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Module 1: Introduction to Finite Element Analysis

Lecture 3: Introduction to Elasticity

1.3.1 Stresses and Equilibrium

Let consider an infinitesimal element of sides dx, dy and dz as shown in Fig. 1.3.1. The stresses are
acting on the elemental volume dV because of external and or body forces. These stresses can be
represented by six independent components as given below.
    x ,  y ,  z ,  xy ,  yz ,  zx 
T
(1.3.1)
Here,  x ,  y and  z are normal stresses and  xy ,  yz and  zx are shear stresses. Applying the
conditions of static equilibrium for forces along the direction of X axis (i.e., F
x  0 ), following
expression will be obtained.

 x  yx 
dxdydz  dxdydz  zx dxdydz  Fx dxdydz  0 (1.3.2)
x y z

Fig. 1.3.1Stresses on an infinitesimal element

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Where, FΩxis the component of body force along x direction. Now, dividing dxdydz on the above
expression, following equilibrium condition is obtained.
 x  yx  zx
    Fx (1.3.3)
x y z

Similarly, applying equilibrium condition along Y and Z directions, one can find the following
relations.
 xy  y  zy
    F y (1.3.4)
x y z
 xz  yz  z
    Fz (1.3.5)
x y z

Here, FΩyand FΩz are the component of body forces along Y and Zdirections respectively. Satisfying
moment equations (i.e.,  M x  0;  M y  0 and  M z  0; ), one can obtain the following
relations.

 xy   yx ;  yz   zy and  xz   zx (1.3.6)

Using eq. (1.3.6), the equilibrium equations (1.3.3 to 1.3.5), can be rewritten in the following form.
 x  xy  zx
    Fx
x y z
 xy  y  yz
    Fy (1.3.7)
x y z
 zx  yz  z
    Fz
x y z

Eq. (1.3.7) is known as equation of equilibrium.

Let assume an element of area  on the surface of the solid in equilibrium (Fig.1.3.2) and FΓx, FΓy
and FΓz are the components of external forces per unit area and are acting on the surface.
Consideration of equilibrium along the three axes directions gives the following relations.
 x l   xy m   zx n  Fx
 xy l   y m   yz n  Fy (1.3.8)
 zx l   yz m   z n  Fz

Here, l, m and n are the direction cosines of the normal to the boundary surface. Eq. (1.3.8) is known
as static boundary condition.

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Fig. 1.3.2 Forces acting on an element on the boundary

1.3.2 Strain-Displacement Relations
The displacement at any point of a deformable body may be expressed by the components of u, v
and w parallel to the Cartesian coordinate’s axes. The components of the displacements can be
described as functions of x, y and z. Displacementsbasically the change of position during
deformation. If point P (x,y,z) is displaced to P’ (x’,y’,z’), then the displacement along X, Y and Z
direction (Fig. 1.3.3) will become
x’ = x + u or u = x’ – x
y’ = y + v or v = y’ – y
z’ = z + w or w = z’ – z
Therefore, the normal strain can be written as:
u u L
 x  Lt  (As   for uniform strain in axial member)
x  0  x x L
v w
Similarly,  y  and  z 
y z

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Fig. 1.3.3 Deformation of an elastic body

Let consider points P,Q and R are before deformation and points P’,Q’ and R’ are after deformation
as shown in Fig. 1.3.4 below. Now for small deformation, rotation of PQ will become
v v
1  lim 
x  0  x x
u u
Similarly, rotation of PR due to deformation will be:  2  lim 
y  0 y y
Thus, the total change of angle between PQ and PR after deformation is as follows which is defined
as shear strain in X-Y plane.
v u
 xy   yx  1   2  
x y

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Fig. 1.3.4 Derivation of shear strain

Similarly, shear strains in Y-Z and X-Z plane will become

w v w u
 yz   zy   ;  xz   zx  
y z x z
The strain can be expressed as partial derivatives of the displacements u, v and w. The above
expressions for strain-displacement relationship are true only for small amplitude of deformation.
However, the strain-displacement relations are expressed by the following equations for large
magnitude of deformation.
u 1  u   v   w  
2 2 2

x            (1.3.9)
x 2  x   x   x  

v 1  u   v   w  
2 2 2

 y            (1.3.10)
y 2  y   y   y  

w 1  u   v   w  
2 2 2

z            (1.3.11)
z 2  z   z   z  
v u  u u v v w w 
 xy      (1.3.12)
x y  x y x y x y 
w v  u u v v w w 
 yz      (1.3.13)
y z  y z y z y z 

