Chapter 3: Stresses, Strains, and

Elastic Deformations of Soils

3.0. Introduction:
 Important aspect of soil mechanics is used to predict
the stresses & strains imposed at a given point in a
soil mass due to certain loading conditions.
 Why?
to estimate settlement
to conduct stability analysis of earth and earth-
retaining structures
to determine stress conditions on underground.
 A geotechnical engineer must ensure that a
geotechnical structure must not collapse under any
estimated loading condition and that settlement
under working load must be within tolerable limits.
We would prefer the settlement under
working load to be elastic so that no
permanent settlement would occur and thus
use elastic analysis to calculate the
settlement.
An elastic analysis of an isotropic material
involves only two constants Young’s modulus
(E) and Poisson’s ratio (υ).
Both constants can be determined either from
laboratory or field test.
since we need to have only two constants the
case or the prediction of stress and strain
becomes simple.
An important task of a geotechnical engineer
is to determine the stresses and strains that
are imposed on a soil mass by external loads.
It is customary to assume that the strains in
the soils are small and this assumption allows
us to apply our knowledge of mechanics of
elastic bodies to soils.
In this chapter, we will review some
fundamental principles of mechanics and
strength of materials and apply these
principles to soils.
3.1 Stresses and Strains
3.1.1 Normal Stresses and Strains
 Stress mean that how much amount of force is
applied on the some cross-sectional area of the
material.
 Normal stress is produced by the normal force
which is applied on the soil. Which is obtained by
the normal force divided by the cross-sectional
area of the material.
 Strain is the ratio of the deformed length to the
normal length of the material.
 Normal strain is produced due to the normal load
The normal stresses and normal strains
respectively are

Pz Px Py z x y
z  , x  , y  z  , x  , y 
xy yz xz z x y
3.2 Volumetric Strain
The volumetric strain is the strain throughout the
volume of the material.
 p  x  y  z
3.2. Shear Stresses and Shear Strains.
For a shearing force ‘F’ the shear stress is:
F
 
xy
 ear stress is a stress which is produced
Shear stress is a stress which is produced
due to the shear force.
Shear strain is also produced due to the
shear force Shear stress is a stress which is
produced due to the shear force.
Shear strain is also produced due to the
shear force.
due to the shear force.
Shear strain is also produced due to the
shear force.

x x x
 zx 1
 tan
z
or tan  zx 
z
 zx 
z
Shear strain
The simple shear strain, also called engineering
shear strain, ‘zx‘ is
x x
 zx  tan 1 or tan  zx 
z z
For small strains:
tan  zx   zx

Therefore
x
 zx 
z
In geotechnical engineering, compressive
stresses in soils are assumed to be positive.

Soils can not sustain any appreciable tensile

stresses and we normally assume that the
tensile strength of soils is negligible.

Strains can be compressive or tensile.

3.3 Idealized Stresses-Strain Response and
Yielding
3.3.1 Material Response to Normal Loading and
Unloading.
 The change in vertical stress for
a uniaxial loading. P
 z 
A
 The vertical and radial strains
are,
z r
 z   r 
H0 r0
where
H0 is the original length and r0 is the
original radius.
• In the uniaxial case the two strains are lateral/radial/
and vertical strain.
• The ratio of the two strains are said to be Poisson’s
ratio,υ
  r

z
• The negative sign indicates that the strain in the radial
direction is elongates and in vertical direction deforms.

• In the uniaxial case the value of poisons ratio ranges

from 0-.5.
• Elastic constants of soil
The ratio of the radial (or lateral) strain to
the vertical strain is called Poisson’s ratio,(υ),
defined as
  r
 
z

 But , is bounded as 0 < υ < 0.5

Typical values of Poisson’s ratio for soils.
ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY
Elastic behavior is when the soil is subjected
to some loading conditions and the load is
released if it reverts to its original direction
the soil is said to be elastic.
If it can’t revert to its initial position it is said
to be in plastic state.
A body under elastic deformation reverts to its
original state on the removal of the loads.
Responses of linearly and non-linearly elastic
materials to normal loading and unloading
The following Fig.1 shows typical responses of
linearly and non-linearly elastic materials to
normal loading and unloading.
In stress strain curve, the slope of linearly
elastic material is said to be modulus of
elasticity E.
In the non linearly elastic materials we do
have two elastic modulus's tangent and secant
modulus of elasticity.
Linearly elastic and non linearly elastic fig 1.
 Loading and unloading
Elastic and plastic behavior
3.3.2 Material Response to Shear Forces
The effect of normal forces are to compress or
deform materials but the effect of Shear
forces are to distort materials.
In the shear stress and shear strain diagram
we get the elastic constants which are
Initial shear modulus
Tangent shear modulus and
Secant shear modulus

