Science, Technology and Society

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Biotechnology and Biocolonialism

Module 012 – Biotechnology and

Biocolonialism

The module contains the following topics:

1. Biotechnology and Environmental Politics in Agriculture
2. Biocolonialism

Biotechnology
Although the concept of biotechnology generally brings to mind genetic engineering, it can
be conceived of very broadly. Definition (Biotechnology) Any use of biological organisms or
processes in industrial, medical, agricultural and environmental engineering.
 In this way, we can trace the history of biotechnology from the beginning of
scientific agriculture and fermentation at the end of the 19th century.
 Throughout the 20th century, there was both much hope for, and much
disappointment in, the development of biotechnology.
 By the last decades of the 20th century, biotech became a major component of the
R&D of most developed nations.
Zymotechnology is the old term for the study of the processes of fermentation in yeast and
bacteria in the production of foods and beverages such as bread, cheese, tofu, beer, wine,
sake, nato, etc.
Of course, these practices go back to ancient times, however, in the 19th century, with the
rise of big industries, particularly in Britain and Germany, technoscientists began to isolate
the microorganisms involved and to study them.
With the techniques of scientific biology of the 19th century, it became possible to isolate
pure strands of the various yeasts and molds involved in these processes, so as to
standardize the mass production of these products.
In this regard, at the end of the 19th century, various industrial and governmental labs, and
teaching institutions were established.
In the early part of the 20th century, technoscientists began to see zymotechnolgy as
included in the applied sciences, analogously to chemistry. They established institutions for
collecting microorganisms.
The concept of zymotechnolgy was broadened to a general concept of biological chemistry,
involving the use of biological molecules such as amino-acids, proteins and enzymes in
industrial production.
The word ‘biotechnology’ was coined by Karl Ereky (1878–1952), in Hungary in 1919, to
describe general processes of converting raw materials into useful products, such as on
industrial farms.

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In Britain, Chaim Weizemann (1874–1952) developed bacterial fermentation processes for
producing organic chemicals such as acetone and cordite propellants. During WWII, he
worked on synthetic rubber and high-octane gas.
In the early part of the 20th century, technoscientists began to see zymotechnolgy as
included in the applied sciences, analogously to chemistry. They established institutions for
collecting microorganisms.

Engineering nature
During the interwar period, philosophers, sociologists and public intellectuals began
to reflect on the growing link between biology and technology.
They put forward the idea that biotechnology could be used to change human nature,
and by changing human nature to change society.
The Austrian Raoul Francé (1874–1943), for example, claimed that we could regard
life as a series of technical problems, for which living organisms acted as optimal
solutions.
In Britain, biotechnology was conceived of as a possible solution to the damages of
the industrial revolution.
Patrick Geddes (1854–1932), the Scottish biologist, divided the history of technology
into three stages: paleotechnic (1st industrial revolution), neotechnic (2nd industrial
revolution) and biotechnic (future industrial revolution).
Raoul France’s vision of a harmonious engineering:
R. Francé, Plants as Inventors, 1920: “It was my thesis that we can conquer not only
by the destruction of disturbing influences, but by compensation in harmony with
the world. Only compensation and harmony can be the optimal solutions; for that
end the wheels of the world turn. To attain its aim, life: to overcome obstacles, the
organism — plant, animal, man, or unicellular body — shifts and changes. It swims,
flies, defends itself and invents a thousand new forms and apparatuses. If you follow
my thought, you will see where I am leading, what is the deepest meaning of the
biotechnical tokens. It portends a deliverance from many obstacles, a redemption, a
straining for the solution of many problems in harmony with the forces of the world.”
Institutionalizing the engineering of nature
After WWII, technoscientists began to institutionalize biology and biotechnology in
various ways; that is, to establish departments, institutes and ministries.
During the war, a number of countries had used biotechnological means to
supplement their shortages. These labs were now institutionalized.
Cybernetics and general systems theory began to explore the parallel structures of
machines and biological systems. That is, they began to explore the general
theoretical similarities between biological and technological systems.
At MIT there was already a department of biological engineering (1936). The first
department of biotechnology was founded at UCLA in 1944, and, in the 1950s-60s,
became widely respected for its work on man-machine interfaces.
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Biotechnology and Biocolonialism