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u w  u u v v w w 
 zx      (1.3.14)
z x  z x z x z x 

The eqs.(1.3.9 to 1.3.14) are known as Green-Lagrange strain displacement equation. The
components of the strain x, y, z, xy, yz and zx define the state of strains in the deformed body, and
can be written in a matrix form as

{e} = éêëe x e y e z g xy g yz g zx ùúû

T
(1.3.15)

The relations given in eqs.(1.3.9 to 1.3.14) are non-linear partial differential equations in the
unknown component of the displacements. In case of small deformations, the products and squares
of the first derivatives are assumed to be negligible compared with the derivatives themselves in
many problems of stress analysis. Thus the strain-displacement relations in eqs. (1.3.9 to 1.3.14 )
reduce to linear relations as follows.
u
x 
x
v
y 
y
w
z 
z
(1.3.16)
v u
 xy  
x y
w v
 yz  
y z
u w
 zx  
z x

Eq.(1.3.16)is known as Von-Karman strain displacement equation.The above equation can be

expressed in a matrix form as given below.

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 
 x 0 0
  
 x   0 0
   y 
 y   u 
0 0
  z   z   v 
     (1.3.17)
 xy   0   w
 yz   y x  
    
 zx   0 
 z y 
 0

 z x 

The above assumption will be incorrect in case of large deformation problems. In these cases,
geometric nonlinearity has to be considered.

1.3.3 Linear Constitutive Relations

Hooke’s law states that the six component of stress may be described as linear function of six
components of strain. The relation for a linear elastic, anisotropic and homogeneous material are
expressed as follows.

 x   C11 C12 . . . C16    x 

  C C26    y 
 y   21 C22 . . .
 z   . .    z 
    (1.3.18)
 xy   . .   xy 
 yz   . .   yz 
    
 zx  C61 C62 . . . C66   zx 

or    C  (1.3.19)

Where [C] is constitutive matrix. If the material has three orthogonal planes of symmetry, it is said
to be orthotropic. In this case only nine constants are required for describing constitutive relations as
given below.

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 x  C11 C12 C13 0 0 0  x 

   C22 C23 0 0 0    y 
 y 
 z   C33 0 0 0    z 
    (1.3.20)
 xy   C44 0 0   xy 
 yz   Symmetry C55 0   yz 
    
 zx   C66   zx 

The inverse relation for strains and stresses may be expressed as

[e] = éêëC-1 ùúû {s} = [ D]{s} (1.3.21)

An isotropic is one for which every plane is a plane of symmetry of material behavior and only two
constants (Young Modulus, E and Poisson ratio) are required to describe the constitutive relation.
The following equation includes the effect due to temperature changes as may be necessary in
certain cases of stress analysis.
ìï e x üï é1 -m -m 0 0 0 ù ìï sx üï ìï1ü
ïï ïï ê ú ïï ïï ïï ï
ï
ï
ïï e y ïï ê 1 -m 0 0 0 ú ï s ï ï 1ï
ï ï ê ú ïï y ïï ï
ï ï
ï
ï
ï ï
e z ï 1 êê 1 0 0 0 úú ï ï s ï
ï ï
ï 1ï
ï
or ï
í ï = ê í  + aT í ï
ï z ï ï  (1.3.22)
ïïg xy ï Eê 2 (1 + m ) 0 0 úï ú t xy ï ï 0ï
ï ï
ï ï
ï ï ï ï
ï ï
ï
ï g yz ïï ê Symmetry 2 (1 + m ) 0 úú ï t ï ï 0ï
ï
ï ï ê ï
ï yz ï
ï ï
ï ï
ï
ï ï ê úï ï ï ï
ïï g zx 
î ïï êë 2 (1 + m )úû îïït zx ïï ï
ï ï
î 0ï

T and α in eq.(1.3.22) denote the difference of temperature and coefficient of thermal expansion
respectively.
The inverse relation of stresses in terms of strain components can be expressed as
1      0 0 0 
 
 x   1     0 0 0  x  1 
   1    0 0 0     1 
 y   y   
 z   1  2  
  
 E T 1 
0 0
 E     1  2 0 (1.3.23)
z
2
 xy     xy   
 yz  1  2   0 
 Symmetry 0   yz
   2     
 zx   1  2   zx 
 0 
 
 2 
E
where E 
1   1  2 

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1.3.4 Two-Dimensional Stress Distribution