See from the following graph

Figure 4.6: Shear stress-shear strain response of
an elastoplastic material
 Elastic constants
 In addition to poisons ratio we have around four
elastic constants that relate strain to stresses .
 Bulk modules (k) ,
 Elastic modules (E) ,
 Shear modules (G)
 Lame constants ( 1st -  and 2nd -  )
 All these five constants are bounded at least from
below their bounds are generated from stain energy
concept.
Their bounds are  E > 0 and K > 0 shears
  > 0 or G > 0.
 Elastics constants
Only two of these parameters either [E or G]
and [υ] are required to solve problems dealing
with isotropic, elastic materials.
 Typical values of of E and G.
3.3.3 Yield Surface
to know something about the yield surface let
us go out from uniaxial case.

(Fig. below). In this case, we are going to apply

increments of vertical and radial stresses.
Since we are not applying any shear stresses,
the axial stresses and radial stresses are
principal stresses .
Figure 4.7: Elastic, yield and elastoplastic stress states.
Let us, for example, set σ3 to zero and increase
σ1.
 The material will yield at some value of σ1,
which we will call (σ1)y and plot it as point A in
Fig. 4.7b. If, alternatively, we set σ1=0 and
increase σ3, the material will yield at (σ3)y and
is represented by point B in Fig. 4.7b.
We can then subject the cylinder to various
combinations of σ1 and σ3 and plot the
resulting yield points.
Linking the yield points results in a curve, AB,
which is called the yield curve or yield surface.
• The curve AB is called the yield curve or yield
surface.
• A material subjected to a combination of
stresses that lies below the curve will respond
elastically (recoverable deformation).
• If loading is continued beyond the yield stress,
the material will respond elastoplastically or
deformation occurs.
• If the material is isotropic, the yield surface
will be symmetrical about the σ1, σ3 axes.
3.4 Hooke’s Law – stress strain relations

 Robert Hooke (1676) stated that the force needed to

elongate a spring is a linear function of the stresses.
 The most familiar elastic constants are Young’s
Modulus and Poisson’s ratio. Both are illustrated by
the following an elastic bar in uniaxial tension.

 xx

 xx
  xx

 xx

 The stress xx will cause the bar to elongate,

which results in extensional strain xx.
 Based on experimental observations, xx depends
linearly on xx
 Where E is Young’s modulus. It has dimensions of
stress.
 xx
 xx 
E
 For an isotropic, linear elastic material, yy and zz will be
equal and will both be linear functions of xx.

 yy   zz  n xx
Where n is Poisson’s ratio. It is a dimensionless quantity

n
 yy   zz    xx
E
The extensional strain xx will depend on all
three stresses.
 xx n n
 xx    yy   zz
E E E

Finally the three strains will come

1
 xx  [ xx n ( yy   zz )]
E
1
 yy  [ yy n ( xx   zz )]
E
1
 zz  [ zz n ( xx   yy )]
E
3.4.1 Hooke’s Law ( Generalized state of stress)
Stress and strains for a linear, isotropic,
elastic soil are related through Hooke’s law. For a
generalized state of stress (Fig. below), Hooke’s
law is
• We do have strain from hook’s law

 xy  G xy
 yz  G yz
 zx  G zx
is the shear modulus. We will call E, G and  the elastic parameters. Only two of these
parameters – either E or G and  – are required to solve problems dealing with isotropic,
elastic materials.
3.4.2 Principal Stresses
If the stresses applied to a soil are principal
stresses, then Hooke’s law reduces to

