Biotechnology

Composed by Sawera Shafiq

Semester 7th

Introduction to Biotechnology

Biotechnology is an enormously wide field of science and technology. It embraces many branches, from
techniques to improve crops productivity to the manipulation of human genes. Thus, in an attempt to
comprehend all biotechnological activities, the following definition is provided:
A set of biological techniques developed through basic research and now applied to research and produce
development.

Foundations of Biotechnology
The foundations of biotechnology lie in several key areas:
1. Molecular Biology: Understanding the structure and function of biological molecules, such as DNA,
RNA, and proteins, is fundamental to biotechnology.
2. Genetic Engineering: Manipulating the genetic material of organisms to achieve specific outcomes, like
creating genetically modifies organisms (GMOs), is a core aspect.
3.Cell Biology: Knowledge of cell structure and function is crucial for biotechnological applications,
including cell culture and tissue engineering.
4.Bioinformatics: Analysing and interpreting biological data, often involving computational methods, is
essential for managing large-scale genetic information.
5. Microbiology: Studying microorganisms and their applications, such as the production of antibiotics or
the use of bacteria in industrial processes, is foundational.
6. Bioprocessing and Fermentation: Techniques for large-scale cultivation and processing of biological
products, including fermentation, are key in the production of bio-based materials and pharmaceuticals.
7. Biochemistry: Understanding the chemical processes within living organisms and applying this
knowledge to develop new technologies is a cornerstone.
8.Ethics and Regulations: As biotechnology often involves manipulating living organisms, ethical
considerations and adherence to regulations are critical foundations.
These foundations collectively enable the development of applications in areas like medicine, agriculture,
environmental management, and industry.

Biotechnology: An Interdisciplinary Approach

Biotechnology is simply the use of living organisms with means of technology to improve the quality of life
of humans. Biotechnology uses the study and techniques of many fields like chemistry, informatics,
engineering, genetics, biology, molecular biology, mathematics, structural anatomy, statistics, etc.
Biotechnology is not a new field, it is an ancient field that has progressed, developed, and evolved with time.
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One thing which we are sure of is that it will continue its development and growth in many more fields as
well as.

Stages of biotechnology

If we look at it like that we can say biotechnology can be regarded as follow classification:

 Ancient
 Classical
 Modern

Ancient biotechnology (pre-1800) does not have that much data on it and there is just speculation that with
man’s every need, like food, animals, and preservation of food arose, a new form of biotechnology
developed.

Classical biotechnology was used by people not completely knowing the science behind it. Different
methods and techniques were used to get different foods and preserve them unaware of the process.
Fermentation was used to get bread, curd, yogurt, cheese, beer, wine, etc.

Modern biotechnology deals with manipulations and altercations of the genetics of microorganisms also
known as DNA technology. Many discoveries like operons, gene cloning, monoclonal antibodies,
polymerase chain reaction, genetically modified organisms (GMO’S), bioremediation, genome projects, etc.

Biotechnology as a field uses many aspects of science and technology and if one takes formal education in
any type of biotechnology it requires learning of multiple disciplines in context to biotechnology.

 Biochemistry
 Biomedical engineering
 Biology
 Nanotechnology
 Biomechanical engineering
 Biochemical engineering
 Mechanics and Mechatronics engineering
 Computer science
 Bioinformatics
 Biophysics
 Biomedicine
 Biosystem engineering
 Cell biology
 Electrical and computer engineering
 Environmental engineering
 Genetic engineering
 Human factors
 Immune engineering
 Kinesiology
 Pharmacology

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And the list is endless because simply biotechnology is an endless field with innumerable possibilities.
Therw are 4 main areas of application of biotechnology:

 Health care
 Crop production and agriculture
 Industrial
 Environmental

History of Biotechnology
Biotechnology has a rich history that spans centuries, characterized by key developments and milestones.
Here's a concise overview:

1. Ancient Biotechnology (Pre-19th Century): Humans unknowingly practiced biotechnology by using

microorganisms for processes like fermentation to produce food and beverages. Examples include brewing
beer and fermenting dairy products.