The promise of a green technology

In the early Cold War period, biotechnology was considered as an alternative to a list
of earth-destroying technologies developed by the “military-industrial complex.” It
was hoped that it might solve major social problems, such as energy and food
shortages.
 Imitation rhizobia: There were projects to try to develop bacterial fertilizers
that could convert nitrogen to ammonia like the rhizobia bacteria in beans.
 Biogas and gasohol: In rural countries like China and India, there were
projects to convert biomass into fuel. In 1974, Brazil began a massive project
to convert sugar cane to gas.
 Single-cell protein: During WWII, the Germans grew single-cell (fungal)
protein for animal fodder. In the 1950s, the oil companies developed

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 processes for growing bacteria on oil. In 1968, the Japanese produced 110
tones of single-cell protein bacteria.
Early biotech policy: Japan
Japan’s long history of the use of fermentation processes gave Japanese
technoscientists a broad conception of biotechnology.
 In the 1970s, Japan became a world leader in biotech policy.
o By the end of the 1960s there were serious pollution problems and this
lead to the idea that biotechnology could be used to make
environmentally sound technologies.
 In the 1970s, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry put special
emphasis on life sciences and biotechnology.
o White Paper on S&T, 1977: “Life Science, in particular, is for the study
of phenomena of life and biological functions that will be made useful;
for industrial, medical, agricultural and environmental purposes, and
so this area of science is expected to set the pace for the next round of
technical progress.”
Early biotech policy: Germany and Britain
 In the 1960s the Germans also became concerned with environmental
protection (Umweltschutz) and began to put emphasis on a new mode of
development.
o Symposium of Industrial Microbiology, 1969: “A future aim should
therefore be to close the gaps by suitable training, to rise above
classical fermentation technology, and to build up a modern science of
biochemical-microbiological engineering.”
 In Britain, chemical engineering, the antibiotics industry and applied
microbiology developed as rapidly as in the U.S.
 In 1979, a government report outlined the country’s policy on biotechnology,
which it defined as “the application of biological organisms, systems of
processes to manufacturing and service industries.”
o The British generally followed the Japanese and German policies,
however, they put more emphasis on genetic engineering.
Contrary to its name, biotechnology is not a single technology. Rather it is a group of
technologies that share two (common) characteristics -- working with living cells and their
molecules and having a wide range of practice uses that can improve our lives.
Biotechnology can be broadly defined as "using organisms or their products for commercial
purposes." As such, (traditional) biotechnology has been practices since he beginning of
records history. (It has been used to:) bake bread, brew alcoholic beverages, and breed
food crops or domestic animals (2). But recent developments in molecular biology have
given biotechnology new meaning, new prominence, and new potential. It is (modern)
biotechnology that has captured the attention of the public. Modern biotechnology can
have a dramatic effect on the world economy and society (3).
One example of modern biotechnology is genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is the
process of transferring individual genes between organisms or modifying the genes in an
organism to remove or add a desired trait or characteristic. Examples of genetic
engineering are described later in this document. Through genetic engineering, genetically
modified crops or organisms are formed. These GM crops or GMOs are used to produce
biotech-derived foods. It is this specific type of modern biotechnology, genetic engineering,
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Biotechnology and Biocolonialism

