Why study stresses and strains?

2 Main Issues
in Geotechnical Engineering
In geotechnical design, the engineer is often
confronted with two main requirements, viz
(a) Stability requirement i.e. soil structure does not
collapse. Known as Ultimate limit state. Collapse of
soil structures is usually caused by the shear failure
of the soil skeleton: by slippage of soil particles over
one another. Soil failure is usually NOT due to
crushing of the soil particles.
(b) Serviceability requirement i.e. ground
movements and deformations are not so large as to
render the soil structure unserviceable or cause
damage to buildings and infrastructures in the
vicinity. Known as serviceability limit state.
 Stability: ensured by keeping loading
intensity within the soil mass, i.e.
stresses, within certain strength limits.
 Serviceability: ground deformations
which are evaluated from the strains and
the stresses within the soil mass.
 The following sections will expand on the
concepts of stresses, strains and
modulus of a soil. Effects of pore water
are ignored to make things simple.
Normal stress quantities can be regarded
either as effective stresses or stresses in
a dry soil.
 BASIC CONCEPTS IN STRESSES AND STRAINS

A Fx

Fy

Need way of quantifying the “loading effect” of the

forces on each point within the body and the changes
in shape at each point that results => stresses and
strains.
Stresses: loading intensity at a point.
Strains: “normalized” deformation at a point.
Stress
Stress quantifies the intensity of loading by
dividing the loading by the area, e.g.
 = F/A
Oblique forces: The force F can be
resolved into a component N acting F
N
normally to the surface at end of the A
rod and another S acting parallel to F

the surface S

The first is a normal stress 

defined as
 = N/A
and the second is a shear stress
defined as  = S/A
STRAIN
• Strains: response to a material to stresses.
• In the case of the cylindrical body:
F = k L
where k = stiffness.

•For a cylinder of length 2L: can be considered as two cylinders F

each of length L joined end to end. Each cylinder is subjected to A
same force F and therefore compressed by the same amount L.
•Thus, the total compression of the long cylinder (length 2L) is
2L. L
•Stiffness k is not constant for a given material, it depends also on
geometry, in this case, the length of the cylinder.
•Loading effect or stress is the same.
•Material is the same, the response of the material to this same
loading effect must be the same.
•Hence, compression L does not specifically describe the
response of the material to the stress.
•Divide compression by the length of the body, i.e. L/L
normalizes out the effect of the length on the compression. Strain
 given by
•  = L/L
 Modulus
o Hooke’s Law F = k L
o Since k is inversely proportional to L,
o k = k’/L where k’ is another constant.
o Also, the bigger the cross-sectional area A of the specimen, the stiffer the
rod and the smaller is the compression L, therefore k (and thus k’)
proportional to A.
o i.e. k = AE/L
o where E is another constant, the modulus. So
o F = AEL/L => L = FL/(AE)
o F/A = E L/L =>  = F/(AE)
o =E
o Hence, E relates stress to strain.
o The modulus quantifies the material response in a way that is
independent of the geometry of the specimen.
o Classical approach to stress analysis:
 given a set of loads
 localize the loading effect through analysis into stresses, thereby
eliminating the effect of geometry,
 by testing or other means, determine the response of the material to
the stresses, in the forms of strains,
 by re-introducing the geometry of the body via analysis, globalize the
strains into deformations of the body.
4.2 Saturated soils
In saturated soils, the interaction
between pore water and soil skeleton
gives rise to a variety of interesting
behaviours.