2. 19th Century: The understanding of microbiology grew with pioneers like Louis Pasteur and Robert
Koch, who laid the foundation for modern biotechnology. Pasteur's work on fermentation helped dispel the
notion of spontaneous generation.

3. Early 20th Century: The discovery of antibiotics, such as penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928,
marked a crucial moment. This era saw the first intentional use of microorganisms for medical purposes.

4. Mid-20th Century: The advent of molecular biology in the 1950s and 1960s laid the groundwork for
genetic engineering. James Watson and Francis Crick's discovery of the DNA double helix structure in 1953
was a landmark.

5. 1970s: Recombinant DNA technology emerged, allowing the manipulation of genes. The first genetically
modified organism, a bacterium, was created in 1973 by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen.

6. 1980s: Biotechnology companies started to form, focusing on applications in medicine, agriculture, and
industry. The development of biopharmaceuticals, like insulin produced by genetically engineered bacteria,
showcased the potential of the technology.

7. 1990s: The Human Genome Project, initiated in 1990, aimed to map the entire human genome.
Completion in 2003 marked a major achievement, providing insights into genetic information and potential
applications in personalized medicine.

8. 21st Century: Advances in CRISPR-Cas9 technology revolutionized genetic editing, allowing precise
modification of genes. This has implications for treating genetic disorders, creating genetically modified
organisms, and more.

9.Ongoing Developments: Biotechnology continues to evolve rapidly. Fields such as synthetic biology,
personalized medicine, and bioinformatics contribute to expanding the scope and impact of biotechnological
applications.

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Throughout history, biotechnology has transitioned from ancient practices to sophisticated genetic
manipulation, shaping various industries and contributing to advancements in medicine, agriculture, and
environmental sustainability.

Chronology
1919
• The first use of the word biotechnology.
1938
• Commercial production of a bio pesticide (Bacillus thuringiensis) begins in France
1946
• The U.S. Congress recognized the threat posed by loss of genetic diversity, and provided funds for
systematic and extensive plant collection, preservation and introduction.
1953
• The DNA was described as a double helical structure by James Watson and Francis Crick’s.
1964
• The International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines starts the Green Revolution with new strains of
rice that double the yield of previous strains if given sufficient fertilizer.
1965
• Harris and Watkins successfully fuse mouse and human cells.
1969
• An enzyme is synthesized in vitro for the first time.
1975
• The US Government first urged to develop guidelines for regulating experiments in recombinant DNA:
Asilomar Conference, California.
Also in the 1970’s
• A first commercial company founded to develop genetically engineered products.
1981
• A mouse first transgenic animal was created.
• Chinese scientist becomes the first to clone a fish: a golden carp.
1983
• The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique is conceived. PCR uses heat and enzymes to make
unlimited copies of genes and gene fragments.
• The first artificial chromosome is synthesized.
1986
• The U.S. government publishes the Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotechnology.
• The first field tests of transgenic plants (tobacco) are conducted.

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1987
• The first approval for a field test of modified food plants: virus resistant tomatoes.
1988
• A patent for a process to make bleach-resistant protease enzymes to use in detergents is
awarded.
• The US Congress funds the Human Genome Project to map the human genetic code.
1990
• Chy-Max™ is the first product of recombinant DNA technology in the U.S. food supply.
• First insect-protected corn: Bt corn.
• First food product of biotechnology approved in U.K.: modified yeast.
1993
• The creation of the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO).
1995
• The gene therapy becomes a tool against cancer.
1997
• First animal cloned from an adult cell: a sheep named Dolly in Scotland.
• First weed- and insect-resistant biotech crops commercialised.
• Biotech crops grown commercially on nearly 5 million acres worldwide: Argentina, Australia, Canada,
China, Mexico and the United States.
Also in the 1990’s
• A biotechnology-based bio pesticide approved for sale in the United States.
2000
• The biotech crops grown on 108.9 million acres in 13 countries.
• The first biotech crop field-tested in Kenya: virus-resistant sweet potato.
2001
• The first complete map of the genome of rice.
• Development by Chinese researchers of a rice strain that could double the yield produced by normal rice
strains.
2002
• A draft version of the complete map of the human genome is published.
• Biotech crops grown on 145 million acres in 16 countries: acreages growth increasing 12 percent since
2001. 27 percent of the global acreage was grown in nine developing countries.
2003
• GloFish, the first biotech pet, hits the North American market.