 The matrix on the above is called the compliance

matrix. The inverse of this matrix is called the
stiffness matrix.
3.4.3 Displacements from Strains and Forces
from Stresses
The displacements and forces are obtained by
integration. For example, the vertical displacement, is

and the axial force is

• Where: dz is the height or thickness of the element

and dA is the elemental area.
3.5 Plane strain and axisymmetric conditions
Let us consider an element of soil, A,
behind a retaining wall (Fig. 4.9). Because the
displacement that is likely to occur in the Y
direction( Δy ) is small compared with the
length in this direction, the strain tends to zero;
that is,
3.5.1 Plane strain condition is when the strain in
one direction is ignored. So the above Hooke’s
law becomes,

 2   ( 1   3 )
1 
1  (1  )1  3 
E

1
3  (1   ) 3   1 
E
• The above equations in the matrix form becomes

 1   1   1       1 
   
 3 E   1     3 
 1  E 1     1 
       

 2 (1   )(1  2 )  1    2 
3.5.2 Axisymmetric Condition
 It means axial symmetry condition where two stresses
are equal.
 On the following figure, The radial stress (σr) and the
circumferential stress (σθ) on a cylindrical element of soil
directly under the center of the tank are equal because of
axial symmetry.
• Water tank located on the soil mass.

• For axisymmetry condition Hooke’s law proves

that
 1   1  2 3 
1
E

3 
1
(1   ) 3  1 
E
• It can also be written in matrix form
1  1  1  2   1 
    
 3  E   (1   )  3 

 1   E 1   2   1 
  1   
 3  (1   )(1  2 )    3 

3.6 Anisotropic Elastic States

 there are two types of anisotropy
structural anisotropy
transverse anisotropy
stress induced anisotropy.
 structural anisotropy it is the result of the kind of soil fabric that is
formed during deposition.
 -A special type of structural anisotropy occurs when the horizontal
plane is a plane of anisotropy.
• for transverse anisotropy, we need only 5
elastic constants; these are Ez, Ex, , , and
 zz  zx  xx

• The first letter in the double subscripts

denotes the direction of loading and the
second letter denotes the direction of
measurement.
  zx means poison’s ratio determined from the
ratio of the strain in the lateral direction (X
direction) to the strain in the vertical direction
(Z direction) with the load applied in the
vertical direction (Z direction).

For axisymmetric conditions, the transverse

anisotropic, elastic equations are
1  2 rz 
 z    E z E r   z 
  (1   rr )   
 r   zr  r 
 Ez E r 
• For axisymmetric conditions, the transverse
anisotropic, elastic equations are
• In most soil problems the induced stresses are
either low enough to be well below the yield
stress of the soil and it can be assumed that the
soil will behave elastically (e.g. immediate
settlement problems), or they are high enough
for the soil to fail by plastic yield ( bearing
capacity and earth pressure problems), where it
can be assumed that the soil will behave as a
plastic material.
• Generally it is assumed that the soil is both
homogeneous and isotropic. As with the
assumption of perfect elasticity these
theoretical relationships do not apply in
practice but can lead to realistic results when
sensibly applied.
• The state of stress at a point within a soil mass
A major problem in geotechnical analysis is
the estimation of the state of stress at a point at
a particular depth in a soil mass.
A load acting on a soil mass, whether
internal, due to its self weight, or external, due
to a load applied at the boundary, creates
stresses within the soil.
3.7 Total and Effective
Stresses
Introduction:
• The principal source of soil stress is caused by
the weight of the soil (adjusted usually by the
pore water pressure) above the point in the
soil under examination.