Soil skeleton: can take both normal and

shear stresses.
Pore water can carry normal but not shear
stresses.
Shear behaviour of soils depends on the
interparticle friction and interlocking (see
above). Both are related to the
macroscopic normal stress on the soil
skeleton. To characterize shear behaviour,
we need to determine the macroscopic
normal stress acting on the soil skeleton.
Considering figure, vertical equilibrium ->
 F1 + u(A-Ac ) = P
F1 = vertical components of interparticle contact forces,
u = pore water pressure,
Ac = total interparticle contact area.
Generally Ac << A. Also P = σA
where σ is called total stress.
 F1 + uA ~ A
 Fi/A + u =  =>  Fi/A =  - u
Let ' =  Fi/A, then
' + u =  or ’=  - u
' = effective stress. Much better for
quantifying soil behaviour because it
directly addresses the interparticle contact
forces and discounts the pore water pressure.

Principle of Effective Stress: one of the fundamental

equations in soil mechanics. First proposed by Karl Terzaghi.
 More General Definitions of
Stresses and Strains
Above definitions of stresses and strain work only for
restricted set of scenarios.
We need more general definitions that can deal with all
classes of situations.
In the cylindrical soil sample example, the implicit
assumption is that the stress is uniform across the
cross-section. In most circumstances, stresses within the
soil body is non-uniform.
Thus the concept of stress needs to be generalised to
stresses at a point by examining the forces acting on the
surface of an imaginary cut through the soil body at the
point in question, say point A.
Stresses at a point: obtained by considering forces acting on the
surface of an imaginary cut through the soil body at the point in
question, say point A.

 - Fy   - Fz 
 y  Limit    yz  Limit  
A  0  A  A  0  A 
Other components of stresses x, z and xz by  - Fx 
taking cuts along appropriate vertical planes.  yx  Limit  
Soil can only withstand compressive stresses  A  0  A 
=> positive signs for compressive stresses.

Fy

A Fx

Fz
A Basic Relationship between shear stresses:
complementarity
Consider an element of unit thickness in the xy-plane:
Since the element is in rotational equilibrium, clockwise moment
= counter-clockwise moment,
xy dy dx = yx dx dy
 xy = yx
By considering similar rectangular sections in the YZ and ZX
planes, we can also show that y
yz = zy yx
zx = xz
Thus six independent stress  dy xy
x xy x
components i.e. x, y , z, xy, yz
dx
and xz are sufficient to completely
define the state of stress at a point
in 3-dimensional space.
Strains
Externally, the effects of loads on a continuum are
manifested in its deformations and displacements. Internally,
these effects are expressed in terms of strains.

vx vx + dvx

dx

x = dvx/dx
 In soils, positive signs for compressive stresses
and strains. Soil can only withstand compressive
stresses and strains.
 In a general situation, the deformation can change
in many directions (not just the X-direction), thus
x = - vx/x
 The partial derivatives indicate that we only take
into account the change of length with respect to
the X-coordinates only (and not Y- and Z-co-
ordinates).
 Similarly, the normal strains in the Y- and Z-
direction y and z are given by
y = - vy/y
z = - vz/z
 Shear strains are defined by the change of shape or
distortion of the body. Consider a rectangular section
being distorted:
-dvx

dy 
dx

 -dvy

The shear strain is given by the total angle of distortion, 

+ ,
 +  ≈ -vx/y - vy/x ( and  in radians)
or
xy ≈ -vx/y - vy/x
 Similarly:
xz = -vx/z - vz/x
yz = -vy/z - vz/y
Young’s modulus E: modulus of a specimen subjected
to normal stress on one plane, while the other two orthogonal
planes are unconstrained.
Elastic body subjected to
normal stress x
x = x/E
Poisson’s ratio (n) effect: Cross-sectional area
x

y = -nx/E
A

z = -nx/E
 x

y = z = 0

If same elastic body is subjected to normal stress y then it

undergoes
y = y/E (16)
x = -ny/E (17)
z = -ny/E (18)
Similarly, for z :
z = z/E (19)
x = -nz/E (20)
y = -nz/E (21)
 Scenario A Scenario B Scenario C

+ +

xa = x/E xb = -ny/E xc = -nz/E

ya = -nx/E + yb = y/E + yc = -nz/E
za = -nx/E zb = -ny/E zc = z/E
Using principle of superposition