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• Worldwide biotech crop acreage rises 15 percent to hit 167.2 million acres in 18 countries. Brazil and the
Philippines biotechnological crops grow for the first time in 2003. Indonesia allows consumption of
imported biotech food and China and Uganda accept biotech crops importation.
• The U.K. approves its first commercial biotech crop in eight years.
• An endangered species (the banteng) is cloned for the first time. 2003 also brought several other first-
cloning, including mules, horses and deer.
• Dolly, the first cloned sheep is euthanized after developing progressive long disease.
• Japanese researchers develop a biotech coffee bean that is naturally decaffeinated.
2004
• A group of Korean researchers report the first human embryonic stem cell line produced with somatic cell
nuclear transfer (cloning).
• The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) endorse biotech crops and states that
biotechnology is a complementary tool to traditional farming methods.
• The National Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Medicine (IOM) considers biotech crops as the traditional,
concerning safety and risks.

Different types of biotechnology

Biotechnology is roughly divided into three main parts:
- green biotechnology
- red biotechnology
- white biotechnology

Green Biotechnology: agricultural processes

It is a very important field of modern biotechnology. The foundation of green biotech is crop improvement
and production of novel products in plants, which is achieved by implanting foreign genes to plant species
that is economically important. This contains three main areas:
- plant tissue culture
- plant genetic engineering
- plant molecular marker assisted breeding.
Plant tissue culture
It consists of producing in laboratory conditions a whole plant from part of it or even a single plant cell. Its
advantage is rapid production of clean planting materials, e.g. banana, citrus fruit, etc.
Plant genetic engineering
This field of green biotech provides a pool of techniques allowing advantageous genes to be implanted from
one organism to another. This creates improved crops, materials or even animals, e.g. soy beans.
Plant molecular marker assisted breeding

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Such an area involves the use of molecular markers (selected short sequence of DNA) that is responsible for
a desired trait. In this way better proprieties, such as disease resistance, can be attained.

Red biotechnology: health care processes

It uses the human body’s own tools and weapons to fight diseases. Red biotechnology is of great importance
in traditional drug discovery and also in creating new possibilities for treatment, prevention and diagnosis
(by using new methods). Biotech medicines account for 20% of all market medicines. The continuous
growth of knowledge, new discoveries and investments in this field, result in the fact that the opportunities
for curing broaden too.
Cell and tissues
It is very difficult for damaged joint cartilage to regenerate in the body. Through cell therapy such defects
can be repaired by growing patient’s own cartilage cells.
Stem cells
Research in this field may result in treating serious diseases, like Parkinson’s disease.
Gene therapy
Genetic predisposition is the most conditioning factor in many forms of cancer, and that is why identifying
the gene responsible for such a disease and redirecting it can result in new opportunities to face the disease.
Improvements in diagnosis
Biotechnology offers new tools for better diagnosis and testing. This is more comfortable and less intrusive
for patients, but also it is better for doctors, providing extensive information.
Genetic testing
By using genetic tests over a thousand human hereditary diseases can be identified by detecting mutations in
a single gene.

White Biotechnology: industrial and environmental processes

This field of biotechnology is connected with industry. White biotech uses moulds, yeasts, bacteria and
enzymes to produce goods and services or parts of products. It offers a wide range of bio-products like
detergents, vitamins, antibiotics etc. Most of the white biotech processes results in the saving of water,
energy, chemicals and in the reduction of waste compared to traditional methods. However, this area is not
new, since such processes have been used for thousands of years in the production of wine, cheese, bread
and many others.
Eco-efficient enzymes
Using eco-efficient enzymes speeds up some processes in certain chemical processes (for example,
transforming one substance into another) with consuming less water, raw materials and energy than the
traditional one. It is a cleaner solution for industry, with the environmental impact minimized, a better
product and lower costs.
The following graph (figure 1) illustrates that the application of biotechnology instead of traditional
technology is friendlier for the environment and reduces the use and costs of water and energy.