• Additional stresses can and are induced by

load from the soil surface, such as footings,
deep foundation, embankments and other
weight-bearing structures.
Effective Stress Concept
To analyze problems such as
compressibility of soils, bearing capacity
of foundations, stability of
embankments, and lateral pressure on
earth-retaining structures, engineers
need to know the nature of the
distribution of stress along a given cross
section of the soil profile.
That is
- what fraction of the normal stress at a
given depth in a soil mass is carried by water
in the void spaces and
- what fraction is carried by the soil
skeleton at the points of contact of the soil
particles.
Effective Stress Principle

The importance of the forces transmitte

d through the soil skeleton from particle to
particle was recognized in 1923 when Terzaghi
presented the principle of effective stress, an
intuitive relationship based on experimental
data. The principle applies only to fully
saturated soils and relates the following three
stresses:
The principle applies only to fully saturated soils
and relates the following three stresses:

1.The total normal stress () on a plane within

the soil mass, being the force per unit area
transmitted in a normal direction across the
plane, imagining the soil to be a solid (single-
phase) material;
2. The pore water pressure (u), being
the pressure of the water filling the void
space between the solid particles;

3. The effective normal stress (’ ) on the plane,

representing the stress transmitted through
the soil skeleton only.
Effect of Water Table Fluctuations on Effective
Stress
At any point within the soil mass, the
magnitudes of both total stress and pore
water pressure are dependent on the ground
water position. With a shift in the water table
due to seasonal fluctuations, there is a
resulting change in the distribution in pore
water pressure with depth.
• Changes in water level below ground result in
changes in effective stresses below the water
table. A rise increases the pore water pressure
at all elevations thus causing a decrease in
effective stress. In contrast, a fall in the water
table produces an increase in the effective
stress.
Changes in water level above ground do not
cause changes in effective stresses in the
ground below. A rise above ground surface
increases both the total stress and the pore
water pressure by the same amount, and
consequently effective stress is not altered.
• If both total stress and pore water pressure
change by the same amount, the effective
stress remains constant.

• Total and effective stresses must be

distinguishable in all calculations. Ground
movements and instabilities can be caused by
changes in total stress, such as caused by
loading by foundations and unloading due to
excavations. They can also be caused by
changes in pore water pressures, such as
failure of slopes after rainfall.
 In Situ Stresses
1.1 Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage
Figure 9.1a shows a column of saturated soil mass with no seepage of
water in any direction. The total stress at the elevation of point A can be
obtained from the saturated unit weight of the soil and the unit weight
of water above it. Thus,
The total stress can be divided into two parts:

1. A portion is carried by water in the

continuous void spaces. This portion acts
with equal intensity in all directions.

2. The rest of the total stress is carried by the

soil solids at their points of contact. The sum
of the vertical components of the forces
developed at the points of contact of the solid
particles per unit cross-sectional area of the
soil mass is called the effective stress.
Example
Example:
A granular soil deposit is 4 m thick and underlying
it is a clay having a thickness of 5 m. There is a
water table at the interface of the soil and the
clay. Dry unit weight of sand is 15.6 kN/m3 ,
Saturated unit weight of sand is 16.6 kN/m3 and
saturated unit weight of clay is 17.8 kN/m3 .
a) What is the effective stress at the bottom
of the clay?
b)If the water table rises to the level of the
soil surface, what is the effective stress at the
bottom of the clay?
c) If the water table is 3 m above the soil
surface, what is the effective stress at the
bottom of the clay?
Hydraulic Gradient (i) is the head loss per unit
length.
i = h/H
where :
h = head loss
H = Length of soil
Seepage pressure – the frictional drag of water
flowing through voids or interstices in rock
causing an increase in the intergranular
pressure.

F = i w

where:
i = hydraulic gradient
w = unit weight of water
1.2 Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage
Consider the upward flow of water through a layer of sand in a tank as shown in figure.
For the sand, the following are given: e = 0.50, GS = 2.60.
a) Compute the value of h1,
b) Compute the effective stress at A,
c) Compute the effective stress at B.
d) Compute the upward seepage force per unit volume of soil.
1.3 Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage
The figure shows a granular soil in a tank having a dwonward seepage. The
Water level in the soil tank is held constant by adjusting the supply from the
Top and the outflow at the bottom. Void ratio of soil = 0.47 and specific gravity =
2.68. a) Compute the effective stresse at C ,
b) Compute the effective stress at B.
c) Compute the critical hydraulic gradient
d) Compute the downward seepage force per unit volume
From the given soil profile shown in the figure, compute the
following:
a) total stress at point A.
b) value of h if the effective stress at A is to 81.6 kN/m2
c) Effective stress at B.
 Effective Stress in Soils Saturated by Capillary
Action

Water will rise in the tube and form a meniscus

as shown in the diagram. The height the
capillary rise is inversely proportional to the
inside diameter of the tube.
The pressure in the water at point B in the
diagram above is 0, and it may be shown that
the pressure at point A in the capillary water is
negative and depends on the height above the
surface of the water surrounding the tube. The
equation for the water pressure at point A is:
In soil water is able to rise above the water table
by moving through the inter-connected void
spaces by capillary action.