that seems to generate the most attention and concern by consumers and consumer
groups. What is interesting is that modern biotechnology is far more precise than
traditional forms of biotechnology and so is viewed by some as being far safer.)
Biotechnology for the 21st century
Experts in United States anticipate the world’s population in 2050 to be approximately 8.7
billion persons. The world’s population is growing, but its surface area is not. Compounding
the effects of population growth is the fact that most of the earth’s ideal farming land is
already being utilized. To avoid damaging environmentally sensitive areas, such as rain
forests, we need to increase crop yields for land currently in use. By increasing crop yields,
through the use of biotechnology the constant need to clear more land for growing food is
reduced.
Countries in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere are grappling with how to continue feeding a
growing population. They are also trying to benefit more from their existing resources.
Biotechnology holds the key to increasing the yield of staple crops by allowing farmers to
reap bigger harvests from currently cultivated land, while preserving the land’s ability to
support continued farming.
Malnutrition in underdeveloped countries is also being combated with biotechnology. The
Rockefeller Foundation is sponsoring research on “golden rice”, a crop designed to improve
nutrition in the developing world. Rice breeders are using biotechnology to build Vitamin A
into the rice. Vitamin A deficiency is a common problem in poor countries. A second phase
of the project will increase the iron content in rice to combat anemia, which is widespread
problem among women and children in underdeveloped countries. Golden rice, expected to
be for sale in Asia in less than five years, will offer dramatic improvements in nutrition and
health for millions of people, with little additional costs to consumers.
Similar initiatives using genetic manipulation are aimed at making crops more productive
by reducing their dependence on pesticides, fertilizers and irrigation, or by increasing their
resistance to plant diseases (14).
Increased crop yield, greater flexibility in growing environments, less use of chemical
pesticides and improved nutritional content make agricultural biotechnology, quite
literally, the future of the world’s food supply.
Industrial Biotechnology
Industrial biotechnology applies the techniques of modern molecular biology to
improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental impacts of industrial
processes like textile, paper and pulp, and chemical manufacturing. For example,
industrial biotechnology companies develop biocatalysts, such as enzymes, to
synthesize chemicals. Enzymes are proteins produced by all organisms. Using
biotechnology, the desired enzyme can be manufactured in commercial quantities.
Commodity chemicals (e.g., polymer-grade acrylamide) and specialty chemicals can
be produced using biotech applications. Traditional chemical synthesis involves
large amounts of energy and often-undesirable products, such as HCl. Using
biocatalysts, the same chemicals can be produced more economically and more
environmentally friendly. An example would be the substitution of protease in
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 detergents for other cleaning compounds. Detergent proteases, which remove
protein impurities, are essential components of modern detergents. They are used
to break down protein, starch, and fatty acids present on items being washed.
Protease production results in a biomass that in turn yields a useful byproduct- an
organic fertilizer. Biotechnology is also used in the textile industry for the finishing
of fabrics and garments. Biotechnology also produces biotech-derived cotton that is
warmer, stronger, has improved dye uptake and retention, enhanced absorbency,
and wrinkle- and shrink-resistance.
Some agricultural crops, such as corn, can be used in place of petroleum to produce
chemicals. The crop’s sugar can be fermented to acid, which can be then used as an
intermediate to produce other chemical feedstocks for various products. It has been
projected that 30% of the world’s chemical and fuel needs could be supplied by such
renewable resources in the first half of the next century. It has been demonstrated,
at test scale, that biopulping reduces the electrical energy required for wood pulping
process by 30% (11).
Environmental Biotechnology
Environmental biotechnology is the used in waste treatment and pollution
prevention. Environmental biotechnology can more efficiently clean up many
wastes than conventional methods and greatly reduce our dependence on methods
for land-based disposal.
Every organism ingests nutrients to live and produces by-products as a result.
Different organisms need different types of nutrients. Some bacteria thrive on the
chemical components of waste products. Environmental engineers use
bioremediation, the broadest application of environmental biotechnology, in two
basic ways. They introduce nutrients to stimulate the activity of bacteria already
present in the soil at a waste site, or add new bacteria to the soil. The 5 bacteria
digest the waste at the site and turn it into harmless byproducts. After the bacteria
consume the waste materials, they die off or return to their normal population
levels in the environment.
Bioremediation, is an area of increasing interest. Through application of
biotechnical methods, enzyme bioreactors are being developed that will pretreat
some industrial waste and food waste components and allow their removal through
the sewage system rather than through solid waste disposal mechanisms. Waste can
also be converted to biofuel to run generators. Microbes can be induced to produce
enzymes needed to convert plant and vegetable materials into building blocks for
biodegradable plastics (7).
In some cases, the byproducts of the pollution-fighting microorganisms are
themselves useful. For example, methane can be derived from a form of bacteria
that degrades sulfur liquor, a waste product of paper manufacturing. This methane
can then be used as a fuel or in other industrial processes.

Biocolonialism
Biocolonialism is, to put it most simply,
“the commandeering of knowledge and biological resources
from an indigenous people without compensation.“
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Laurie Ann Whitt explained it as “if colonialism encompasses the interlocking array of
policies and practices (economic, social, political and legal) that a dominant culture can
draw on to maintain and extend its control over other peoples and lands, then
biocolonialism emphasizes the role of science policy…. …where valued genetic resources
and information are actively sought, ‘discovered’, and removed to the microworlds of
biotechnoscience. There they are legally transformed into the private intellectual property
of corporations, universities and individuals, rendered as commodities, and placed for sale
in genetic marketplaces such as the American Type Culture Collection.

References and Supplementary Materials

Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. Biotechnology and its Applications;
https://fbns.ncsu.edu/extension_program/documents/biotech_applications.pdf;
November 9, 2017
2. A History of Biotechnology; http://www.f.waseda.jp/sidoli/STS_Intro_10.pdf;
November 9, 2017
3. Biocolonialism and its Effects on Indigenous Populations;
http://nativeamerasure.leadr.msu.edu/2015/12/09/biocolonialism-and-its-effects-
on-indigenous-peoples/; November 9, 2017

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