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Benign biomass
Another field of white biotech is biomass (renewable raw materials) like starch, cellulose, vegetable oils and
agricultural waste that are used to produce chemicals, bio-degradable plastics, pesticides, new fibers and bio
fuels, among other things. The process of manufacturing them requires the use of enzymes as well. A good
example is ethanol, a renewable fuel made of biomass (it is neutral and causes no greenhouse effect).
Social acceptance of white biotechnology
White biotech enjoys a positive social acceptance because of its environmental friendly features. It provides
new materials and fuels that are not obtained from petrochemical processes, improves and enhances the
bioremediation of water, soils and uses less fossil-fuel energy. However, there is an issue of white biotech
with a harmful impact on the biological diversity: in many of the processes defined, genetically modified
organisms are used and these may be released into the environment. In order to avoid it, industrialists using
them in factories, bioreactors and greenhouses are required to apply strict bio-safety regulations.
Another field of white biotech is biomass (renewable raw materials) like starch, cellulose, vegetable oils and
agricultural waste that are used to produce chemicals, bio-degradable plastics, pesticides, new fibers and bio
fuels, among other things. The process of manufacturing them requires the use of enzymes as well. A good
example is ethanol, a renewable fuel made of biomass (it is neutral and causes no greenhouse effect).

Biotechnology Applications in Medicine

Biotechnology has a variety of applications in the field of medicine. Some of the biotechnology applications
in medicine include the following:

Recombinant Insulin
Insulin is required by diabetic patients to remove excess sugar from the blood. Diabetic patients have a very
low level of insulin or no insulin produced by the body. Therefore, they need external insulin to control
blood glucose levels.

Later it was discovered that the insulin produced by the pancreas of the pigs can be used by humans. But
there were not enough pigs to provide the quantities of insulin required. This led to the cloning of the human
insulin gene.

The specific gene sequence that codes for human insulin were introduced in E.coli bacteria. The gene
sequence altered the genetic composition of the E.coli cells. Within 24 hours several E.coli bacteria
containing the recombinant human insulin gene were produced. The recombinant human insulin was isolated
from E.coli cells.

Gene Therapy
Gene Therapy holds the most promising answer to the problem of genetic diseases. Gene therapy is used to
treat genetic disorders usually by the insertion of a normal gene or correct gene for the defective or inactive
gene into an individual with the help of vectors such as retrovirus, adenovirus, and herpes simplex virus.

The normal gene replaces the defective or inactive gene and carries out its functions. The therapy has the
highest chances of developing a permanent cure if introduced in the earliest stages of life.

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Molecular Diagnosis
Medical diagnosis is another application of biotechnology in the health sector. Many times the pathogen
concentration increases by the time the disease is diagnosed. Hence, early diagnosis and knowledge of
pathophysiology are essential for an effective cure. This can be achieved with the help of techniques such as
Recombinant DNA Technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent
Assay (ELISA), etc.

Edible Vaccines
Vaccines are obtained by animals and cell cultures. These vaccines contain inactivated pathogens.

The transgenic plants can produce antigens that can be used as edible vaccines. Antigenic proteins from
several pathogens can be expressed in plants such as tomato and banana. Transgenic sugar beet can treat foot
and mouth disease of animals, transgenic banana and tomato can cure diseases such as cholera and hepatitis
B.

Application of Biotechnology in Agriculture

In agriculture, biotechnology extends its applications to various domains, including food, livestock,
fisheries, algae, and fungi:

1. Crop Improvement:
Genetic Modification (GM) Crops: Enhanced traits like pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, and improved
nutritional content.
Selective Breeding: Accelerated breeding for crops with desired characteristics, such as higher yield or
drought resistance.

2. Livestock:
Genetic Engineering: Modification of livestock genes for traits like increased milk production or disease
resistance.
Cloning: Replication of superior livestock for consistent genetic traits.

3. Fisheries:
Aquaculture Biotechnology: Genetic enhancement of fish for improved growth and disease resistance.
Disease Management: Biotechnological tools for diagnosing and preventing diseases in fish populations.

4. Algae:
Biofuel Production: Algae are used for the production of biofuels due to their high lipid content.
Nutrient Absorption: Algae can be employed to absorb excess nutrients in water, aiding in water quality
management.