The height of capillary rise depends primarily on

soil particle size, becoming higher as the size
gets smaller.

Thus, capillary action may be significant for silt

and clay size particles. Capillary rise may be
estimated from:
The porewater pressure in the capillary zone will be
negative and may be determined from:
• The porewater pressure at the water table is
zero.
• Below the water table the soil is saturated and
the water is called free water. The water
pressure is positive (compression) and
increases with depth below the water table.
• Above the water table up to the height of
capillary rise is the capillary zone and the
water is called capillary water. The water
pressure is negative (less than atmospheric) in
the capillary zone.

• These observations are illustrated in the

figures below.
Effective Stress in Unsaturated Zone

Above the water table, when the soil is

saturated, pore water pressure will be
negative ( less than atmospheric). The height
above the water table to which the soil is
saturated is called the capillary rise, and this
depends on the grain size of pores. In coarse
soils, the capillary rise is very small.
Between the top of the saturated zone and the
ground surface, the soil is partially saturated,
with a consequent reduction in unit weight.
The pore pressure in a partially saturated soil
consists of two components:
pore water pressure = uw
pore air pressure = ua
Water is incompressible, whereas air is
compressible. The combined effect is a
complex relationship involving partially
pressure and the degree of saturation of the
soil.
Effective Stress in the Zone Capillary Rise.

Upward movement of water or capillary rise

The same process happens with a
groundwater table and the soil above it. The
groundwater can be sucked upward by the soil
through very small pores that are called
capillars. This process is called capillary rise
Range of Capillary Soil Type
Rise

0.1 - 0.2 m Coarse Sand

0.3 - 1.2 m Fine Sand
1.3 - 7.5 m Silt
7.5 – 23 m Clay
A soil profile is shown in the figure. A zone of
capillary rise of 2.5 mm is on the sand layer
overlying clay. In this zone, the average degree
of saturation is 60%.
a) Compute the effective stress right below
B.
b) Compute the effective stress of C.
c) Compute the effective stress of D.
A dense silt layer has the following properties
void ratio, e = 0.30
Effective diameter, D10 = 10 m
Capillary constant, C = 0.20 cm2
Free ground water level is 8.0 m below the
ground surface.
a) Find the height of capillary rise in the silt
b) Find the vertical effective stress in kPa at
5 m depth. Assume s = 26.5 kN/m3 and that
the soil above the capillary action rise and
ground surface is partially saturated at 50%.
c) Find the vertical effective stress at 10 m
depth. Assume s = 26.5 kN/m3 and that the
soil above the capillary action rise and ground
surface is partially saturated at 50%.
 Effective Stress and Surcharge

The addition of a surface surcharge load

will increase the total stresses below it. If the
surcharge loading is extensively wide, the
increase in vertical total stress below it may be
considered constant with depth and equal to
the magnitude of the surcharge.
 ’ = ’o + q

Where:
’o = initial vertical effective
soil pressure
q= net additional pressure
’ = total effective pressure
A soil formation shown in figure has its ground
water table located at 2 m below the ground
surface. The ground surface is subjected is
subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 40
kPa. Compute the total effective stress at the
mid-layer clay.
From the given soil formation and their
corresponding properties.

a) What thickness of surcharge load having a

unit weight of 15 kN/m3 is necessary to have
the same increase at mid-layer of the clay a
lowering the water level by 2 m.
b) If by dewatering, the water level lowered by 3
m, determine the stress increase at the
bottom of the soil formation.
c) Determine also the stress increase at the mid-
depth of the clay if the water level is lowered
by 3 m.
• From the figure shown, a soil formation with its
corresponding soil properties and water table is
located 2 m below the ground surface. To
consolidate the ground, surcharge load at the top
of dewatering are being considered

a) A decision has been made to consolidate the

clay layer prior to site development by preloading
with a sand layer 1.0 m thick. The sand fill will
have a unit weight of 15 kN/m3 . What is the
increase in stress at the mid-layer of clay.
b) By dewatering 1.8 m, what is the stress
increase at the mid-layer of clay as water level
is lowered down?