The problems of solid mechanics may be formulated as three-dimensional problems and finite
element technique may be used to solve them. In many practical situations, the geometry and loading
will be such that the problems may be formulated to two-dimensional or one-dimensional problems
without much loss of accuracy. The relation between strain and displacement for two dimensional
problems can be simplified from eq. (1.3.16) and can be written as follows.
u
x 
x
v
y  (1.3.24)
y
v u
 xy  
x y
The above expression can be written in a combined form:
 2 x   y   xy
2 2

  (1.3.25)
y 2 x2 xy
Eq. (1.3.25) is the compatibility equation since it states the geometric requirements. This condition
will ensure adjacent elements to remain free from discontinuities such as gaps and overlaps.

1.3.4.1 Plane stress problem

The plane stress problem is characterized by very small dimensions in one of the normal directions.
Some typical examples are shown in Fig. 1.3.5. In these cases, it is assumed that no stress
component varies across the thickness and the stress components z, xz and yz are zero. The state of
stress is specified by x, y and xy only and is called plane stress.

Fig. 1.3.5 Plane stress example: Thin plate with in-plane loading

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The stress components may be expressed in terms of strain, which is as follows.

é ù
ì ü ê ú ï üï
ïï sx ïïï ê1 m 0 ú ïì ex ïì1ïü
ï E ê ú ïï ïïï EaT ïï ïï
íï s y ï = êm 1 0 ú í ey - í1 (1.3.26)
ïï ïï 1-m 2 ê ú ïï ïï 1-m ïï ïï
ït xy ï
ïî ï ê
ê0 0
1-m ú ïî g ï
ú ï xy ï îïï0ïï
ëê 2 ûú

The strain components can also be expressed in terms of the stress, which is given below.
ïì e x ïü é 1 -m 0 ù ïìï s x ïüï ì
ï 1üï
ïïï ïïï 1 êê úï ï ï
ï ï
ï
í e y  = ê-m 1 0 úú ïí s y ï + aT í1 (1.3.27)
ïï ïï E ê ï ï ï ï
ïîïg xy ïï êë 0 0 2 (1 + m )úúû ïïîït xy ïïï ï
ïî ï
ï0ïï
It can also be shown that

z   x   y   1   T and  yz   zx  0 (1.3.28)
1  1 

1.3.4.2 Plane strain problem

Problems involving long bodies whose geometry and loading do not vary significantly in the
longitudinal direction are referred to as plane strain problems. Some typical examples are given in
Fig. 1.3.6. In these cases, a constant longitudinal displacement corresponding to a rigid body
translation and displacements linear in z corresponding to rigid body rotation do not result in strain.
As a result, the following relations arise.
 z   yz   zx  0 (1.3.29)
The constitutive relation for elastic isotropic material for this case may be given by,

 
 x  1    0   x  1
  E     ET  
 y    1  0  y   1 (1.3.30)
  1   1  2    
1  2    1  2  0
 xy   0 0  xy   
 2 

Also  z   ( x   y )  ET and  yz   zx  0 (1.3.31)

The strain components can be expressed in terms of the stress as follows.

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ìï e x üï é 0ù ìï s üï
ïï ïï (1 + m ) ê(1-m ) -m ú ïï x ïï
ì1ï
ï
ï ï
ü
ï
í ey  = ï ê ï ï ï
(1-m ) 0úú í s y  + (1 + m )aT í1ï
ï ï ê -m (1.3.32)
ï
ïî g ïï E ê 0 úï ï
ï t
ï
ï
ï
ï
ï
ï
ï
ï
ï xy ï ëê 0 2 ûú îï xy ï ï ï
î0 ï

(a) Retaining wall (b) Dam

Fig. 1.3.6 Plane strain examples

1.3.4.3Axisymmetric Problem
Many problems in stress analysis which are of practical interest involve solids of revolution subject
to axially symmetric loading. A circular cylinder loaded by a uniform internal or external pressure,
circular footing resting on soil mass, pressure vessels, rotating wheels, flywheels etc. The strain-
displacement relations in these type of problems are given by
u
x 
x
u
 
x
(1.3.33)
v
y 
y
u v
 xy  
y x
The two components of displacements in any plane section of the body along its axis of symmetry
define completely the state of strain and therefore the state of stress. The constitutive relations are
given below for such types of problems.

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 x  1      0   
    1    0  x 
 y E    y 
     1  0    (1.3.34)
   1   1  2   1  2   

 xy   0 0 0   
 2   xy 

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