5. Fungi:
Biological Pest Control: Certain fungi act as bio pesticides, controlling pests and diseases in crops.

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Fermentation: Fungi are used in the fermentation process for producing various food products like bread,
beer, and cheese.
These applications collectively contribute to increased agricultural productivity, sustainability, and the
ability to adapt to challenging environmental conditions.

Protection of Biotechnological Products

The protection of biotechnology products involves various strategies to safeguard the intellectual property,
ensure regulatory compliance, and foster innovation. Here are key aspects:
1.Patents: Biotech companies often seek patents for their inventions. Patents provide exclusive rights to
make, use, and sell the patented invention for a limited period, usually 20 years. This exclusivity allows
companies to recoup research and development costs and encourages further innovation.
2.Trade Secrets: Companies may protect valuable information, such as manufacturing processes or
formulas, as trade secrets. Unlike patents, trade secrets don't expire as long as they remain confidential.
Robust security measures are crucial to maintain the secrecy of these details.
3. Regulatory Approval: Biotech products, especially those related to healthcare, agriculture, or the
environment, must undergo regulatory scrutiny before reaching the market. Regulatory agencies evaluate
safety, efficacy, and environmental impact. Successfully navigating these processes provides a level of
protection, as it establishes a product's compliance with established standards.
4. Data Exclusivity: In some cases, regulatory authorities may grant data exclusivity, preventing
competitors from relying on the original company's data to gain approval for a similar product for a certain
period. This helps protect the investment made in generating the required data for regulatory approval.
5. Licensing Agreements: Companies may enter into licensing agreements to permit others to use,
manufacture, or sell their biotech products. These agreements can generate revenue and expand the product's
market reach while maintaining certain controls over its use.
6. Litigation: Legal action may be taken against those infringing on a company's intellectual property
rights. Litigation can result in damages awarded to the aggrieved party or injunctions preventing the
infringing activities.
Balancing these measures is crucial for a comprehensive approach to protecting biotechnology products,
encouraging innovation while ensuring fair competition and adherence to regulatory standards.

Safety in biotechnology
Safety in biotechnology refers to the measures and precautions taken to ensure the responsible and secure
use of biological systems, organisms, or derivatives in various applications. This field encompasses a wide
range of activities, including genetic engineering, gene therapy, pharmaceutical development, and
agriculture. Here are key aspects of safety in biotechnology:
1. Lab Safety: Proper lab practices, including the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), containment
measures, and adherence to protocols, are crucial to prevent accidental exposure to biohazards.
2. Risk Assessment: Thoroughly evaluating potential risks associated with a biotechnological process helps
in implementing appropriate safety measures. This includes assessing the impact on the environment, human
health, and other living organisms.
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3.Regulatory Compliance: Adhering to local, national, and international regulations ensures that
biotechnological activities are conducted within established ethical and safety guidelines. Regulatory bodies
set standards to minimize risks and ensure responsible conduct.
4. Biosecurity: Measures to prevent the intentional or unintentional misuse of biotechnological research are
vital. This involves safeguarding biological materials, securing facilities, and controlling access to sensitive
information.
5. Ethical Considerations: Responsible conduct in biotechnology includes ethical considerations related to
human subjects, animal welfare, and environmental impact. Ethical guidelines help ensure that the benefits
of biotechnological advances outweigh potential risks.
6. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Safety considerations are crucial when working with
genetically modified organisms. Evaluating the potential ecological impact and ensuring containment
mechanisms are in place are important aspects.
7. Public Awareness: Communicating the benefits and risks of biotechnological advancements to the public
fosters understanding and support. Transparency helps build trust and addresses concerns related to safety.
8.Emergency Response Planning: Being prepared for accidents or unforeseen events is essential.
Establishing protocols for emergency response and containment helps mitigate the impact of accidental
releases or exposures.
9. Quality Control: Ensuring the quality and reliability of biotechnological products is essential for safety.
This involves rigorous testing, validation, and adherence to quality control standards.
10.Continuous Monitoring and Improvement: Ongoing monitoring of biotechnological processes and
products allows for the identification of potential safety issues. Continuous improvement based on lessons
learned enhances overall safety in the field.
In summary, safety in biotechnology involves a comprehensive approach that includes careful planning,
adherence to regulations, ethical considerations, and ongoing monitoring to ensure responsible and secure
practices in the development and application of biotechnological innovations.