c) How much must the water level be lowered to

be more effective than the surcharge load?
3.8 Stress Distribution in Soils
due to Surface Loads
(Boussinesq’s Method)
• Estimation of vertical stresses at any point in a
soil-mass due to external vertical loadings are of
great significance in the prediction of
settlements of buildings, bridges, embankments
and many other structures.

• When a load is applied to the soil surface, it

increases the vertical stresses within the soil
mass. The increased stresses are greatest directly
under the loaded area, but extend indefinitely in
all directions.
3.81

3.81.1. Boussinesq’s Formula for Point

Loads
Figure 6.1 shows a load Q acting at a point O on
the surface of a semi-infinite solid. A semi-
infinite solid is the one bounded on one side by
a horizontal surface, here the surface of the
earth, and infinite in all the other directions.
The problem of determining stresses at any
point P at a depth z as a result of a surface point
load was solved by Boussinesq(1885) on the
following assumptions.
1. The soil mass is elastic, isotropic,
homogeneous and semi-infinite.
2. The soil is weightless.
3. The load is a point load acting on the
surface.
 The soil is said to be isotropic if there are
identical elastic properties throughout the mass and
in every direction through any point of it.
The soil is said to be homogeneous if there are
identical elastic properties at every point of the
mass in identical directions.
The expression obtained by Boussinesq for
computing vertical stress σz at point P (Figure 6.1)
due to a point load Q is

Equation 6.1
• Where:
r = the horizontal distance between an
arbitrary point P below the surface and the
vertical axis through the point load Q.
z = the vertical depth of the point P from
the surface.

The values of the Boussinesq Coefficient IB can

be determined for a number of values of r/z.
The variation of IB with r/z in a graphical form is in
figure 6.2. It can be seen from this figure that IB has a
maximum value of 0.48 at r/z = 0 i.e., indicating
thereby by the stress is a maximum below the point
load.

Figure 6.2 Values of IB or IW for use in the Boussinesq or Westergaard formula

Example:
1. A concentrated load of 1000kN is applied at
the ground surface. Compute the vertical
pressure
a) at a depth of 4 m below the load
b) at a distance of 3 m at the same depth.
Use Boussinesq’s equation.
2. A concentrated load of 45000 lb acts at
foundation level at a depth of 6.56 ft below the
ground surface.
Find the vertical stress along the axis of
the load at a depth of 32.8 ft and at a radial
distance of 16.4 ft at the same depth by
Boussinesq formula. Neglect the depth of the
foundation.
3.81.2 Line Loads
The basic equation used for computing σz at any
point P in an elastic semi-infinite mass is Equation 6.1 of
Boussinesq.
By applying the principle of his theory, the stresses at
any point in the mass due to a line load of infinite extent
acting at the surface may obtained.
The state of stress encountered in this case is that of
a plane strain condition. The strain at any point P in the Y-
direction parallel to the line load is assumed equal to zero.
The σy normal to the XZ-plane (Figure 6.3) is the
same at all sections and the shear stresses on these
sections are zero.
By applying the theory of elasticity, stresses at any
point P (Figure 6.3) may be obtained either in polar
coordinates or in rectangular coordinates. The vertical
stress σz at point P may be written in rectangular
coordinates as