→ x = xa + xb + xc = x/E-ny/E-nz/E

y = ya + yb + yc = y/E-nx/E-nz/E
z = za + zb + zc = z/E-nx/E-ny/E
 Combined effects of x, y and z on x can be obtained by
superposition
x = x/E-ny/E-nz/E (22)
 Similarly
y = y/E-nx/E-nz/E (23)
z = z/E-nx/E-ny/E (24)
 Relation between shear stress and shear strain:
xy = xy/G (25)
yz = yz/G (26)
xz = xz/G (27)
 where G is the shear modulus and is related to the
Young’s modulus E by
 (28)
E
G
2(1  n )
 Volumetric strain: dz

 Volumetric strain v: defined as the ratio

of the change in volume to the original
volume. Using the cubical element with dy
dimensions dx, dy and dz (as we have
used above), then
original volume = dx dy dz (31)
 Suppose this element undergoes axial dx
elongations -dvx, -dvy and -dvz, such that
the magnitudes of dvx, dvy and dvz are Original
much smaller than those of dx, dy and dz
(known as the “small strain” assumption)
new volume = (dx-dvx)(dy-dvy)(dz-dvz) Final
=dxdydz-dxdydvz-dydzdvx-dxdzdvy
+{dxdvydvz+dydvxdvz+dzdvxdvy- dz-dvz
dvxdvydvz}

= dxdydz (1+x+y+z + higher order dy-dvy

terms in x, y and z)
dx-dvx
 Neglecting the higher order terms (since  is small) leads to
new volume≈original volume(1+x + y + z)
= original vol + original vol (x + y + z)
decrease in volume/original volume = (x + y + z)
 (decrease in volume)/(original volume) = volumetric strain
v = (x + y + z) (35)
 Substituting Eqs. 22-24 into Eq. 35 leads to

x + y + z = (1-2n)(x + y + z)/E =v

= (x + y + z)/(3K)
= p/K (37)
E
where K= and p = (x + y + z)/3

3(1  2n )
 K is known as the bulk modulus & p is the mean normal
stress.
 Constrained
Modulus x
Cross-sectional area

The constrained modulus D

A

is commonly used in soil

mechanics. It is the ratio
between the stress and strain
in one direction (say X) when

x
the strains in the other two
orthogonal directions (say Y

Cross-sectional area
and Z) are constrained to be
zero.

A
 Obtained by setting y = z = 0 in Eqs. 23 and 24, which
leads to
z = y = n x/(1-n) (39)
 Substituting Eq. 39 into Eq. 22 leads to
  n2 n 2   x  1  n  2n 2   x  1  n )1  2n ) 
x  x 1         
E  1 n 1 n  E  1 n  E  1 n 

x/x = D = E (1  n ) (40)
(1  n )(1  2n )

 The constrained modulus, or rather its inverse (known as

coefficient of volume change mv), will be used in the
consolidation equations to be covered in a later part of
the module.
5. Real Stress-Strain Behaviour of Soils
 The above concepts are all discussed in
the context of a linear elastic material. In
general, soil behaviour is non-linear and
inelastic.
 Nonetheless, you will find that some of the
concepts are still applied for convenience
especially in foundation works.
 In the next part, the actual compression
behaviour of soil will be dealt with.
 Main Points
 Stress is load normalized by area.
 Strain is deformation normalized by dimension or length.
 Stiffness (force/deformation) is a property of a system,
modulus (stress/strain) is a material property.
 6 components of stress (or strain) are needed to fully
characterize a 3-D state of stress (or strain).
 Different moduli can be defined depending upon the
loading configuration and boundary conditions.
 The Young’s modulus is the modulus measured when load is
applied in one direction and the other two directions are
fully unconstrained.
 The constrained modulus is the modulus measured when
load is applied in one direction and the other two directions
are fully constrained.
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