Public perception of biotechnology

Public perception of biotechnology varies widely and is influenced by factors such as cultural, social,
ethical, and economic considerations. Some people view biotechnology as a promising tool for solving
global challenges, including food insecurity and medical issues. Agricultural biotechnology, for instance,
has led to the development of genetically modified crops that can resist pests or withstand harsh
environmental conditions.
However, concerns about the safety and ethical implications of biotechnological advancements exist.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been a particularly contentious issue, with some expressing
worries about their potential long-term effects on human health and the environment. Ethical questions also
arise in areas like gene editing, where the ability to modify human genes raises ethical dilemmas regarding
the potential for designer babies and unintended consequences.
Public perception is often shaped by media coverage, education, and access to information. Advocacy
groups, scientific institutions, and regulatory bodies play roles in shaping public opinion through

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communication and oversight. Overall, there's a spectrum of views on biotechnology ranging from
enthusiastic support to cautious skepticism, reflecting the complex and evolving nature of this field.

Ethical Considerations in Biotechnology:

Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that utilizes biological systems, organisms, or derivatives to
develop products and processes for various applications, ranging from medicine and agriculture to industry
and environmental management.
1. Human Dignity: Balancing scientific progress with respect for human life, rights, and dignity, especially
when it comes to issues like human cloning, gene editing in embryos, and other interventions in human
biology.
2. Environmental Impact: Assessing and mitigating potential environmental consequences of
biotechnological applications, including the release of genetically modified organisms and their ecological
effects.
3. Informed Consent: Ensuring individuals involved in biotechnological experiments or medical
interventions are fully informed and provide voluntary consent, addressing issues of autonomy and
transparency.
4. Equity and Access: Addressing concerns related to the equitable distribution of benefits and risks,
avoiding potential exploitation of vulnerable populations, and ensuring access to biotechnological
advancements.
5.Regulation and Oversight: Establishing robust regulatory frameworks to monitor and control
biotechnological activities, balancing innovation with the need for safety and ethical standards.
6.Dual-Use Dilemma: Managing the potential dual-use of biotechnological advances, where the same
research or technology could have both beneficial and harmful applications, such as in bioterrorism.
In navigating the intersection of biotechnology and ethics, it's crucial to engage in ongoing dialogues among
scientists, ethicists, policymakers, and the public to foster responsible development and application of
biotechnological innovations.

Biotechnology and the Developing World

Biotechnology involves using biological systems, organisms, or derivatives to develop products and
applications that benefit society. In the developing world, biotechnology plays a crucial role in addressing
various challenges.
1.Agricultural Advancements: Biotechnology contributes to crop improvement, enhancing yields and
resilience to pests and diseases. Genetically modified (GM) crops can withstand harsh conditions, offering
increased food production and improved food security in regions facing agricultural challenges.
2.Healthcare Solutions: Biotech applications provide cost-effective healthcare solutions. This includes the
development of vaccines, diagnostics, and treatments for diseases prevalent in developing countries. These
advancements help manage and prevent infectious diseases, improving public health.
3.Environmental Sustainability: Biotechnology offers eco-friendly solutions for environmental challenges.
For instance, biofuels derived from renewable resources can provide sustainable energy alternatives.
Bioremediation techniques use microorganisms to clean up polluted environments.
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4.Access to Medicines: Biotechnology enables the production of essential medicines, vaccines, and
diagnostics at more affordable costs. This is particularly significant in regions with limited access to
conventional pharmaceuticals, addressing healthcare disparities.
Despite these potential benefits, challenges persist. Ethical concerns, regulatory frameworks,
and the accessibility of technology can hinder the effective integration of biotechnology in the developing
world. Additionally, concerns about biodiversity, intellectual property rights, and the social impact of
biotechnological interventions must be carefully considered to ensure responsible and equitable
development. Collaborative efforts between governments, the private sector, and international organizations
are essential to harness biotechnology's full potential in improving the lives of people in the developing
world.

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