Where: IZ is the influence factor equal to 0.637 at x/z =0

• 3.81.3 Strip Loads
The state of stress encountered in this case also
is that of a plane strain condition. Such conditions are
found for structures extended very much in one
direction, such as strip and wall foundations of
retaining walls, embankments, dams and the like.
For such structures the distribution of stresses
in any section (except for the end portions of 2 to 3
times the widths of the structures from its end) will
be the same as in the neighboring sections, provided
that the load does not change in directions
perpendicular to the plane considered.
 A strip load is the load transmitted by a structure of
finite width and infinite length on a soil surface.
 Two types of strip loads are common in geotechnical
engineering.
 load that imposes a uniform stress on the soil.
 load that induces a triangular stress distribution
over an area.
 The following figure shows Strip load imposing (a) a
uniform stress and (b) a linearly varying stress. (c)
Strip load near a retaining wall and (d) lateral force
near a retaining wall from a strip load.
Figure
• For the above four types the increase in
stresses can be determined as follows.
(a) Area transmitting a uniform stress (Fig. 4.13a

 z 
qs
  sin  cos(  2 )


 x 
qs
  sin  cos(  2 )


 sin  sin(  2 )
qs
 zx

(b) Area transmitting triangular stress (Fig.
4.13b)
qs  x 
 z     12 sin 2 
 B 

q s  x z R12 1 
 x     ln 2  2 sin 2 
 B B R2 

qs  2 
 zx  1  cos 2  2  
  B 
• (c) Area transmitting triangular stress (Fig.
4.21c,d)
2qs
 x  (   sin  cos 2 )


Px 
qs
H 0 ( 2  1 )
90
H 02 ( 2  1 )  ( R1  R2 )  57.3BH 0
z
2 H 0 ( 2  1 )

 a  aB
1  tan 1  ,  2  tan 1  ,
 0
H  0 
H
R1  (a  B) (90   2 ), and R2  a 2 (90  1 )
2
Example
Three parallel strip footings 3 m wide each and 5 m apart center
to center transmit contact pressures of 200, 150 and 100 kN/m2
respectively. Calculate the vertical stress due to the combined
loads beneath the centers of each footing at a depth of 3 m
below the base. Assume the footings are placed at a depth of 2
m below the ground surface. Use Boussinesq method for line
loads.
• We know
3.8.2.1 Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
 An example of circular area that transmits stresses to
a soil mass in a circular foundation of an oil or water
tank.
 The increases of vertical and radial stresses under a
circular area of radius r0 are

  
3/ 2 
1
 z  q s 1      qs I c
  1  (r0 z ) 2 
 
 
  
3/ 2 
 1 
Ic  1  
  1  (r z ) 2  
  0  
Where: IC = Influence Factor
• Example:
A water tank is required to be constructed
with a circular foundation having a diameter of 16
m founded at a depth of 2 m below the ground
surface. The estimated distributed load on the
foundation is 325 kN/m2 . Assuming that the subsoil
extends to a great depth and is isotropic and
homogeneous, determine the stresses σz at points
(i) z = 8m, r = 0
(ii) z = 8m, r = 8m
(iii) z = 16 m, r = 0
(iv) z = 16 m, r = 8m
Where r is the radial distance from the central axis.
Neglect the effect of the depth of the foundation on
the stresses.
• 3.8.2.2 Vertical Stress Caused by a Rectangular
Loaded Area
Boussinesq’s solution also can be used to calculate the
vertical stress increase below a flexible rectangular loaded area,
as shown in Figure 10.20. The loaded area is located at the
ground surface and has length L and width B. The uniformly
distributed load per unit area is equal to q.
• To determine the increase in the vertical stress
( Δσz ) at point A, which is located at depth z
below the corner of the rectangular area.
Δσz = q I3
Where:
Δσz = the increase in the stress, at point
A caused by the entire loaded area.
 𝐵 𝐿
m = n=
𝑧 𝑧
The variation of I3 with m and n is shown in Table 10.8 and
Figure 10.21
• In most cases the vertical stress increase
below the center of a rectangular area (Figure
10.23) is important. This stress increase can be
given by the relationship

The variation of I4 with m1 and n1 is given in Table 10.9

3.8.3 Approximate Method for Rectangular
Loads
In preliminary analyses of vertical stress
increases under the center of rectangular loads,
Geotechnical engineers often use an approximate
method (The 2:1 method).

The surface load on an area, (B x L),is

dispersed at a depth ”Z“ over an area (Z + B)(Z + L).

The vertical load increase under the

center of the rectangle is
q s BL
 z 
( B  z )( L  z )
• Figure: Dispersion of load for approximate
increase in vertical stress under a rectangle