

/Table 10.1/ To be determined on site. For planning purposes the following spread rates apply:

1st layer for 14 mm aggregate: 0.012 m3/m2 /Chapter 10.2.1/

2nd layer sand: 0.010 m3/m2 /Chapter 10.4.1/

Bitumen spray rate – 1st seal

/Chapter 10.2.4/ The road has a surfaced width of 6.5 m then the AADT is used directly.

/Table 10.3/ Basic hot bitumen spray rate: = 0.16 x ALD

= 0.16 x 8.0
= 1.28 l/m2

/Table 10.3/ There is no correction of spray rate for the 1st layer.

Bitumen spray rate for sand seal – 2nd seal /Chapter 10.4.1/
/Table 10.11/ The binder for sand seals shall be cutback bitumen of type MC3000.
The hot spray rate of MC3000 cutback bitumen ranges between 0.80 l/m2 and 1.00 l/m2 to be
determined on site depending on the surface texture of the underlying seal.

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Appendix 9.1
Physical (topography)
Appendix 9.2
Geology
Appendix 9.3
Soils
Appendix 9.4
Vegetation
Appendix 9.5
Rainfall
MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5